ITCS Dr.

Mahendra Pratap Yadav, H & SS

MODULE- 1

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN ANCIENT INDIA :

Indian administration, as we know, has its evolution that can be traced back to the 5000 years
old Indus Valley Civilization wherein the King was all powerful and everything in the Kingdom
was carried out in his name. He was assisted by a council of ministers, and also other
functionaries and officers in administering the Kingdom. In other words, in the ancient times,
powers of administering the Kingdom were centralized in the institution of King. This was
followed by the Vedic period. Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than
kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called ‘Rajan.’ The main responsibility of the Rajan was to
protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the
senani (army chief), dutas (envoys), and spash (spies).

However, a systematic model of administration came in with the coming of the Mauryan and
Gupta dynasties. Both the dynasties had elaborate governmental machineries that carried out
state functions in a highly organized manner. The Unit therefore tends to discuss the
administrative systems that prevailed during these dynasties. We will just have a brief
discussion about the evolution of the ancient administrative system to begin with.

EVOLUTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN ADMINISTRATION:

The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) gets its name from the Vedas . Early Vedic
Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called ‘Rajan.’
The main responsibility of the Rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several
functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas(envoys), and
spash (spies). However, the autonomy of the Rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called
‘sabha’ and ‘samiti.’ Arthur Llewellyn Basham, a noted historian and Indologist, theorises that
sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribes
men. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The Rajan could
not accede to the throne without their approval.

In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital
and rudimentary administrative system. The Rajan was seen as the custodian of social order
and the protector of ‘rashtra’ (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging. Rituals in this era
exalted the status of the King over his people. He was occasionally referred to as ‘samrat’
(supreme ruler). The Rajan’s increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over
the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became a compulsory tribute. There
was no organized system of taxation. Sabha and samiti were still there but with the increasing

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power of the Rajan, their influence declined. By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of
political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchic states (gana or sangha), and tribal
principalities had started emerging.

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of pastoralist and agricultural way
of life. Economic exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to chiefs and priests, and
barter system was there, wherein cattle were used, as a unit of currency. The transition of
Vedic society from semi nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an
increase in trade and competition for resources. Agriculture dominated the economic activity
along the Ganges valley during this period. Agricultural operations grew in complexity and
usage of iron implements increased. Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also
mentions about the usage of tin, lead, and silver. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were
cultivated. New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery,
astrology, jewellery, dying, and wine making arose. Romila Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state
formation, as being in a condition of “arrested development,” because …chiefs were relatively
autonomous and owing to surplus wealth they controlled, which was used for the increasingly
grandiose rituals that otherwise could have been directed towards state-building.

The period of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic era, (was approximately
contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations) was linked to the beginning of
urbanization in the Ganges Valley. The growth of population and trade networks led to the
social and economic changes that started putting pressure on older ways of life suggesting the
end of the Vedic period and setting the stage for urbanization. By the time the Mauryan
dynasty came into power, the treatise of Kautilya, namely Arthashastra’ became a work on
statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. Kautilya, was a scholar at Takshashila
University and was the teacher and guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Indian
administration system was well developed and the treatise of Kautilya gives a very first detailed
account of the same. The Mauryan Period was the era of major development in Indian
administration. Decentralization was prevalent, as the village units played a very important
role, as the base of grassroots administration. Empire was divided into provinces, provinces into
districts, and districts into rural and urban centers for efficient administration.

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM:

Indian history entered into a new era with the beginning of the Mauryan Empire, as for the first
time India attained political unity and administrative uniformity. The Mauryan Empire was
divided into four provinces with Patliputra, as the capital. The names of the four provincial
capitals were Tosali in the East, Ujjayain in the West, Suvarnagiri in the South, and Taxila in the
North. Mauryans developed an organized and an elaborate system of administration. There was
central administration directly under the King. Besides there was provincial administration,

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local administration, revenue administration, judicial administration, and military
administration.

Central Administration:

The King was the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan administration. He had the
supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers vested in him. He was responsible for the
safety and security of his kingdom. He laid down the general lines of policy that was to be
followed by all officials. He appointed ministers and other officers of the royal administration. In
addition, the King was the supreme commander of the army and head of the entire military
entire. Also, as the powers of the Mauryan government was of a decentralized nature, the
provincial governor and provincial ministers had the right to be consulted by the King,
especially, in all provincial matters. The number of ministers in the Council of Ministers varied
and was not fixed. The ministers had to qualify by showing their ability, especially in terms of
religion and money. In times of emergency, the King was always to be guided by the majority
decision of the Council of Ministers. Besides, there was a well organized hierarchy of
bureaucrats, who looked after the executive, judicial, and revenue offices. The entire
administration system was organized into departments, each of which was headed by a
Superintendent, known as ‘Adhyaksha.’ The Adhyaksha was assisted by clerks, accountants, and
spies. In addition, there were two posts of high officials, namely the ‘Samaharta’ and the
‘Sannidhata.’ The Samaharta was the collector general of revenue for the Mauryan Empire. He
had control over the expenditure part also. The post of Sannidhata was the officer-in-charge of
the treasury and store. Besides, there were other officers like Army Minister, Chief Priest, and
Governor of Forts.

Provincial Administration :

The entire Empire was divided into two parts: The kingdom that was under the direct rule of
the King, and The vassal states. The Mauryan territory that was directly ruled by the King was
divided into a number of provinces called ‘Janapadas.’ Ashoka had five provinces with capitals
namely Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, and Pataliputra. Each province was subdivided into a
number of districts and each district was again subdivided into a number of units. However, in
addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were vassal states. They enjoyed a
great deal of autonomy. The provincial administration worked on similar lines of the central
administration. The Mauryan Emperor directly ruled the central and eastern parts of the
Empire. The other areas were ruled by the provincial Governors. The provincial Governors were
responsible for day-to-day conduct of administration of provinces.

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Local Administration:

The district administration was in the charge of ‘Rajukas’, whose position and functions are
similar to today’s district collectors. He was assisted by ‘Yuktas’ or subordinate officials. In the
urban was, there was a Municipal Board with 30 members. There were six committees with five
Board members in each to manage the administration of cities. The six committees were:

1- Committee on Industrial Arts

2- Committee on Foreigners
3- Committee on Registration of Births and Deaths
4- Committee on Trade and Commerce
5- Committee on Supervision of Manufacturers
6- Committee on Collection of Excise and Custom Duties

Village administration was in the hands of ‘Gramani’ and his superior was called ‘Gopa,’
who was incharge of ten to fifteen villages. Census was a regular activity and the village
officials were to number the people along with other details such as their castes and
occupations. They were also to count the animals in each house. Census in towns was
conducted by municipal officials, especially to track the movements of both foreign and
indigenous population. The data collected were cross checked by the spies. Census appears
to have become a permanent institution during the administration of the Mauryas.

Revenue Administration :

Kautilya laid greater stress on treasury, as smooth and successful functioning of administration
depended on it. Main sources of income were land revenue, taxation, and rent. Land revenue
was 1/6 of the total produce, yet in reality much higher proportion was charged, as per the
economic and local conditions of the farmers. In addition to land revenue, there were excise
duty, forest tax, water tax, taxes on mines, tax on coinage etc., as other sources of revenue.
Much of the Mauryan revenue was expended on paying the army, the officials of the royal
government, charities, and different public works like irrigation projects, road construction etc.

Judicial Administration:

The King was the head of the judiciary. He was the highest court of appeal and personally
listened to appeals of the people. However, since the Mauryan Empire 12 Evolution of Indian
Administration was huge, it was not possible for the King to solve each and every case. So, he
appointed judges for the pupose. They used to hear normal cases. However during the reign of
Ashoka, many reforms were introduced in the judicial system. For example, granting of pardon
was introduced in his time. The Supreme Court was located in the capital and the Chief Justice
was called ‘Dharmathikarin.’ There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and

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districts under ‘Amatyas.’ In villages and towns, cases were settled by the ‘Gramavradha’ and
‘Nagaravyavaharikamahamatra’ respectively. Different kinds of punishment such as fines,
imprisonment, mutilation, and death were meted out to the offenders. Police stations were
found at all major places in the city. Both Kautilya and Ashoka edicts mention about jails and jail
officials. It was ensured that no innocent gets punished. Ashoka appointed a special class of
officers known, as the Dhamma Mahamatras to look into this.

Military Administration :

The King was the supreme commander of the military. The Mauryan army was well organized
and it was under the control of a ‘Senapati.’ As per Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army
consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants, and eight
thousands chariots. There was a Board of 30 members to look into matters pertaining to war.
These members were placed in six committees with five members in each. These committees
were responsible to manage the following wings of the military:

1- Navy
2- Transport and Supply
3- Infantry
4- Cavalry
5- War Chariots
6- War Elephants

Each of the above wings was under the control of ‘Adhyaksha’ or Superintendents.

Ashoka introduced innovations and reforms in the Mauryan administrative system. He

improved the functioning of the executive, legislature, and judiciary. He introduced reforms
in the provincial administration. He appointed many officials to look into the tasks of public
welfare. Ashoka appointed a special class of officers known, as the Dhamma Mahamatras to
look after the material and spiritual well being of the people. These persons were to spread
the gospel of Dhamma.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM DURING GUPTA PERIOD:

The administrative system during the Gupta dynasty was found more or less similar to that
of the Mauryan Empire. At the time of the Gupta rule, there was political harmony in
ancient India. During this period, the Empire was classified into administrative divisions like
Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. This denotes the importance being given to
administrative decentralization. The administrative divisions helped the rulers to
systematically control their territories. The period of Gupta’s has been described, as the

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golden age in ancient India. There was consolidation of northern India under one political
umbrella, which ushered in an era of orderly growth and development.

Central Administration:

Monarchy was the form of government during the Gupta Age and it has been hailed, as a
benevolent monarchy. The King adopted pompous titles such as Parameshvara,
Maharajadhiraja, and Parambhattaraka. The King was the highest authority and wielded
wide powers to enable smooth functioning of the Empire. He enjoyed political,
administrative, military, and judicial powers. The theory of the divinity of Kings was popular
during this period, which added to the royal power and prestige. They were looked upon, as
Gods. Council of ministers and several other officials assisted the King in day to day
performance of his duties. The Gupta Kings appointed all governors and military and civil
officials and the latter were responsible to the King. The King was the custodian of all land in
the Empire. He looked into works like building of dams, imparting of justice, recovery of
taxes, and provision of shelter to needy. There were also ministers and high officials to aid
and advice him and he shared powers with them. The Emperor was assisted by a council of
ministers also known, as Mantri Parishad. The Prime Minister of the state, known, as Mantri
Mukhya was among the prominent ones in the council. The other portfolios such as military
affairs, law and order matters, and such others were held by different officials known, as
Mahasandhi Vigrahaka, Amatya, Mahabaladhikrita, and Mahadandnayaka. All important
matters were decided in a joint sitting of the King and his ministers.

Provincial Administration:

The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The Empire was
divided into divisions called ‘Bhukth’ and each Bhukti was placed under the charge of an
‘Uparika.’ The Bhuktis were divided into districts or Vishayas and each Vishaya was under a
Vishayapati. The Vishayapatis were generally members of royal family. They were assisted
in the work by a council of representatives.

Local Administration:

The city was governed by a Parishad and the head was known, as Nagara Rakshaka.
Purapala Uparika was another officer and the Nagara-Rakshaka worked under him. Also,
there was a special officer, known as Avasthika, who acted, as the Superintendent of
Dharamsalas. Professional bodies were given considerable attention. Artisans, merchants,
and bankers organized their own guilds and managed their own affairs. The guild merchants
looked after trade in the cities. The village was the smallest unit of administration. Gramika
was the head of the village. Other officials known, as Dutas or messengers, headman, and
Kartri were also there. Gramika was assisted by a village assembly. During the Guptas, the

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rural bodies like Panchayats were incharge of the welfare of villagers. These rural bodies
comprised of the headman and elders of the villages.

Revenue Administration :

The duties of revenue administration were carried out by officials like Viniyuktaka, Rajuka,
Uparika, Dashparadhika, and such others. From among the 18 sources of revenue, land
revenue was the chief one. It was generally fixed at one-sixth of the total produce. Also,
land revalue was an important source of income. The greater part of the revenue generated
was spent on public welfare. Land tax was levied on cultivators, who had no land rights. It
was one sixth of the total produce. There were also other sources of income like income tax
known, as Bhaga, custom duty, mint duty, inheritance tax, and gift tax. In addition to these
taxes, fine such as Dasaparadha that was imposed on the offenders, was a source of
income. Salaries were usually paid in the form of land grants (in lieu of cash). Such land
grants gave the beneficiaries hereditary rights over the land. However, the King had the
power to take back the land. The lands given to the Brahmins had no tax on them. Waste
lands were brought under cultivation and pasture lands were protected. The Gupta rulers
promoted irrigation facilities and this enabled increase in agricultural production.

Judicial Administration :

Judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times. Several
books on law were compiled during this period and for the first time civil and criminal laws
were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery came under criminal law and disputes
regarding various types of property came under civil law. Elaborate laws were laid down
regarding inheritance. It was the duty of the King to uphold the law and deal with legal
cases with the help of Brahman priests, judges, and ministers. The decision or the judgment
of the court was based on legal texts, social customs prevailing during those times, and
discretion of the King. King was the highest court of appeal. The guilds of artisans,
merchants, and others were governed by their own laws. At the lowest level of the judicial
system was the village assembly or trade guild. These were the village councils, which were
appointed to settle the disputes between the parties that appeared before them. It is
believed that mild punishments were awarded to the guilty persons.

Military Administration:

Gupta rulers had a huge army. They maintained a standing army and the use of cavalry and
horse archery were in vogue. The territories of the Empire were kept under watchful eyes.
The military officers, referred in inscriptions were the Senapati, Mahasenapati, Baladhikrita,
Mahabaladhikrita, Dandanayaka, Sandhivigrahika, and Mahasandhivigrahika, They were the
key functionaries in the military administration. The military had four wings namely the

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information wing, cavalry wing, elephant wing, and the navy. The main weapons of war
were bows and arrows, swords, axes, and spears.

Trade and Business :

The Empire carried out trade activities with countries like China, Ceylon, several European
countries, and the East Indian islands. This made the Empire become economically and
strategically strong, which led to annexation of new states and thereof the expansion of the
territorial boundaries of the Empire.

The above sections have mentioned about the administrative systems prevalent in the
Mauryan and Gupta kingdoms. The central, provincial, revenue, financial, judicial, and local
administrative systems have been dealt with in details. This makes one to construe that
both the administrative systems were monarchical yet not despotic. The King was a
benevolent monarch, who was concerned with the welfare of his subjects. Both the
administrations were the foundation of the ancient administrative system and proved to be
pointers for our present day administration.

Political Ideals in Ancient India Conditions’ of the Welfare of societies:

Along with all powers of state enjoyed by the king, welfare and protection of society had
been the main object. Evidently, the polity in Ancient Indian was the main instrument for
social reform, economic progress, and welfare of the people, national integration and
nation building.

Political ideas like Liberties, Justice, Fraternity and Nationalism are a product of the modern
age. If viewed strictly from the lens of the contemporary period, we can’t find any
systematic expression of these ideals, in ancient India. But seen from a different
perspective, ancient Indians did have these ideas, in a rudimentary form.

Showing the importance of freedom the Vedas state that independence is necessary for
mankind and those who are not independent are worse than dead. In Varnashram
institution too, an independent living has been kept in mind. A man lived independently
during Grihasthaashram and when he was likely to be dependent on the offspring coming of
age, there is the provision of the older people resorting to Vanprastha and then to Sanyasa,
again living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on their
children. For disposal of justice the Mauryan state had a system of judiciary. Dharmasthiya
was the civil court and Kantakshodhana was organized to deal with a large number of
economic crimes.

The Ramayana extols this country as a karmabhumi, the land of pious acts. This shows the
belongingness of people to land and their fellow beings. The early seeds of nationalism can

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 be traced in this instance. Similarly, the ideas of ancient Indian thinkers was
Vasuidhaivakutumbakam (treating the whole world like a family). This was the concept of
universal brotherhood or fraternity.

From the days of Plato and Aristital, European thought has turned its attention to such
questions as the origin of the state, the ideal form of government, and the basis of law and
the politics has long been looked on as a branch of Philosophy. From the above discussion,
it is clear that ancient India also thought about such questions, but she had no schools of
political Philosophy in the western sense.

Seven Limbs of the State :

According to Kautilya’s Arthashashtra The seven limbs or essential organs of the state are
follows-

i- Swami (The Ruler)

ii- Amatya (The Minister)
iii- Janapada (The Population)
iv- Durga (The Fortified Capital)
v- Kosha (The Treasury)
vi- Danda (The Army)
vii- Mitra (Ally and Friend)

Swami (The Ruler or King)

It is the first and the most important element. Swami means the monarch. He should be a
native of the soil and born in a noble family. He should be brave and well learned. He makes all
the important appointments and supervises the government. He has to be virtuous and should
treat his subjects like his own children. Kautilya has given extensive powers to the monarch but
those powers are meant for the welfare of them subjects. In the welfare and happiness of his
subjects, lies his own happiness.

Amatya (The Minister)

It refers to the council of ministers as well as the supporting officials and subordinate staffs.
They are meant for assisting the monarch in day to day affairs of the state. Amatya gives
suggestions to king, collects taxes, develops new villages and cities, ensures defense of the
state and all other tasks as assigned by the king.

Janpada (The Population)

It refers to territory and people of the state. The territory of the state should be fertile and
should have abundance of forest, rivers, mountains, minerals, wild life etc. It should have have

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good climate. People should be loyal to their king, hard working, disciplined, religious, ready to
fight for their motherland, should pay taxes regularly and happily.

Durga (The Fortified Capital)

It refers to forts. The state should have sufficient number of forts across its territory at strategic
locations for ensuring defense against foreign invasions. Forts should be built near
hills/mountains, deserts, dense forests and big water bodies. They garrison soldiers, store food
grains for emergency and also serve as a hideout for the king when his life in danger.

Kosha (The Treasury)

This means treasury of the state. Finance is life blood of any state without which it is almost
impossible to run it. Money is needed for paying salaries, building new infrastructure, etc. The
treasury should be full of money and valuable metals and gems. It can be increased through
taxation and plundering enemy states in war.

Danda (The Army)

It refers to military. The state should have a regular, large, disciplined and well trained military.
It is crucial for the security of the state. The soldiers should be recruited from those families
which are traditionally associated with military. The soldiers should paid well and their families
should be taken care of in most suitable way. Proper training and equipment should be made
available. Well fed and well trained soldiers can win any battle. The king should take care of the
soldiers and the soldiers will be ready to sacrifice even their life for him.

Mitra (Ally and Friend)

It refers to friends of the king. The monarch should maintain friendly relationship with
traditional friends of his forefathers. He should also make new friendships. He should send gifts
and other pleasantries for his friends. They should be helped in times of emergency. They
should be loyal. Friends add to the power of the state. They are also important from foreign
trade view point.

Sciety in Ancient India

(Varna-System) :
The Ancient Indian society was based upon Varna and ashrams, a four-fold classification of the
entire people into varnas and a fourfold division of the life of each individuals into ashrams
(stages). The Indo-Aryans were originally divided into three classes the Brahman, and Rajanya
and Vis.

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At a later stage these three classes assumed the names of Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaisya. The
fourth class—Sudras—was added from amongst the aborigines with a view to serve the other
three classes.

The Brahmanas included persons who devoted themselves to the conservation of the ancient
ideals, maintenance and development of ancient rituals, probe the mysteries of the universe,
investigate the relation between the Supreme Spirit and the individual soul etc.

This section of people naturally came to occupy an important position in a society which
possessed spiritual ideals, The Brahmans were considered a great divinity in human form and
were given numerous privileges.

Usually light punishments were given to the Brahmans even for very serious crimes. The
Brahmans were patronized by the king or the chief and were provided with grants of tax-free
land, cultivated by farmers who paid their taxes to the Brahman rather than the king.

Brahmans were also appointed to important positions at court. The Brahmans were generally
forbidden by the law books to engage in agriculture. Similarly they were not permitted to carry
on trade ill certain commodities like cattle and animals, slaves, weapons and liquor.

The Rajanya or Kshatriya formed the second class. They were charged with the duty of
protecting the people, defending them against foreign aggression. During the Vedic age they
also studied Vedas and performed various types of sacrifices.

In the earlier period the Kshatriyas claimed precedence over the Brahman. A strong king was
always a check on the brahmanic pretentions, just as the Brahmans were a check on the
pretentions of the king.

It may, however, be noted that the members of the two classes often resorted to change of
functions. Some Brahmin families like Jamadagnis took to fighting, while certain Kshatriyas took
to metaphysical investigations.

The Kshatriyas enjoyed certain privileges. Sometimes they continued old customs which were
not in keeping with the orthodox belief, and the Brahmans were forced to give them legal
sanction. The Kshatriyas were permitted marriage by capture.

The third class consisting mainly of the mass of Aryan people was known as Vaisya. The general
duties of the members of this class included agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade. The status of
the Vaisya was quite inferior to that of the Brahmans and the Kshatriyas. One of the passages in
the Aitareya Brahmana described Vaisya as “paying tribute to another, to be lived on by
another, to be oppressed at will.”
Similarly in the early Brahmanic literature also he is described as wretched and down-trodden
cultivator or petty merchant who is of no interest to his masters except as a source of profit.

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Their position deteriorated further in the later-Vedic period when they were forced to mix with
the Sudras for the proper regulation of their trade and commerce.

Almost the entire burden of the society fell on their shoulders. They had to pay charity to the
Brahmans, taxes to the Kshatriyas and salary to the Sudras.

The Sudras did not belong to the Aryan stock and were not considered ‘twice-born’. The term
Sudra was probably drawn from the name of the non-Aryan tribe which was subjugated by the
Aryans and come to be applied to the community of the aborigines.

Subsequently even those people who failed to strictly observe the orthodox customs and
practices were pushed into the ranks of the Sudras. Similarly persons born illegitimately even
when of pure high-class blood were counted amongst Sudras.

They did not enjoy even the basic amenities of life. According to Aitareya Brahmana the Sudras
is to be the servant of another, to be expelled at will and to be slain at will. The Sudra had no
right of property against’ the Kshatriyas, especially the king. They did not receive education nor
could they hear or learn Vedas.

However, in actual practice the Sudras did not live the humble and wretched life prescribed for
them by the Sacred Law. We learn of a number of Sudras engaging in manufacture and
commerce. By the times of the Mauryas a large number of Sudras had become free peasants.
Though the Vedas were not to be read by the Sudras, the Epics and Puranas were thrown open
to them.

At the earlier stages the, caste system was not rigid. The members of the upper classes could
intermarry with the Sudras, though it was not favoured. Sukanya, daughter of a Kshatriya king,
married Chyavana, a Brahmin.

Similarly there are numerous examples of scholarly kings (Kshatriyas) teaching Brahmins. Inter-
dinning was also common. It may be noted that though son of a Brahman, Kshatriya or Vaishya
could marry a Sudra girl, but was not possible for the son of a Sudra to think in terms of
marriage with the daughter of any of the upper classes.

If a Brahmana married a Sudra girl, he lost his status. But despite these restrictions there were
many instances of the members of the upper classes marrying in lower families. As a result of
these marriages various new castes came into existence.

These castes were outside the regular classes. Subsequently, number of foreigners like Greeks,
Parthians, Shakas, Kushans etc. also came to India and were absorbed by the Indian, society
either as Kshatriyas or as Sudras.

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Ashramas :
It was the outstanding feature of the social organisation in ancient India. This system
particularly developed during the later Vedic period. Liberally Ashrama means halting place. But
in the Indian social system it implied stoppage or stage in the journey of life with a view to
prepare one-self for further journey. The life of the individual was divided into four Ashramas.
Presuming that each individual lived for roughly one hundred years, the entire life was divided
into four periods of twenty-five years each, representing one Ashrama.

The first Ashram or stage was known as the Brahmachavya Ashrama which lasted till the age of
25 years. A major portion of this Asharama was devoted to education. During this period the
student stayed with the teacher, who looked after his physical, mental and psychological
development. During this period the student had to lead a life of simplicity and chastity. He had
to maintain strict control over all his organs and to avoid all pleasures and luxuries. The
students belonging to all the classes had to stay together at the house of the teacher and were
treated equally. Manu has described the age at which the children of different castes should
start their education. According to him the son of Brahmana should go to school in the fifth
year, the son of a Kshatriya in the sixth year and the son of the Vaishya in the eighth year. The
children of the Sudras were not to go for education. This difference in age was suggested
probably because Manu considers that the intelligence of the son of Brahmana at five was
equal to the intelligence of the Vaishya at the age of eight. Thus we find that the Brahmacharya
Ashrama was essentially a period for the development of body and mind.

The Grihastha Ashrama or the stage of a householder was the next stage which lasted from 26
to 50 years. The most important duties of the individual at this stage include the setting up a
family and beget off spring’s. According to the Hindu laws the possession of a son was
considered to be essential for moksha. This stage of life was considered to be the hardest stage
because the person had also to devote attention to sacrifices, worship, charity etc. Manu has
observed, “The duties of this order (grahastha), which cannot be practiced by men with weak
organs of sense, must be carefully observed by him who desires imperishable bliss in heaven,
and constant happiness in this life”. During this period the house-holder was also expected to
feed the people in the other three Ashramas and perform various rites and ceremonies. The
home was also considered as an important place for the practice of dharma shastras.

The householder entered the third stage of Vanaprastha Ashrama when he saw the signs of old
age coming upon him—his hair got grey or his son or daughters got children of their own. The
persons entering this stage was expected to renounce the comforts of a settled home life and
retire from the world. He was expected to give up all desire for children, desire for possessions
and desire for the world. During the Vanaprastha Ashram he was to take up residence in the
forests and castigate the body to purify the soul. He was to live on forest fruits and herbs. He
was to avoid meat and other luxurious food. He was not to use new clothes and had to depend
on dresses made of materials available in the woods. He was expected to lead a life of complete
detachment and to utilise his time for the study of Upanishads, Srutis and meditation. It was
believed that a person who died while pursuing Vanaprastha Ashrama attained moksha.

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The last stage in the journey of man’s life was Sanyasa Ashram. It was the final and certain
means of reaching the supreme goal of acquiring a knowledge of the Self and of emancipation
from the bonds of life and death. Though this stage started after 75, but provision existed for
entry into this Ashrama after Brahamacharya or Grihastha ashrama as well.
The person entering the Sanyasa Ashrama was not to possess anything and was not to depend
on anybody. He was to live in the forest, wear bark and to perform five sacrifices every day. He
was not to care for the living or the dead. He restrained his senses by casting away love and
hatred, and by living a life of a harmlessness All these were considered to be sure means for the
attainment of moksha.

According to Vaikhanasa Dharma Sutra, the last stage or ashrama vas meant only for a
Brahmana, who according, to the Kama-constitution of Indian Society, is required to pass
through a more rigorous Course of self-denial and discipline than the others, and is thus better
fitted to take up this life of absolute surrender to the ideal, taking into no account the severe
physical endurance and hardship demanded of him in ripe old age. The Vaishyas were expected
to follow only the first two stages and end his life as grihastha or householder.

Sanskaras or Sacraments:
Another outstanding feature of the social life in ancient India was the observance of a large
number of sanskaras or personal ceremonies in the life of the individual. These sanskaras
started long before the birth of the child and continued until he entered grihastha ashrama. At
least three ceremonies were performed before the birth of the child viz. garbhaadharana to
promote conception, pumsavana to procure male child, and simantonnayana to ensure the
safety of the child in the womb.

Explaining the significance of these purificatory rites Manu says “With holy rites prescribed by
the Veda must the ceremony on conception and other sacraments be performed; for the twice-
born men, which sanctify the body in this life and after death.” At the time of the birth
jatakarma ceremony was performed. It was performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord
and included the whispering the mantras in the baby’s ear, giving him a mixture of honey and
ghee. This was followed by namakarna (naming of the child) and niskramana (showing the sun
for the first time.)
In the sixth month the annaprasana ceremony was performed and the child was given meat,
fish or rice mixed with curds, honey and ghee along with the recitation of the Vedic verses. The
chudakarma (tonsure ceremony) took place in the third year. This ceremony was meant only
for the boys and on this occasion child’s scalp was shaved leaving only a topknot. Another
ceremony was performed when the child first began learning of the alphabet.

It may be noted that most of the sanskars were meant for male children. It is doubtful if they
were performed in the case of girls even in the higher classes. In fact from the earliest times
possession of a son was considered absolutely essential for the performance of funeral rites for
his father and to ensure his safe transit to the other world. The Indo-Aryan family organization
being patriarchal, a son was also considered necessary for the continuance of family’s line.

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The rite of upanayanna which signified the second birth of the person (as a number of his
class), was confined to the Brahmans, Kshatriyas and vaishyas, and the sudras were excluded
from it. The kernel of the ceremony was investing of the boy with the sacred thread
(yajnopavita), which he was expected to wear continuously from that day onwards. This
ceremony was also confined to boys, though in the Vedic times the girls were also sometimes
initiated.

Family :
The family was the basic unit of social organisation in ancient India. The family at that time was
usually a joint family in which brothers, uncles, cousins, nephews, etc. lived under one roof as
one group and were closely linked with each other.

They even owned immovable property in-common. In addition to the blood relations the
ancient Indian family also included adopted children, servants, domestic serfs etc. The family of
a Brahaman included a number of students as well.

The rite of saraddha played an important part in binding the members from the common
ancestors. At the time of the performance of this rite the sons, grandsons and great-grandsons
of the deceased were present, which naturally bound them together and proved to be a potent,
force in keeping the family united.

Usually the eldest male member was the head of the house and administered joint property.
However in Kerala the headship rested with the eldest female member. The head of the family
usually enjoyed very extensive powers.

He could behave in most arbitrary manner except in so far his authority was restricted by the
sacred law and custom. We have a number of legends stating that the father enjoyed the
power of life and death over their sons and sacrificed them. However this is not confirmed by
other sources. In fact Kautaliya in his Arthasastra looks on the killing of a son among the most
heinous forms of murder.

Marriage :
Marriage was considered to be a sacred bond of union between a male and a female for their
eternal progress through the performance of their duties, through dharma. The martial union
was considered to be a divine dispensation which none of the two parties could dissolve. The
marriage usually took place when a person became Sanatak after the completion of education.
It was considered to be a positive duty and was undertaken for three reasons—promotion of
religion by performance of household sacrifices; progeny for the continuation of the lineage;
and rati or sexual pleasure.

The marriage was generally arranged by the parents of the couple in consultation with the
Brahmans taking into account the various omens, horoscopes and auspicious physical
characteristics. “Usually marriages were held within the same class and caste. The marriages
took place when the boy completed his education and the girl had not reached the age of

15
puberty. The marriage was solemnized through very complicated ceremonies. It was quite an
expensive affair and the expenses were met by the father of the girl. The bridegroom along
with his friends and relatives proceeded to the house of the bride, where he was received by
her father and offered madhuparka, a drink made of honey and curd. The actual ceremony of
marriage took place in a special pavilion in the accompaniment of sacred verses. The, father of
the bride formally gave the daughter to the groom, who promised to observe the principles of
piety, wealth and pleasure. They took seven rounds of the mandpa together and the marriage
was solemnized.

The text books have mentioned eight types of marriages, which were named after various gods.

These were Brahma, marriage of a duly dowered girl to man of the same class; Daiva, when a
householder gave a daughter to a sacrificial priest as part of his fee; Arsa in which a token
bride-price was paid in the shape of a cow and a bull; Prajapatya, in which the father gave the
girl without dowry and without demanding bride-price; Gandharava, marriage by the consent
of the two parties, this was a sort of clandestine type of marriage; Asura, marriage by purchase;
Rakshasa, marriage by capture; and Paishacha or seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally
deranged or drunk. Of these the first four types of marriages were permissible to the Brahmans
and were indissoluble. The other forms were looked on with different degrees of disfavor.

As a householder a person was supposed to devote himself to the attainment of three ends of
life viz. dharma, artha and kama. Dharma implied gaining religious merit through following the
sacred law. Artha meant gaining wealth by honest means and Kama implied pleasures of all
kinds. The three ends of life were in descending order of importance and in case of conflict
between them the higher was to be given priority.

According to the Sacred Law the marriage once solemnized was indissoluble, even it was not
consummated. Divorce was practically impossible. A wife guilty of wrongful acts lost her rights
and was not entitled to remarry.

However, her husband was responsible to make provision for her maintenance. Though the
religious law-books leave no room for divorce, Arthasastra says it was possible if the marriage
had not been solemnized according to the religious rites. In such cases divorce by mutual
consent could be possible. A divorce in a marriage performed according to religious rites could
also be possible if the husband deserted the wife. However, she was to wait for a period
ranging between one to twelve years, according to the circumstances and the class. In the
Gupta period divorce was virtually non-existent among the members of the higher classes.
However, the members of the lower castes were permitted by their customs to practice
divorce. Though the ordinary people of India were monogamous (one husband having one wife)
the polygamy was not fully unknown. The kings and chiefs as well as rich members of the
society were often polygamous. But the Dharma Sutras were certainly against polygamy. A
person having more than one wife was considered disqualified to testify before the court. The
polyandry, the reverse of polygamy, was also not completely unknown, although it was not

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practiced by the people of respectable classes. The best example of the polyandry is provided
by the marriage of Draupadi to the five Pandava brothers.

However a person was encouraged to have second or even third wife if the first and the second
were barren, so that he could have a son. Similarly if the husband was sterile he had to take
other measures. One of the extreme measures was that he could appoint a close relative,
usually a brother, to produce offspring on his behalf. In the Epic stories we get references of the
assistance being sought from the holy persons for this purpose.

Purushartha :

Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ, Puruṣārtha) literally means an "object of human pursuit". It is a key

concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The
four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic
values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values,
self-actualization).
All four Purusharthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more
important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy. Moksha is considered the ultimate ideal of
human life. At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have
different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.
Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit
of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake
of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free,
dharma-driven action", also called Nishkama Karma as a possible solution to the tension.
Puruṣārtha (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha (पुरुष)
and Artha (अर्थ). Purusha means "spirit”, "immaterial essence", or "primaeval human being as
the soul and original source of the universe".,depending on the darsana, the school of
thought. Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning".
Together, Purushartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit".
Purushartha is also referred to as Chaturvarga. It is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that
every human has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for a fulfilling and happy
life.

 Dharma – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that
makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right
way of living. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each
individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are
virtuous. Dharma, according to van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept
and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states van Buitenen, the
pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic
concert.
 Artha – signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a
state one wants to be in. Artha incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living,
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 financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an
important aim of human life in Hinduism.
 Kama – signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses,
the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without sexual
connotations. Gavin Flood explains kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral
responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual
liberation).
 Moksha – signifies emancipation, liberation or release. In some schools of
Hinduism, moksha connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth, in other
schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this
life.

Position of Women in Ancient India:

The position of women was not identical throughout ancient period. But mostly the woman
could not lead a free life and she lived under the tutelage of her parents, her husband or her
sons. The early law books treated the women as equivalent to the Sudra. However this did not
effect the position of the women in the family. Manu, who was no advocate of the rights of
women, also said that gods live in joy where women are revered and if a husband abandoned
the wife without sufficient reason, he should be expelled from the caste by the ruler. The high
esteem in which the wife was held during the Vedic age is evident from the fact that she was
considered the half that completed the husband. The wife assisted the husband not only in his
secular duties, but also at the altar. The husband and wife together were supposed to keep the
household fire burning so that the daily offering of the Agnihotra could be carried on. If a
person lost his wife he was either expected to bring another wife to keep the sacred fire
burning or else to retire and take to Vanaprastha Ashrama.

No religious rites and rituals could be performed, without the wife. The Rig-Veda relates us a
story of a Grihapati who left his wife because of her impertinence and went away for practicing
penance but the God explained to him that he could not perform the penance without his wife.
In addition to an important position in the family the women actively participated in the various
social activities. This is confirmed by the ancient Indian sculptures in which women are shown
with their husbands in a number of religious and secular functions. The women also took active
part in the religious activities, though they could not officiate as priests. In the literary sphere
also the women made valuable contribution.

Unlike the medieval and modern times women were encouraged to learn singing, dancing and
other arts like painting and garland- making. Dancing was not merely the profession of the low-
caste women and prostitutes, but ladies from respectable families also took keen interest in it.
we can say that though the freedom of the women was considerably restricted, it was not
completely denied to them. One of the chief duties of the woman was to bear children and to
rear them up. In view of the other duties the women were exempted from duties concerning
moral purification or spiritual advancement. It was believed that a woman attained purification
and reached the goal by associating herself with her husband in the religious exercises, in the

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worship through sacrifices and vows etc. The women were too much dependent on men for
protection and were not supposed to take any initiative in this period. Widow remarriage was
not favoured and it was considered a sacrilege and adultery. The Sati system was probably also
in vogue. The Greek writers have recorded the incidents of widows burning themselves alive
along with the dead pyre of her husband.

The women were permitted to have personal property in the form of jewellery and clothing.
The Arthasastra permits a woman to have money up to 2,000 silver panas (Ik.k). The amounts
in excess of this limit were held by the husband as a trust on behalf of the wife. The property of
a woman could be used by the husband only in case of dire necessity. He could also exercise
check on his wife if she wantonly gave away her property. After the death of a woman the
property passed to the daughters (not to the husband or the sons). When there were no sons,
the widow inherited the property of the husband. Thus we find that the position of women in
ancient India was not that bad as is depicted in the Smritis.

Slavery in Ancient India:

The institution of slavery also existed in ancient India, although it operated in much milder form
than in the ancient civilizations of the West. Its operation was at a such low key that foreign
travellers like Megasthenes did not note it, for we do not get any reference in this account
about slavery. In fact there was no caste of slaves as such, because servitude was not in the
nature of the Aryans. The persons belonging to all castes could become slaves. For example a
free man (arya) could become a temporary slave if he failed to pay a fine or the costs of a law -
suit or if he was carried off in a raid. Similarly, if a man left his caste to enter a monastic order
and then left the order or never entered it, he became a slave of the King. An Aryan became a
permanent slave only when he himself sold his person.

The institution of slavery originated in India when the Aryans captured a number of dasas (nkl)
in the battle. According to Mahabharata it is a law of war that the vanquished should become
slave of the victor and should serve his captor until ransomed.

However in course of time certain other categories of slaves also came into existence. For
example children born to a slave automatically became the slaves of the same masters. A free
man could sell himself and his family into slavery in times of dire distress. Similarly, a person
could be reduced to slavery on account of crime or debt. However, in these cases the servitude
was of a temporary nature. Thus we find that in later times a number of classes of slavery came
into existence. We find reference in the Smriti literature and elsewhere about the various types
of slavery. Broadly speaking there were four types of slaves—born in the house, bought,
captured in raid, and inherited.

The duties of the slaves of all the four categories were identical viz. obedience to the master
and the obligation to serve him in the matter of work. The slaves generally acted as domestic
servants and personal attendants, although sometimes they were- required to assist the master
in agriculture or mining. The master looked after the slave as a subordinate member of his
household. The masters were expected to maintain them and even to perform the last rites of

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the slave if he died without leaving a son. The slaves were bought and sold like ordinary
commodities. They could also be loaned or given away. However, the masters possessed no
right over their lives. The masters had a duty to look after the-claves when they were old, and
could not abandon them.

Thus we find that as compared to other ancient civilizations the lot of the slave in ancient India
was much better. It was ordained for the master that he “may go short himself or stint his wife
and children, but never his slave, who does his dirty work for him”. The masters were
encouraged to release the slaves and manumission of slaves was considered to be a pious act.
The Arthasastra emphasised on the need of liberal treatment of the slaves and laid down
numerous regulations for the purpose. It forbade the sale of the children as slaves, except in
dire emergency. The slaves were to be free to inherit property and do anything to raise money
during their spare time. Slave girls were assured decent treatment. A master raping slave girl
was expected to free her and pay her necessary compensation. If a slave-girl got a child by her
master, both the mother and the child were set free.

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