INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Swasthik Shetty
2131001
Submitted to
Prof. Madhumati Deshpande
5 BA-HEP
Department of International studies, Political Science and History
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
August, 2023
INTRODUCTION
Ancient to early medieval India, spans a vast period of approximately prehistoric times to
1200 CE, that witnessed the rise and fall of numerous civilisations and empires each
reflecting the richness and complexities of societies that thrived during this period and
leaving a profound impact on the region's history and culture. This paper aims to examine the
role played by the state and authority and urbanisation from ancient to early medieval India
by tracing the historical evolution, practises and systems of cultures during this era.
State and authority were crucial aspects of ancient to early medieval India, playing a vital role
in governing diverse societies and shaping the political landscape. Ancient Indian thinkers
regarded the state as a beneficial institution that evolved in prehistoric times for the better
protection of human lives and for the better realisation of its higher ideals (Altekar, 2002,
p.24) The Digha Nigakya, one of the oldest Buddhist texts in Pali has speculated the origin of
the state. It claims that humans were initially content beings. Fighting over women and
property resulted from their gradual acquisition of property and settlement with their wives.
To put an end to this, they chose a chief from among themselves who would defend the
people and uphold law and order. The people offered the chief paddy as payment for his
protection. This is how kingship or state began, with the chief being referred to as the king
(Sharma, 2005, p. 167). This does not necessarily mean that state came into being as
mentioned above but this is a good starting point to trace the origin of the state. This section
looks at the systems, practises and evolution of the state from ancient to early medieval India,
and understands the main administrative characteristics of the state in the Vedic period,
During the Vedic period, the Indian sub-continent saw the rise of several early states. These
states were small in size that can be compared to the present modern districts. It was
characterised by a predominantly tribal society. The Early Vedic people lived in Kin-based
communities and were organised into clans or tribes. The governing class consisted of elders
and a number of visas formed a Jana presided by a king or janapati. The King was the leader
of the tribe and held a position of authority and influence. He was not considered divine and
had limited powers. Some traces show that he was elected but gradually it became a
hereditary office. He was advised and supported by a popular assembly or samiti that
Over time, the kings became more powerful. In the later Vedic period, he began to be
compared with gods and thus setting the notion that kings are the representatives of god and
could do no wrong. There are mentions of administrative officers like the commander-in-
chief, the tax-gatherer, the treasurer, and the village headmen during this period who is said to
have assisted the king. The King's main duty was to maintain law and order and protect the
state from internal and external enemies. Conflicts and battles between different tribes were
not uncommon and thus king had an army to maintain his authority and protect the tribe's
interests. For the maintenance of the army, the state needed resources and thus taxes began to
be collected which were in the beginning voluntary and occasional but later became
obligatory as time passed. As the states grew in size, they began to form confederates and
eventually, put an end to the tribal states and territorial states came to being from c.1000 B.C.
However, there isn't much data available regarding the administration of these territorial
states.
The monarchy was not the only form of government that existed in the Vedic period. There
were other forms like Dvairajyas, Oligarchies and republics. Dvairajyas were states with two
rulers. There is mention of such states in Arthashastra but it doesn't approve of it because two
kings could not rule in harmony and rather it is better to divide the kingdom into two
(dvairajya kingdom). There were oligarchic states too in c. 6th B.C. in north-eastern India
wherein there were tribal oligarchs of nobles who called themselves king and had the right to
elect a chief of the state who was also called the King. In an oligarch, every tribal oligarch
who was a raja had a claim to tax, owned an army under a Senapati and also competed with
each other. There existed republics too in the Vedic age where the assemblies elected a chief
for them who was called as a king. Later this became hereditary and could not be
The period of c. 600 to 350 saw the rise of Magadha and Kosala which developed into large
states. These states followed hereditary monarchs who were from Kshatriya clan. Kings
enjoyed the highest official status and special protection of his person and property. There is
mention of officials like mahamatras (ministers), commanders, judges, chief accountants and
heads of royal harem and ayuktas that aided the king in governance and administration. There
was the presence of the District and provincial governments too where there was a village
headsman called Gramini who was responsible for law and order and also collecting taxes by
MAURYAN STATES
The Mauryan age saw a remarkable advance from the Vedic age in terms of state and
authority. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya and expanded under the rule of Ashoka, the
Mauryan Empire (circa 322-185 BCE) was the first major empire to unify a substantial
portion of the Indian subcontinent. The Mauryan empire was characterised by a centralised
administrative system, with a bureaucracy that governed provinces districts, towns and
villages. Republic tradition became feeble during the Mauryan period. The hereditary King
had all the powers. He was the head of executive, military and judiciary and also legislative
powers. His authority was legitimised through the concept of Dharma (duty) and the welfare
of the subjects
The popular samitis that existed during the Vedic age disappeared. The reason for this is
because of the increasing concentration of powers with the king and also the kingdoms grew
in size making it difficult to hold meetings regularly and communication became slower. For
instance, the Kingdoms of Ashoka were huge, which means that for a meeting they had to
travel for days to the capital and then after the meeting had to travel back which took the
same time. Thus, in the later Vedic period, Mauryan and post-Mauryan documents there is no
mention of popular assembly. The advisers of the king became very important and began
exercising great powers but were responsible to the king. The activities of the government
widened and so did the departments of states. It had a huge army of 6,00,000 foot soldiers,
30,000 cavalrymen, 9,000 elephants and a navy too according to some sources that were
managed by a committee of 30 officers in six committees with 5 members each of the army,
the cavalry, the elephants, the transport, the navy and the chariots (Sharma, 2005, p. 181).
This required huge resources to maintain and thus the state controlled all economic activity
and had an effective taxation system in place. There were religious officers
dharmamahamatras to propagate dharma and supervise the morals of the people. Through the
dharma, policy people were made to inculcate the habits of settled, taxpaying, peasant society
and develop respect for paternal power and authority for the officers, monks, and priests who
helped in enforcing the authority as seen in during Ashoka's time (Sharma, 2005, p.186).
Following the decline of the Maurya empire, The Gupta empire (circa 320-550 CE) rose to
prominence. The administration and governance did not undergo any material changes in the
Gupta and post-Gupta periods (c. 300 to 1200 AD). The administration was centralised with
emperors holding supreme authority. He was considered divine but not infallible. This
indicates that the notion King could also do wrong and can be punished if he doesn't follow
dharma can be the case. He was assisted by ministers and other officials who, under normal
circumstances, had enormous influence over the king. The empire was divided into provinces,
towns and villages each having its heads that helped in the efficient management of the
empire and the implementation of policies. They had extensive powers and were responsible
for various things, like collecting taxes, refusing to collect taxes if they were unjust and
oppressive, resolving disputes outside of courts, and maintaining and supporting hospitals,
poor houses, and educational institutions. The military department continued to be the most
expensive and most important department. Furthermore, Gupta rulers were known for their
patronage of arts, culture and learning. They encouraged artisans and intellectuals through
educational grants and donations resulting in flourishing art like sculpture, painting, dancing
and architecture. Towards the later stages of the Gupta period, the central authority
weakened, and the empire faced internal and external challenges. This led to the
URBANISATION
Urbanisation played a significant role in shaping the cultures of ancient to early medieval
India. The history of continuous urbanisation stretches over 4500 years. They have brought
vast changes in political, technological, social, and religious practices. It is indicative of the
records of the whole civilisation, its continuities and transformations. This is why tracing the
evolution of the settlements from age to age and examining the urban system becomes
essential.
The Indus Valley Civilisation (circa 2500-1900 BCE) provides one of the earliest examples of
urbanization in ancient India. Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were well-planned and
are an impressive testament to the advanced urban planning and engineering skills of Ancient
people.
The cities were planned on a grid pattern, with streets intersecting each other at right angles.
Standardised brick was used for construction. Excavations have found Monuments and huge
brick constructions. The city had a hierarchical arrangement and was divided into three parts,
first by an elevated Citadel that was occupied by the ruling class. Surrounding the citadel
were Lower Towers which were occupied by Commoners and also there was a middle
settlement that had bureaucrats and middle-class merchants. This indicates that there were
different housing facilities based on social differentiation. One of the most remarkable
features of town planning was its drainage systems. All houses small or large had bathrooms
or their own courtyard through which water flowed from houses to streets which had drains.
These Drains were covered with stone slabs or bricks keeping the cities clean and hygienic.
The city had public structures like granaries, great baths, and also marketplaces Many cities
even had fortifications with defensive walls, protecting from external threats. Despite these
well-planned cities, much remains unknown about the social and political structures of the
Indus Vally Civilisation. Since the scripts of the Harappa has not been deciphered, one can
rely on excavational evidence and refer to urban structures to study urbanisation and the very
VEDIC CIVILISATIONS
During the Vedic period (circa 1500-600 BCE), urbanization shifted towards smaller
settlements and fortified cities. There are mentions of the cities and settlements of the Vedic
period in the texts but little excavational evidence has been found. Texts like Dharmashastra
of Kautilya on political administration and the Agni Purana, the Sukrantisara and the Mansara
talk about the architecture and town designs of the settlements. There is mention of villages
with massive wall defences and moats, interior sectors dedicated to temples and
administrative heads quarters, and separated sections of towns for various occupations and
caste groups, including Brahmin merchants, artisans, soldiers, and the like (Spodek, 1980).
The Vedic texts also mention the importance of rivers which played a crucial role in the daily
life of the people, Settlements were often located near these rivers for religious beliefs and
water supply and religious beliefs. This indicates that the geography played a crucial role in
deciding the area of settlements and also a major factor responsible for its flourishment.
Vedic cities were largely found around the Ganges valley. Over time, the excavations and
(more extensive cities) to super mahajanpadas (small empires) were formed. The period saw
the growth of cities like Pataliputra, Mathura, and Vaisali came to being that acting as the
MAURYA PERIOD.
The Mauryan period under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya and later expanded under
Ashoka saw several well-planned cities. Pataliputra (modern-day Patna) was the capital city
and an important urban centre with strategic fortifications, and well-defined administrative
and residential areas. There is the presence of roads from Pataliputra that connected various
parts like Nepal through Vaishali and Champaran, Patna with Sasaram and from there to
Mirzapur and central India facilitating transport and acting as vital hubs for trade and
commerce during the Mauryan period (Sharma, 2005, p.180). Megasthemes state that the
Maurya palace at Pataliputra had fragments of stone pillars and stumps indicating the
existence of an 84 pillared hall on the outskirts of Patna (Sharma, 2005, p. 183). The whole
process indicates that they had gold, transport and skilled technicians and engineering skills.
The cities were organised in a grid pattern and well-structured buildings. Aside from
Patliputra there were other cities like Tosali, Ujjain, Taxila, and Suvarnagari acting as
Urbanization in Early Medieval India (6th to 12th century CE) witnessed significant changes
as the political landscape shifted, and various empires and regional powers rose and fell.
There is large reliance upon texts like Manasara, Mayamata and Samarangasutradhata for
understanding the urbanisation process. Dutt, whose work is largely based on Manasara,
Mayamata, etc., “the streets of India were arranged and planned according to what is known
as rectangular chess board system of planning”. (Ghosh, 2018 as cited in Dutt, 1925, p.116).
There are mentions of Pura, Nagara, Pattana, Mahanagara and Patina all referring to urban
centres in North and South India. Ujjain is one example which is vividly described in
suburbs, to have towers reaching the sky, to be crisscrossed by roads lined with bazaars, to be
graced with many temples, including groves, parks, and ponds, and to have a diverse range of
architecture, including assembly halls, way stations, and bridges. Its inhabitants are urbane,
was a correlation between the size of the settlement and the significance of the dominant
temple. The temples served as the settlement pattern's organising principle and are
particularly useful in understanding urban history, especially in South India. Ghosh (2018)
gives an example of the Brihadeshwara temple in Thanjavur, The area surrounding the temple
was home to the political and religious elites, who made up the top layer of society and
occupied the area of the city closest to the shrine. After this the residential areas for the
merchants and other urban groups. Around the city lived farmers, herdsmen and artisans and
they traded in milk, flowers, betelnuts and areca nuts. Not only was it a beautiful structure
that showcased impressive architectural achievements but also shows that such structures
CONCLUSION
The evolution of state and authority from ancient to early medieval India reflects the dynamic
political landscapes of the time. From early tribal states to territorial states and to the
emergence of grand empires the state machinery and administration systems, practises and
evolution can be traced. Understanding this complex historical development from age to age
helps us gain a better insights on the complexities of ancient Indian cultures and the various
forms of political authority that impacted the region's history. The urbanisation from ancient
to early medieval India provides various insights into the growth of civilisation, trade and
Publ.
3. Ghosh, S. (2018). Unit-16 Early Medieval Urbanisation from Epigraphy and Texts.
IGNOU. http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/44416