Look for at least 3 learning Theories that are related to Facilitating Learner

Centered Teaching.

1. Discuss the each theory ( Author, background, and its descriptions.

2. What is its educational implications?

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

One of the five main learning theories is the cognitive learning theory, which
focuses on how knowledge and memory are processed inside. From teaching
infants to teaching adults who are picking up new skills on the job, cognitive
learning has applicability in all educational settings.

Understanding cognitive learning can aid educators in creating successful

lesson designs. The theory's fundamental ideas can assist everyone else
better grasp how the mind functions and how to improve learning.

The idea of cognition, which is defined as "all conscious and unconscious

processes by which knowledge is accumulated, such as perceiving,
recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning," is at the core of the cognitive
learning theory.

Cognitive theorists define "knowledge" as the cognitive processing of what

something is and is not, from ideas as basic as a young child identifying
animals from a picture book to something more complicated like calculating
the benefits and drawbacks of consuming meat.

From his studies of newborns and young children, psychologist Jean Piaget
created the first cognitive psychology theories in the 1930s. The dominant
psychological paradigm at the time, behaviorism, only paid attention to
behaviors that were visible to others. These behaviors, according to
behaviorists, were brought about by how a person interacted with acts and
circumstances outside of their control.

Piaget promoted a different viewpoint. Instead, he concentrated his study and

writing on interior thought processes. He believed that people are complex
beings who process and store information about the environment as well as
react to it.

The educational implication of Piaget's theory is the adaptation of instruction

to the learner's development level. It is important that the content of
instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner.

The teachers main role is the facilitation of learning by providing various

experiences for the students. "Discovery Learning" allows opportunities for
students to explore and experiment, while encouraging new understandings.
Opportunities that allow learners of different cognitive levels to work together
often help encourage less mature students to advance to a higher
understanding of the material. One future implication for the instruction of
students is the use of hands on experiences to help students learn (Wood,
2008).

There are four main teaching implications drawn from Piaget's theory (Slavin,
2005):
1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead
of simply checking for a correct answer, teachers should emphasize the
student's understanding and process they used to get the answer.
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiated, active involvement
in learning activities. In a Piagetian classroom, children are encourage to
discover themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment,
rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.
3. A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adult like in their
thinking.This refers to what Piaget referred to as the "American question"
which is "How can we speed up development?". His belief is that trying to
speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse
than no teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's
theory asserts that children go through all the same developmental stages,
however they do so at different rates. Because of this, teachers must make
special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of
children rather than for the whole class group.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The Bandura social learning theory places a strong emphasis on observing

and imitating the actions, attitudes, and feelings of others. According to
Bandura (1977), learning would be extremely time-consuming and dangerous
if people had to only rely on their own activities' results to guide them in
making decisions. Fortunately, the majority of human behavior is acquired by
modeling and observation: through studying others, one develops an
understanding of how new behaviors are carried out, and this coded
information later on acts as a guide for action.

According to the social learning hypothesis, environmental, behavioral, and

cognitive forces constantly interact to shape human behavior. (1) Attention,
including modeled events' distinctness, affective valence, complexity,
prevalence, and functional significance; and (2) observer characteristics make
up the component mechanisms underlying observational learning (sensory
capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement),(2) Retention,
which includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal,
and motor rehearsal; (3) Motor Reproduction, which includes physical
capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback; and (4)
Motivation, which includes external, vicarious, and self-reinforcing feedback.

Social learning theory covers both cognitive and behavioral frameworks since
it takes into account attention, memory, and motivation. The strictly
behavioral interpretation of modeling offered by Miller & Dollard is improved
by Bandura's theory (1941). The theories of Vygotsky and Lave, which
likewise place a strong emphasis on social learning, are related to Bandura's
work.

Television ads are one of the most prevalent and typical instances of social
learning settings. In advertisements, it's implied that consuming a specific
beverage or employing a specific hair wash can increase our popularity and
earn the respect of attractive individuals. Depending on the component
processes at play (such as motivation or attention), we may imitate the action
depicted in the advertisement and purchase the offered product.

PRINCIPLES
1. By organizing and practicing the modeled behavior symbolically first, before
acting it out in plain sight, the highest level of observational learning is
accomplished. Better memory is achieved by coding modeled behavior into
words, labels, or visuals than by merely witnessing.

2. People are more likely to imitate a behavior if it produces results they

value.

3. People are more likely to imitate a behavior if the model is like them, has a
respectable status, and the behavior has practical value.

Educational implications of Bandura’s Social learning theory

Bandura’s Social learning theory has numerous classroom implications-

1. Students learn by simply observing others, so we teachers are the role

model for students we must be good at Mannering in front of children.
2. Describing the consequences of behaviour increasing appropriate
behaviour, decreasing inappropriate behaviours; this includes discussing the
rewards of various behaviours.
3. Modelling such as attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
provides an alternative to teaching new behaviours.
4. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing a task, it is
important to develop a sense of self-efficacy
5. Teachers should help students self realistic expectations; ensure that
expectations are realistic and challenging
6. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving
students’ behaviours.
7. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and be careful
that they do not model inappropriate behaviour
8. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This
technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg was a pioneer in the study of moral

formation. Kohlberg proposed a six-stage model for how moral judgments are
formed in humans, building on Jean Piaget's original ideas. Kohlberg spoke
with boys between the ages of 10 and 16 to test his theory. He then
examined how they would defend their choice in light of several fictitious
moral conundrums. Kohlberg proposed that humans move through the
phases in a hierarchical order as their cognitive capacities develop by
superimposing the participants' arguments onto their cognitive development.

According to Lawrence Kohlberg's thesis, there are six phases to the

development of moral thinking. Three levels—Pre-Conventional, Conventional,
and Post-Conventional—define the stages themselves. Imagine a conflict at
school to better comprehend this.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral

development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young
children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning.
According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.6
Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange

stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that
best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social
rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and
adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role
models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the
norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as

the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles.6 There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice,"
and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that

social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin
to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on
maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and
respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract
and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for
the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree
upon these standards.

Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is

based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage,
people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules.

EXAMPLE:
In the schoolyard, there is fighting. Tom is being assaulted by two ninth
students. People who witness the battle are at various moral developmental
stages. Let's see what they do and how they defend it.

STAGE 1: OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT

At stage one, we make moral judgments based on obedience and
punishment. Finn’s sense of good and bad is directly linked to whether he
gets punished or not. Finn sees what is happening to his friend and wants to
help. He doesn’t, however, because he is afraid the teacher may punish him if
he gets caught fighting. He asks himself, how can I avoid punishment?

STAGE 2: SELF-INTEREST
At stage two, we are motivated by self-interest. Mary decides to intervene
and help Tom. She knows that she might get punished, but she also knows
that she could become a victim herself, someday. If she helps Tom now, he
might help her in the future. She is asking herself: What’s in it for me?

STAGE 3: INTERPERSONAL ACCORD AND CONFORMITY

At stage three, interpersonal accord and conformity guide our moral
judgments. Betty sees the fight and wants to intervene, but when she realizes
that all the others are just watching, she decides not to get involved. She
wants others to see that she is a good girl, who is conforming with the ethics
of the community. She asks herself: What do others think of me?

STAGE 4: AUTHORITY AND MAINTAINING SOCIAL ORDER

At stage four, we value authority and want to maintain social-order. When the
teacher sees the group fighting, he immediately steps in and shouts: “Stop,
fighting at school is forbidden!”. He feels that, above all, it is important to
follow the rules, otherwise chaos breaks out and that it is his duty to uphold
the rules that sustain a functioning society. The teacher at that moment asks
himself: How can I maintain law and order?
STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT
At stage five, we understand rules as a social contract as opposed to a strict
order. Jessy, who watches from afar, is not sure how she feels about this. To
her, rules make sense only if they serve the right purpose. Obviously, the
school rules prohibit fighting, but maybe Tom deserves to finally learn his
lesson. Just yesterday he punched a young girl from grade one. She asks
herself: Does a rule truly serve all members of the community?

STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

At stage six, we are guided by universal ethical principles. All those involved
now have to face the headmaster. He first explains the school rules, and why
they exist. He then clarifies that rules are valid only if they are grounded in
justice. The commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
unjust rules. The headmaster’s highest moral principle is compassion. He
believes that all people should learn to understand each other’s viewpoints
and that they don’t feel alone with their feelings. He asks: What are the
abstract ethical principles that serve my understandings of justice?

PRE - CONVENTIONAL
At the pre - conventional level, Finn is driven by fear and Mary by self-
interest. Both judge what is right or wrong by the direct consequences they
expect for themselves, and not by social norms. This form of reasoning is
common among children.

CONVENTIONAL
At the conventional level, Betty responds to peer pressure, and the teacher
follows the rules. Their morality is centered around what society regards as
right. At this level, the fairness of rules is seldom questioned. It is common to
think like this during adolescence and adulthood.

POST-CONVENTIONAL
At the post-conventional level, Jessy knows that things are complicated
because individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own morality.
The headmaster follows a universal ethical idea, at complete disconnect with
what society thinks or the rules say. To him everything is solved through
compassion. The right behavior in his opinion, is therefore never a means to
an end, but always an end in itself. Not every person reaches this level.

The concerns on which Kohlberg has laid emphasis in his theory have
important implications for education which are as follows:

1. Application of General Learning Principles

It is important to note that Kohlberg’s Theory was based on concepts that

were neither completely unknown to teachers nor were increasingly new.
Instead, he applied general learning principles with regard to the moral
growth of an individual.

For instance, from the idea of readiness for learning, he designed a

theoretical as well as a practical framework that he claimed was the
foundation for understanding and encouraging moral development.

Further, Kohlberg made use of the Problem Solving approach for identifying
the level of moral development of an individual as well as for its further
enhancement.

He used moral dilemmas, that is, situations where the right or wrong moral
decision is not explicit. Thus, through these moral dilemmas, Kohlberg
directed his participants towards moral reasoning.

Now, while in the process of reaching a proper solution for a particular

dilemma, the participant analyzed in detail his current level of moral
development.

In addition to this, he was also vulnerable to a higher level of reasoning so

that he could reach a proper solution to the dilemma.

Thus, the imbalance created by the moral dilemma and the vulnerability to
higher levels of moral reasoning, lead a person towards a more proper
solution and also gave him a just and a fair framework which he could use to
solve the future problems.

Therefore through these general principles, Lawrence Kohlberg was able to

come out with a framework for moral development. This made moral
educators understand the importance of readiness to learn and problem-
solving in the moral development of an individual.

2. Educating Students How To Think?

Through the moral dilemma approach, Lawrence Kohlberg taught children
how to think? Teaching students how to think typically must be the goal of
formal education.

Therefore, through an imaginary situation, students were asked to:

 Understand the details of the moral dilemma given

 Point out important concerns,
 Use past learning to solve the problem at hand
 Come up with various decisions that they would take
 Check the accuracy of the alternative decisions
 Come up with the most appropriate solution to the problem

Thus, through this moral dilemma method, Kohlberg proposes to apply

cognitive thinking for the moral development of individuals.
3. Focus On Student Activity and Discovery
The moral dilemma approach used by Lawrence Kohlberg encourages student
engagement and activity. Such an approach does not simply involve teachers
spelling out moral principles and thus looking forward to student’s
understanding and agreeing to them.

Instead, teachers put the students in various situations, and in place of telling
them the moral principles themselves, they promote students to come
forward with their understanding of moral dilemmas.

This means that teachers act as facilitators wherein they simply disclose the
details of the moral dilemma to the students and then assist them so that
they can engage students properly.