KNC-502 / KNC-602:

INDIAN TRADITION, CULTURE & SOCIETY

UNIT-1: SOCIETY STATE & POLITY IN INDIA

State in Ancient India: Evolutionary Theory, Force Theory, Mystical Theory Contract Theory, Stages of
State Formation in Ancient India, Kingship, Council of Ministers Administration, Political Ideals in
Ancient India, Conditions’ of the Welfare of Societies, The SevenLimbs of the State, Society in Ancient
India, Purusartha, Varnashrama System, Ashrama or the Stages of Life, Marriage, Understanding
Gender as a social category, The representation of Women in Historical traditions, Challenges faced by
Women, Four-class Classification,Slavery.

1.1 State in Ancient India:

When a large number of human beings live together, there is need for some rules and regulations. So
since early days, there is a realization in India that there has to be a „Society‟ governed by some
commonly agreed rules and regulations. However, such a society is only loosely regulated- it is governed
by customs and practices, not by laws. Therefore, some more rigorous organization is needed, a system
called „State‟ in political thought, a political system with a legal sanction and foundation, a system ruled
by law.
A „State‟ or Rajya has several dimensions- the duties/ rights of the ruled and the rulers. „Society‟ or
Samaja has its own components, the different communities and functional units called varnas or castes. In
ancient India, a society has its structural units such as family, marriage, customs, and finally a framework
of individual and social life for example the asrama vyavastha laid down in the Hindu society as an ideal
organization of an individual‟s life.
State has been the key concept in political science since the period of grand thinkers like Pluto and
Aristotle. One of the most important topics in political science has been the origin and evolution of the
state. In ancient India also thinkers like Bhisma, Narada Brihaspati, Kautilya, and Kamandaka also have
looked at the problem.
On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect following 4 important theories regarding the
origin of the state in ancient India:

A. Evolutionary theory:
B. Force theory:
C. Mystical theory
D. Contract theory:

A. Evolutionary theory:
This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been mentioned in the Atharva
Veda. The Tenth hymn if the eighth chapter of the Atharva Veda gives a picture of evolutionary
origin of the state. According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress and it
didn‟t originate at a fixed time. Based on Atharva Veda several stages of the evolution of the
state can be traced. The hymns of the Atharva Veda state that the earliest phase of human life
was the stage of Vairajya or stateless state. It was a state of complete anarchy. But with
emergence of agriculture, stable life became possible. To fulfill the needs of agriculture, the
family emerged and the head of the family became the first wielder of authority. Further, the

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need of co-operation in the different realms of society led to the emergence of Sabha and samiti.
Sabha was the organization of elderly people and samiti was the general assembly of common
people. With the emergence of sabha and samiti organized political life began which finally
concluded in the emergence of the state.

B. Force theory:
Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a systematic way, force
was considered to be an important factor in the evolution of the state in India. Earliest Aryan
clans fought among themselves for pet animals (especially for the cow), agricultural land,
settlements and sources of drinking water. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in
such wars. So he was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him. This
tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the leader became king. Citing
examples from Vedas (Rig Veda and Sama Veda) and Brahmanas (Aitareya, Shatapatha) John
Spellman also opines that the king in ancient India was primarily a military leader. But it should
be clearly mentioned that none of the political commentators give a systematic and well knitted
explanation of the role of force in the emergence of the state in ancient India.

C. Mystical theory:
This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India. Kingship was given
divine sanction and the king was considered not to be the representative of God but himself
a God. It appears first in the epics and the law books of Manu; the king was exalted far
above ordinary mortals, through the magical powers of the great royal sacrifices. The
magical power which pervaded the king at his consecration was restored and strengthened in
the course of his reign by further rites, such as the ceremonial rejuvenation of the Vajapeya
and the horse- sacrifice (Asvamedha) which not only ministered to his ambition and
arrogance but also ensured the prosperity and fertility of the kingdom.

D. Contract theory:
Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient
India. The reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist and brahmanical texts
and Arthashastra of Kautilya. It is said that there was a time when people were perfect
and lived in a state of happiness and tranquility. This perfect state lasted for ages, but at
last the pristine purity declined into earthily life. Now shelter, food, and drink were
required. People gradually entered into a series of agreements among themselves and
setup the institutions of the family and private property. But this gave rise to a new set of
problems like theft and other forms of unsocial conduct. Therefore, people assembled
and agreed to choose as chief a person who was the best favoured the most attractive and
most capable. In return they agreed to contribute to him a portion of their paddy. The
individual who was thus elected came to hold in serial order three titles (a)
Mahasammata (b) Khattiya (c) Raja
According to the text the first title means one chosen by the whole people, the second
title means the lord of the fields, the third title means one who charms the people by
means of dharma.

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1.2 Stages of State Formation in Ancient India:

Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified.
1. The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal assemblies,
which had some place for women were mainly pre-occupied with war. The age of Rig
Veda was primarily a period of assemblies.
2. The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress of constant
conflicts between the rajanyakshatriya and the ordinary businessman called the Vis.
The chiefs were helped by the priesthood called the Brahmins. This stage saw the
beginning of taxes and classes or varnas which came to be firmly established in the
third stage.
3. The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged state. There arose
large territorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha and tribal oligarchies in North-
Western India and at the foot of the Himalayas. For the first time large standing
armies and organised machinery were used for the collection of land revenue.
4. The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralisation based on the
expanding economic activities of the state. The state with the help of its bureaucracy
controlled various aspects of the life of its subjects.
5. The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralized administration in which
towns, feudatories and military elements came to the forefront in both the Deccan and
North India. This was partly neutralised by the emphasis on the divinity of the king.
6. The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto-
feudal polity. Land grants now played an important part in the formation of the
political structure and those made by the Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal and
administrative privileges on priestly beneficiaries.

1.3 Kingship:

The king was the most important figure in the body politic. In the Saptanga theory of the
state, developed by Kautilya the king has been described as the head or the most important
organ of the state. The king‟s functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom
against external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional custom against internal
foes. He protected the purity of class and caste by ensuring that those who challenged the
system were excommunicated. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and
ensuring the fair inheritance of family property. He protected widows and orphans by making
them his wards. He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he
protected the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and oppression. Religion was
protected by liberal grants to learned Brahmins and temples.
The ideal set before the king was one of energetic beneficence. The Arthashastra suggests a
time-table for the king‟s day, which allows him only four and a half hours sleep and three
hours for eating and recreation, the rest of the day being spent in the different kinds of
affairs of the state. The king is told that he must be prompt in the administration of justice
and always accessible to his people.
According to Altekar, the position, powers and privileges of the king have varied from age

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to age. In the prehistoric period, the king was only the senior most members in the council
of peers. There was a popular council (samiti) to actively supervise his administration. His
position was insecure and powers were limited.
After 500 BC, the office of king was elevated to new heights. During this period the king
became the effective head of the executive administration and there was no popular
assembly like samiti to check him. He controlled both the treasury and the military forces,
though commander in chief and treasurer were under him. Ministers were selected by the
king and held office at his pleasure. The king presided over the council of ministers and its
decisions had to receive royal assent.

1.4 Council of Ministers:

Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient political thinkers as a very
vital organ of the body politic. The Mahabharata observes at one place that the king is as
vitally dependent upon ministers as animals are upon clouds, Brahmins on the Vedas and
women upon their husbands. Manusmritit points out that even a simple thing appears as
difficult if one is to do it single handed; why then attempt to run the complex machinery of
the administration without the assistance of ministers.
The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied and the authorities suggested
figures ranging from seven to thirty seven. It seems that the body was divided into two parts
mantrina and mantriparishad. Manstriparishad was the large body resembling a modern
council of ministers. It consisted of all the ministers. Mantrina was a smaller body or a core
organization within the mantriparishad largely resembling the modern cabinet. It included
the few most important ministers like purohita, senapati, and yuvaraja (the crown prince).
The council‟s purpose was primarily to advise the king and not to govern, but it was no
mere rubber stamping body. Councilors should speak freely and openly and that the king
should consider their advice. In fact the council often exerted great powers. It might transact
business in the king‟s absence and it might take minor decisions without consulting him.
The council of ministers was not merely a recording body for very often it used to suggest
amendments to king‟s orders or even recommended their total reversal.

1.5 Administration:

With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India, bureaucracy developed as a
well organised, hierarchical, cadre-based administrative system. This establishment of a
large and complex bureaucracy was a remarkable feature of the Mauryan government. The
Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are probably called mahamatras or high
functionaries. In addition to the 18 trithas Kautilya provides in some detail accounts of 27
superintendents (adhyaksas) concerned mostly with economic functions and some military
duties though social functions are not ignored. 5. The Mauryas developed a well organised
bureaucracy. With the help of this centralised bureaucratic structure not only did the
government regulate the economic life of the country, but it also took an important part in
it. All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state, and
were either worked directly with the labour of criminals or serfs, or let out to

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entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a percentage of their output as royalty.

1.6 Political Ideals in ancient India:

Political ideals like liberty, justice, fraternity and nationalism are a product of the modern age.
If viewed strictly from the lens of the contemporary period, we can‟t find any systematic
expression of these ideals, in ancient India. But seen from a different perspective, ancient
Indians did have these ideals in an elementary form.
Showing the importance of freedom, the Vedas state that independence is necessary for
mankind and those who are not independent are worse than dead. In varnashrama institution
too, an independent living has been kept in mind. A man lived independently during
Grihasthaashrama and when he was likely to be dependent on the offspring coming of age,
there is the provision of the older people restoring to Vanprastha and then to Sanyasa again
living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on their children.
For disposal of justice the Maurayan state had a system of judiciary. Dharmasthiya was the civil
court and kantakashodhana was organised to deal with a large number of economic crimes.
The Ramayana extols this country as a karmabhumi, the land of pious acts. This shows the
belongingness of people to land and their fellow beings. The early seeds of Nationalism can be
traced in this instance. Similarly the ideas of ancient Indian thinkers were
vasuthaivkutumbakam (treating the whole world like a family). This was the concept of
universal brotherhood or fraternity. From the days of Pluto and Aristotle European thought has
turned its attention to such questions as the origin of the state, the ideals form of government,
and the basis of law and the politics has been looked on as a branch of philosophy. From the
above discussion it is clear that ancient India also thought about such questions but she had no
schools of political philosophy in the Western sense.

1.7 Conditions of Welfare of Society

The idea of the welfare state revolves around the model of taxes imposed on its subjects by the
state. So, Manusmriti first states that revenue collection done by the state or the King needs to
be reasonable and in accordance with Dharma. It observes, “The King should love his subjects
as his own children and ensure proper collection of revenue every year. He must obey the rule
of Dharma in the matter of collection of taxes.”

According to the Hindu thought the purpose of government was not to legislate, but only
to administer the eternal law (sanatana dharma).
1. Buddha adapted the list of following conditions of the welfare of republics to the
circumstances of the Buddhist order :
i. Call frequent public assemblies.
ii. Meet in concord, conclude meetings in concord, and carry out policies in concord.
iii. Make no laws not already promulgated, and set aside nothing enacted in the
past.

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 iv. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the elders, and look on it as a duty to heed
their words.
v. No women or girls should be held by force or abducted.
vi. Respect, esteem, reverence, and support the shrines, whether in town or country,
and do not neglect the proper offerings and rites laid down and practiced in the
past.
vii. Give due protection, deference, and support to the perfected beings among them so
that such perfected beings may come to the land from afar and live comfortably.

1.8 Kautilya: - Saptanga Theory of State

The word “Saptang” indicates seven limbs, constituents or elements. Together, they constitute
the State as an organism, “like a chariot composed of seven parts fitted and subservient to one
another”. To an extent; the Saptanga theory of State finds elaboration in the Ancient Greek
Political Philosophy. For instance: while comparing the State with the human body, Plato had
argued that just as a cut in the finger causes pain in the body, similarly injury of one organ
creates problems for the other organs of the body politic. Seven Angas, Prakritis, or elements
were enumerated and elucidated by Kautilya for describing “the nature of the State” in its
totality. As laid down in the first chapter of Arthashastra‟s Sixth Book, entitled Mandala
Yonih, these are:

1) Swami (The Sovereign King)-

Subscribing to monarchy as the ideal form of state, Kautilya has accorded
to the king “the highest place in the body- politic”. The Swami is the chief executive head of the
state and, is, thus “the consummation of allother elements”. The word Swami is derived from the
word swayam which refers to self-determining. The Swami, therefore, becomes a living and
animate embodiment, which is subjected to be ruled by none, does not follow any external
rulings and is liable only to self- imposed restrictions. He is, thus, the symbol of legal and political
authority and power. Kautilya gives a comprehensive list of four broad categories of qualities
which constitute the ideals of a Swami: (i) Qualities of an inviting nature; (ii) Qualities of
intellect and intuition; (iii) Qualities of enthusiasm and (iv) Qualities of self- restraint and spirit.
This categorization of qualities supplements the usual notion of kingship being characterized by
coercion and subordination of people. The king was, thus, not to be a despot, exercising power
through sheer military force, but was to rule his subjects through affection.
Accordingly, the duties and functions that he is called upon to perform are oftwo types:
(i) Protective Functions- The king being the natural guardian and savior of his people,
Kautilya expects him to perform the following protective functions that he should put down
violence and maintain law and order, he should avert dangers and command the army, to
redress people‟s grievances, to punish the wrong- doers and to administer justice impartially
and in accordance with the sacred law, evidence, history and enacted law.

(ii) Promotive Functions- On the other hand, his promotive functions include the following
that he should promote the moral and material happiness and welfare of his people, as in their
happiness lies his happiness and in their welfare his welfare, to enable them to pursue freely

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 their independent efforts in life, to maintain unity and solidarity, to reward virtue, to promote
agriculture, industry and arts, to regulate the means of livelihood, especially of the laborers
and artisans and to encourage education and help students.

In the exercise of these functions, Kautilya‟s king was all- powerful. The limits of his authority
were imposed by the social and religious customs of his state.

2) Amatya (The Minister)- In its narrow sense, the term Amatya or Mantrin is used for the
minister of the high grade. Kautilya describes an elaborate system of recruitment of the
Amatyas and other officials who were to be morally and ethically pure, honest in financial
matters and of good character. The Amatyas were expected to be natural born citizens, persons
of noble origin, free from all vices, men of infallible memory, friendly nature, wisdom,
patience and endurance. The king was expected to appoint only wise men to these offices as
they were to be his trusted advisers. These ministers were not only to advise the king
whenever their advice was sought; they were alsoto maintain the secrecy of their deliberations.

3) Janapada (The People and The Territory)- This unique element of Saptanga is the
symbol of State, which stands for a “territorial society”. Here,„Jana‟ denotes people and „Pada‟
is a symbol of territory where these inhabitants permanently reside. D.R. Bhandarkar and R.S.
Sharma are of the view that Kautilya‟s Janapada includes not only territory but also
population. Kautilya prescribes the following requisites of a prosperous Janapada in terms of
territory: (i) accommodate and support people; (ii) defend the state against enemies; (iii) find
occupation of people; (iv) have manageable neighbours; (v) provide pastures; (vi) have arable
land, mines, forest and (vii) provide good internal communication, i.e. rivers, roads, and outlet
to sea.
4) Durga (Fortification)- Kautilya regarded fortification as essential for the defense and
protection of the state. He wanted the state to fortify the territories from all sides. He has
described four types of fortification which include Audak, Paarvat, Dhannvana and Vana. Of
these categories, the first two are used for the protection of the territory and the remaining two
are used for the protection of the farmers. These fortifications, thus, would not only protect the
people and the capital, but would also be suitable for fighting purposes, i.e. for both defensive
and offensive purposes.

5) Kosha (The Treasury)- The flourishing economy is essential for the existence of the State
in all times and circumstances. That is probably why the philosophers of Ancient India looked
at treasury as an essential element of the State. Though Kautilya wanted a prosperous treasury,
he specifically directed the king to earn the wealth of nation only by legitimate and righteous
means and in no way by unfair and immoral means. For the collection of revenues, Kautilya
suggested the following legitimate sources:
(i) various forms of land tax; (ii) duty levied on the sale of commodities in the market; (iii) tax
on imports and exports and (iv) miscellaneous taxes.

6) Danda (The Army or The Force)- Kautilya accepted a strong and hereditary Kshatriya
army, as the most important requisite of the state. He insisted on the hereditary army, as it
would not only be skilled, well-contended and obedient to the king‟s will, but also be free
from duplicity. Such an army would serve both the defensive and offensive purposes of the
king. Hence, it was obvious for Kautilya to pay great attention to the maintenance and
organization of the army. For instance, in Arthashastra, we find him mentioning as many as

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 half a dozen heads of departments namely the incharge of the armory, naval forces, cavalry,
elephants, chariots and infantry.

7) Mitra (The Allies)- Having realized that “political isolation means death”, Kautilya
proceeded to consider the Mitra or the ally as a vital factor. Kautilya recognizes two kinds of
allies, namely Sahaja and Kritrima. The Sahaja or natural ally is the one whose friendship is
derived from the times of King‟s father and grandfather and who is situated close to the
territory of the immediately neighboring enemy. On the other hand, the Kritrima or theacquired
ally is the one whose friendship is specially resorted to for the protection of wealth and life.
Kautilya, however, preferred an ally who is traditional, permanent, disciplined, and
enthusiastic and from whom the possibility of opposition or rebellion is minimum.

Conclusion

Kautilya‟s concept of „State‟ is, however, vividly reflected in his description of angas or
elements of the state. He did not specifically define the term „State‟, as he was essentially a man
of action, and not a theorist. His concern for and emphasis on the internal and external security
of state was to save humanity from a sort of Hobbesian state of nature. The Saptang theory is a
vivid manifestation of Kautilya‟s deeper understanding of not only the political nature of man,
but also the functioning of his political institutions, especially the state.

1.9 Society in Ancient India:

Society in ancient India had several distinguishing features. It was arranged in the form of four
varnas. The life of individual was divided into four stages or ashramas. There were rules
regarding marriage, family etc.
The purpose of life was to attain four goals called purusarthas. The concept of purusarthas is the
fundamental principle of Indian social ethics. The word purusartha means “attainments” or “life
purposes”. The aim of every person is to attain the four noble ends or purusartha. These four
purusarthas are:
A. Dharma:
1. Dharma or the principle of righteousness is considered to be the supreme of the
purusarthas.
2. Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, which connotes to sustain, support or
uphold. Dharma has a wide range of meaning.
3. It is the essential foundation of something or of things in general, and thus signifies
„truth‟.
4. It is that which is established, customary, proper and therefore, means „traditional‟ or
ceremonial.
5. It is one‟s duty, responsibility, imperative and thereby „moral obligation‟.
6. It is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly ethical.

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7. It is that which is required, precepted, or permitted through religious authority, and
thus legal.
8. Hence, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of the society.
B. Artha :
1. Artha is the second purusartha.
2. The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth. It includes all the material means
of life.
3. Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well-
being depends ultimately on material prosperity.
4. Indian thinkers had recognised the pursuit of wealth as a legitimate human
aspiration. But artha must be acquired by right means.
C. Kama:
1. Kama means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures.
2. It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in human beings.
3. In the narrow sense kama means sexual pleasure but in the wider sense it involves
sexual, emotional and aesthetic life all together.
D. Moksha:
1. It is the ultimate purusartha.
2. Moksha means salvation or liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
3. It is the summum bonum of human existence.

1.10 Varnashrama System

 People were classified according to their Varna or castes in ancient India during the Vedic
Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE).
 'Varna' signifies the colour, kind, order, or class of individuals and specifies their ancestral
roots.
 Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators,
etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders, etc.,sometimes known as Vysyas),
and Shudras (labourers) are the four main types.
 Each Varna has its own set of life principles to follow, and infants must adhere to the
Varna's core customs, norms, behaviour, and beliefs.
 These four Varnas make up a community, and their devotion to the Varna laws ensures that
wealth and order are maintained.
 Individual interests and personal preferences are treated with equal solemnity by a newborn
in a certain Varna, in order to resolve the contradiction between personal choice and
conventional regulations.
 Given this freedom, a deviant decision is always evaluated for its impact on others.
 Each Varna citizen's rights are constantly paired with their own obligations.
 The Manu Smriti (an ancient legal treatise from the Vedic Period) and
subsequent Dharma Shastras have an extended Varna system with insights and logic.

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  In theory, Varnas are not pure and undeniable lineages, but rather categories, implying that
behaviour takes precedence over birth in determining a Varna.

Varna system - Purpose

 During the Vedic period, which lasted from 1500 to 1000 BCE, the caste system was
implemented and recognised in ancient India.
 People were divided into castes depending on their Varna in order to decongest their lives,
protect the purity of a caste, and establish eternal order.
 This would resolve and prevent all types of problems arising from internal company
disagreements and encroachment on specific responsibilities.
 Each Varna citizen is assigned certain responsibilities under this system.
 The core notion is that such order in a society would lead to happiness, permanent peace,
wilful obedience to the law, wilful deterrent from any misbehaviour, responsible exercise
of liberty and freedom, and maintaining the essential societal feature of "shared prosperity"
above all others.
 Due to the diverse Varnas living together and there was a risk of disharmony among
them, ancient Indian civilization supported practical and moral instruction for all Varnas.
 The concept that doing Varna obligations would lead to moksha is the fundamental
rationale for doing so.
 Conviction in Karma strengthens one's belief in the Varna life values.
 According to the Vedas, it is a human's ideal duty to seek freedom from successive birth
and death and to relieve oneself of soul transmigration, which is feasible if one fulfils the
responsibilities and principles of one's appropriate Varna.
 Consistent intrusion on others' life obligations, according to the Vedas, leads to an unstable
society.

Varna system - Four principal categories

Brahmins

 Brahmins were respected as the embodiment of wisdom, gifted with the commandments
and sermons that were to be delivered to all Varnas of society.
 The Brahmin community consisted of priests, gurus, rishis, instructors, and academics.
 They would always follow the Brahmacharya (celibacy) vow that had been imposed on
them.
 Even married Brahmins were referred to as Brahmachari (celibate) because they
engaged in sexual activity only for the sake of reproduction while staying mentally
detached from the act.
 Because they symbolise the link between divine knowledge and the four Varnas,
Brahmins were the first option as instructors for the newborn.
 Because ancestral wisdom is preserved via guru-disciple practice, all citizens born in
each Varna will remain anchored to the needs of their life.
 Contrary to common assumption, Brahmin women were more venerated for their purity
and treated with unmatched respect by their spouses.
 A Brahmin lady must only marry another Brahmin, according to Manu Smriti, although
she is free to pick the male.

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Kshatriyas

 The warrior clan, monarchs, territorial rulers, administrators, and so on were all
Kshatriyas.
 Weaponry, warfare, penance, austerity, administration, moral behaviour,
justice, and rule were all essential skills for a Kshatriya.
 From an early age, all Kshatriyas would be sent to a Brahmin's ashram until they were
fully equipped with the necessary knowledge.
 They would obtain administrative expertise in addition to the austerities of the
Brahmins.
 Their primary responsibility was to defend their area, defend against attacks,
administer justice, govern virtuously, and provide peace and happiness to all of their
people, and they would seek advice from their Brahmin gurus on problems of territorial
sovereignty and ethical difficulties.
 Kshatriya women, like their male counterparts, were trained in masculine disciplines,
were well-versed in battle, had the authority to perform responsibilities in the king's
absence, and were well-versed in kingdom matters.

Vaishyas

 Agriculturalists, traders, money lenders, and people concerned in business make up

the Vaishya Varna.
 Vaishyas are likewise twice-born and attend the Brahmins' ashram to study the norms of
virtuous living and to avoid intentional or unintentional misbehaviour.
 Cattle husbandry was one of the Vaishyas' most prestigious jobs, since the quantity and
quality of a kingdom's cows, elephants, and horses, as well as their care, influenced the
residents' quality of life and prosperity.
 Vaishyas would work closely with the kingdom's authorities to discuss, execute, and
continually improve living conditions by creating profitable commercial opportunities.
 Because their lives expose them to items of rapid enjoyment, their proclivity to disregard
the law and detest the vulnerable is assumed.
 As a result, the Kshatriya ruler would be preoccupied with addressing issues arising
from Vaishya wars.
 Vaishya women, like their husbands, helped them in business, cattle raising, and
agriculture, and shared the load of labour.
 They were equally free to pick a partner from the four Varnas, however choosing a
Shudra was vigorously opposed.

Shudras

 The last Varna forms the backbone of a flourishing economy, and they are valued for
their obedient performance of life's responsibilities.
 Scholarly perspectives on Shudras are the most diverse, owing to the fact that their
behaviour appears to be more restricted.

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  The Atharva Veda, on the other hand, enables Shudras to hear and memorise the Vedas
by memory, and the Mahabharata, too, encourages Shudras to join ashrams and learn
the Vedas.
 A Shudra male could only marry another Shudra, while a Shudra woman might marry
from any of the four Varnas.
 Shudras would work in the ashrams of the Brahmins, the palaces and royal camps of the
Kshatriyas, and the commercial operations of the Vaishyas.
 Despite the fact that they are the feet of the primal entity, knowledgeable people of higher
Varnas would always view them as an important part of society, because an ordered
society would be readily jeopardised if the feet were weak.
 Shudras, on the other hand, obeyed their lords' commands because they knew they may
achieve moksha by performing their allotted chores, which motivated them to be loyal.
 Shudra women also worked as the queen's attendants and intimate companions, and
would accompany her to other countries after marriage.
 Many Shudras were also permitted to work as farmers, traders, and in Vaishya
vocations.
 However, these deviations from life responsibilities would only be taken under
exceptional circumstances, such as while seeing deteriorating economic conditions.
 The Shudras' selflessness earns them unparalleled admiration and esteem.

Conclusion
Society is organised into four varnas in the Dharma-shastras: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
and Shudras. Those who are expelled from the varna system for serious crimes are referred to as
outcasts or untouchables, and they are considered outside the varna system

1.11 Ashrama or the Stages of Life

Ashrama System in Hinduism is four age-based life stages discussed in Indian texts of the
ancient and medieval eras. The four ashramas are Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha
(householder), Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller), and Sannyasa (renunciate). The
Ashrama system is one of the aspects of the Dharma concept in Hinduism. It is also a part of the
ethical theories in Indian philosophy, where it is linked with four proper goals of human life
(Purusartha), fulfillment, happiness, and spiritual liberation. Under the Ashram system, the human
lifespan was divided into four periods. The goal of each period was the fulfillment and development of
the individual.

The classical system, in the Ashrama Upanishad, the Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra, and the
later Dharmashastra, presents these as sequential stages of human life and suggests ages for
entry to each stage.

(A) Brahmacharya (Student Life)

Age: Till 25 years

Brahmacharya represented the bachelor student stage of life. This stage focuses on education and
included the practice of celibacy.

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The student went to a Gurukul (house of the guru) and typically would live with a Guru
(mentor). At that place, they acquire knowledge of science, philosophy, scriptures, and logic,
practicing self-discipline, working to earn Dakshina to be paid for the guru, learning to live a life
of Dharma (virtue, morals, duties).

(B) Grihastha (Household Life)

Age: From 25 years to 48 years

This stage referred to the individual‟s married life, with the duties of maintaining a household,
raising a family, educating one‟s children, and leading a family-centered and a dharmic social
life.

Grihastha‟s stage was recognized as the most important of all stages in a sociological context.
Because in this stage human beings not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and
wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued
mankind.

The stage also includes the most intense physical, sexual, emotional, occupational, social, and
material attachments that exist in a human being‟s life.

(C) Vanaprastha (Retired Life)

Age: From 48 years to 72 years

In this stage, a person hand over household duties to the next generation took an advisory role
and slowly withdrew from the world.

Vanaprastha stage was a transition phase from a householder‟s life with its greater emphasis on
Artha and Kama (wealth, security, pleasure, and desires) to one with greater emphasis on
Moksha (spiritual liberation).

(D) Sannyasa (Renounced Life)

Age: 72+ (or anytime)

This stage was marked by the renunciation of material desires and dislikes described by a state of
disinterest and detachment from material life, usually without any significant property or home
(Ascetic), and focussed on Moksha, peace, and simple spiritual life. Anyone could enter this
stage after completing the Brahmacharya stage of life.

1.12 Marriage in Ancient India

1. Marriage or vivaha was a very important samskara in ancient India.
2. Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes :
i. Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices.

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 ii. Progency or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and continuation of
family line or kula.
iii. Rati or sexual pleasure
Ancient forms of marriage: According to Manu Smiriti, the laws of Manu or Manava Dharma
Shastra, there existed eight main forms of Hindu marriages in ancient India namely Brahma
Vivah, Daiva Vivah, Arsha Vivah, Prajapatya Vivah, Gandharva Vivah, Asura Vivah, Rakshasa
Vivah and Pisaka Vivah. Although not all eight marriages had religious sanction, it is said that in
the ancient time, all these forms of marriages were observed among many communities of the
people. Out of these eight different forms of marriage only first four were approved and
encouraged in the society. The specific characteristics of these eight different forms of Hindu
marriages are as follows:

1. Brahma Marriage: In this type of marriage, the girl‟s father himself invited a Veda
learned and pious man and gave him his highly dressed and bejeweled daughter in the
marriage solemnized by a Brahmin.
2. Daiva Marriage: In this type of marriage, the girl‟s father gifted her properly dressed
and bejeweled daughter to a priest as dakshina (fees) for officiating over a sacrifice.
3. Arsha Marriage: Marriage in which the girl‟s father gave away his daughter, according
to the rule, in exchange of a pair of cattle or two cows given by the bridegroom, for the
fulfillment of the sacred law.
4. Prajapatya Marriage: Marriage in which the bridegroom was duly worshipped and
married to the bride by her father with due honor and words of blessings "May both of
you perform together your duties". Besides this, no marriage ceremonies were performed.
5. Asuras Marriage: Marriage in which the bridegroom received a maiden, after bestowing
as much wealth as he can afford, to the kinsmen and to the bride herself, according to his
own will.
6. Gandharva Marriage:Marriage in which there is voluntary union of a girl with a man in
solitude when both of them were in love. In this form of marriage, neither the consent of
the parents nor the rites of dowry was essential. Only the will of the marrying parties was
given importance. This marriage was believed to spring from desire and had sex
satisfaction as its chief purpose.
7. Rakshasa Marriage: It was marriage by capture or abduction that is without obtaining
the consent of the girl or her parents. The maiden was captured or abducted from her
home after her kinsmen have been slain or wounded and their houses broken open.
8. Pisaka Marriage: It was marriage by seduction, stealing or fraud. The girl was sexually
violated while she was asleep or intoxicated or unconscious or mentally disturbed and
later given her the social status of a wife

1.13 Understanding gender as a social category

1. Gender studies was very much part of ancient India.

2. The unique feature was the acknowledgement of the third sex: one that is neither male
nor female.
3. Charaka in his medical treatise speaks of „tritiya prakriti‟ or the third naturally

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 occurring gender.
4. In the Mahabhasya composed in Sanskrit 2,300 years ago, everything is seen in
physical tangible terms: male is one who has hair all over body, woman is one with
breasts and long hair, and one who is neither the „napumsaka‟.
5. In Buddhist literature, greater importance is given to behaviour, rather than to
biological markings.
6. In Jain scripture, we see a far more refined understanding of gender and sexuality. One
recognises that the body can be male (purusha), female (stri) or queer (napunsaka).
7. Further, there is a classification based on the object of attraction: male, female or
queer. This can be seen in all three types of genders.
8. There is separation of physical body (dravya-purusha) from the psychological body
(bhava-purusha).
9. There is also reference to active (padisevati) and passive (padisevavati) homosexual
acts in Buddhist literature.
10. All these ideas emerged between 5th century BCE and 5th century CE, and were
explored in the following centuries.

1.14 The representation of Women in Historical traditions

Indus valley civilization

 Worship of mother goddess highlights the respect to women as mother.

 Given equal honor along with men in society.
 Women enjoyed full freedom & treated pretty well.

Rig Vedic period

 Continued enjoying full freedom & equality with men

 The position of wife was an honoured one in the household
 Superior over men in religious ceremonies.

Later Vedic Period:

 The marriage & educational rights remains same

 Power in religious ceremonies getting lowered.

 Religious ceremonies increasingly were conducted by the priests resulting in
losing her preeminent position in the household.

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  This was the period during which the importance of rituals increased and so did
the importance of the Brahmans.

The importance of rituals increased in this period and so did the importance of the Brahmans.

 Desire for sons continued, sati was not prevalent.

 The position of women was not as high as it was in the Rig Vedic period.
 Female workers were involved in dying, embroidery and basket making.

Upanishads period:

 Marriage between the male of a higher caste and female of a lower caste prevaile d
during this period.
 The rules of Panini regarding Abhi vadana ( salutation as a mark of respect to
elderly persons in the house ) shows that the presence of wives of the lower caste
in a house and their association with ladies of a higher caste brought d own the
general level of womanly culture and led to a deterioration in their status.

During Sutras and Epics:

The bride is at a mature age, over 15 or 16. The elaborate rites indicate that marriage was a holy
bond and not a contract. The Grihya sutras give detailed rules regarding the proper seasons for
marriage, qualifications of bride and bridegroom.
 The women were allowed to sing, dance and enjoy life.
 Sati was not generally prevalent.
 Widow Remarriage was allowed under certain circumstances.
 The Apastamba imposes several penalties on a husband who unjustly forsakes his On the
other hand; a wife who forsakes her husband has to only perform penance.
Evidence from epics
The Ramayan along with the Mahabarat and the puranas constitute the epic literature in India.
During this period, a woman was considered to be a living commodity which could be kept on
bet and could be sold or purchased. Example is Pandavas bid of Droupathi. But we also get quite
contrary views from Ramayan and Mahabarata.

o Bhisma says that during this period women were respected.

o Sita is regarded as one of the five ideal and revered women in India, the
other four being Ahalya, Draupati, Tara and Mondodari.
o There are references in Mahabarata which reflects that women used to
guide men on religious and social questions.

During Maurya Empire

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  The important documental evidence is Arthasastra by Kautilya, a brahman prime
minister of Chandragupta maurya.
 States that woman had property rights to the stridhan, which was the gift made to a
woman at the time of her marriage by her parents and afterwards augmented by her
husband.
 Stridhan was usually in the form of jewelry, which among many cultural groups
was a convenient way of carrying surplus wealth, but could include certain rights
to immovable property.
 Marriage was both a secular and sacred institution.
 Widows could remarry. When they did so, they lost rights to any property
inherited from their deceased husbands.
 There is little information on lower class women other than some comments on
laboring women and the need to give works as spinners to such disadvantaged
women as widows and “defective girls.”

During Gupta dynasty

The Gupta Empire is seen as the classical age of Indian culture because of its literary and artistic
accomplishments. Some information on roles for elite women comes from the Kama Sutra, a
manual about the many ways to acquire pleasure, a legitimate goal for Hindu men in the
householder, or second stage, of their lives.

 Women were expected to be educated, to give and to receive sexual pleasure, and
to be faithful wives.
 Courtesans were trained in poetry and music as well as the skills of sexual
pleasure and were esteemed members of society.
 Courtesans were the one category of women who were likely to be educated and
sometimes were known to have spoken Sanskrit.

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