Growing Up

Growing up as a learner
1. Piagets theory of cognitive development

Cognitive Development: The Theory of Jean Piaget
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to
long-term changes in these processes.
Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able
to think logically and scientifically.
Piaget believed that learning proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new
experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new
experiences).
Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1)
sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking,
and (4) formal operational thinking. Each stage is correlated with an age period of
childhood
The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2

In Piaget’s theory, the sensorimotor stage occurs first, and is defined as the period when
infants “think” by means of their senses and motor actions.
The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7

In the preoperational stage, children use their new ability to represent objects in a wide
variety of activities, but they do not yet do it in ways that are organized or fully logical.
One of the most obvious examples of this kind of cognition is dramatic play, or the
improvised make-believe of preschool children.
The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11

As children continue into elementary school, they become able to represent ideas and
events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult
standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems
more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic
tasks.
The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond

In the last of the Piagetian stages, the child becomes able to reason not only about
tangible objects and events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones. Hence, it has the
name formal operational stage—the period when the individual can “operate” on “forms”
or representations. With students at this level, the teacher can pose hypothetical (or
contrary-to-fact) problems: “What if the world had never discovered oil?” or “What if the
first European explorers had settled first in California instead of on the East Coast of the
United States?”
2. Define mechanisms in education

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This expression is used by Engelmann and Carnine to situate the learning process of the
learner. The mechanism is assumed to have two properties: (1) to have the capacity to
learn qualities from examples, and (2) to have the capacity to generalize on the basis of
sameness of quality.
3. Who was propounder of drive theory of motivation

The drive reduction theory of motivation became popular during the 1940s and 1950s as
a way to explain behavior, learning, and motivation. The theory was created by
behaviorist Clark Hull and further developed by his collaborator Kenneth Spence.
4. Who gave the concept of mental age
The concept of 'Mental age' was introduced by Alfred Binet, a French psychologist.
According to Binet, 'Intelligence means the capacity to judge well, to reason well, and to
comprehend well'
5. Different kinds of reinforcement
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a technique that is responsible for learned
behavior. Reinforce means to strengthen or to encourage.
The four types of reinforcement include:
Positive reinforcement: This involves adding something to increase response, such as praising a
child when they complete a designated task. This would motivate the child to get
involved in the task.
Negative reinforcement: This involves removing something to increase response, such as
withholding payment until the person completes the job. The person would remain
motivated till the end of the job to acquire the payment.
Punishment: This involves adding something aversive to modify behavior. For example, yelling
at a child for misbehaving. In this example, the child would associate every negative
behavior with punishments. This would prevent the child from repeating such behavior.
Extinction: This involves removing or taking away something to modify a certain response.
This is called negative punishment or extinction. For instance, a teenager comes home
late, and the parents curb their phone usage. Next time, the teenager would think before
breaking the curfew.
6. What is teaching and learning?
Teaching can be defined as engagement with learners to enable their understanding and
application of knowledge, concepts and processes while learning is the acquisition of
knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught.
1. Teaching is an act of sharing knowledge, skills and values with others.
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2. It involves planning, strategizing and presenting.
3. Teachers are responsible for controlling the flow of information, pace and structure of the
teaching process.
4. In the process of teaching, the interaction is often one-way, from teacher to student, but
can be interactive.
5. A teacher is responsible for providing clear, accurate and engaging material.
1. Learning is a process where a learner acquires knowledge, skills and values.

2. It involves active and passive absorption of information, along with processing
knowledge.
3. Learners control their engagement, interpretation and application of information.
4. Primarily internal, within the learner, but can involve interaction with teachers and peers.
5. A learner, on the other hand, should pay attention, understand and apply knowledge
responsibly.
7. Discuss Rorschach test of personality assessment in detail
The Rorschach test is a projective psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of
inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex
algorithms, or both. Some psychologists use this test to examine a person's personality
characteristics and emotional functioning.
This psychological test can help doctors analyze your personality and was once used to
diagnose mental illnesses like schizophrenia. Doctors often use tools and rating systems
to ensure accuracy and consistency when making a psychological diagnosis.
The basic idea of this is that when a person is shown an ambiguous, meaningless image
(ie an inkblot) the mind will work hard at imposing meaning on the image. That meaning
is generated by the mind.
The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective assessment in which subjects look at 10
ambiguous inkblot images and describe what they see in each one. In the Rorschach
inkblot test, the person is asked to describe what they see in ambiguous inkblot images.
The therapist then interprets the person's answers.
8. Difference between the law of effect and law of exercise
The six laws of learning are suitable for most learning situations.
Law of Readiness: Students learn best when they have the necessary background, a good
attitude and is ready to learn…clear objectives and rational are key.
Law of Exercise: Those things most repeated are the best learned…lots of review and
summary activities serve to help the mind learn.
Law of Effect: Based upon the feelings of the learning; learning is stronger when joined
with a pleasing feeling…make it fun and pleasant (start with liking it yourself!!) Law of
Primacy: First impressions are strong impressions…think about how to make the first
impression positive (enthusiasm, organization, appropriate feedback).
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Law of Intensity: A sharp, clear, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a
routine or boring one…demonstrations, skits, role playing, peer teaching get the students
engaged.
Law of Recency: Other things being equal, the things learned last will be best
remembered…repeat, restate, reemphasize the objectives.
Principles of learning, also known as laws of learning, are readiness, exercise, effect, primacy,
recency, intensity and freedom. These are discussed below and they should help you in
designing and conducting your health education sessions.
6.3.1 Readiness
Readiness implies a degree of willingness and eagerness of an individual to learn something
new. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn
— and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting the audience ready to
learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter and providing continuous
mental or physical challenge is usually the health educator’s responsibility. Since learning is an
active process, the audience must have adequate rest, health, and physical comfort while
learning.
6.3.2 Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things that are most often repeated are the ones that
are best remembered. Your audience will learn best and retain information longer when they
have meaningful practice and repetition. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only
when it is followed by positive feedback.
The human mind is forgetful and it can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or
practices after a single exposure. Audiences will not learn complex tasks in a single session.
They learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs,
learning continues. The health educator must repeat important items of subject matter at
reasonable intervals and provide opportunities for the audience to practice while making sure
that this process is directed towards learning something new.
6.3.3 Effect
The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling — and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
The learner will strive to continue learning as long as it provides a pleasant effect. Positive
reinforcement is more likely to lead to success and motivate the learner — so as a health
educator you should recognise this feature and tell your audience how well they are doing.
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One of the important obligations of the health educator is to set up the learning situation in such
a manner that each person being taught will be able to see evidence of their own progress and
achieve some degree of success.
6.3.4 Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong impression which may be very difficult
to change. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.
‘Unteaching’ or erasing from the mind incorrect first impressions is harder than teaching them
correctly in the first place. If, for example, a mother is taught a faulty technique about
preparation of replacement feeding (formula, instead of breastfeeding), you as a health educator
will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and ‘reteaching’ correct ones.
The learner’s first experience should be positive, functional and lay the foundation for all that is
to follow. As a health educator you should present your subject matter in a logical order, step by
step, making sure the audience has already learned and understood the preceding step.
6.3.5 Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
Conversely, the further a learner is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the
more difficult it is to remember. For example, it is easier for a mother to recall what children
were fed this morning than to remember what they were fed three days ago.
Information acquired most recently generally is remembered best; frequent review and
summarising will help fixing in the audience’s mind topics that have been covered. To that end,
the health educator should repeat, restate or re-emphasise important points at the end of a lesson
to help the audience remember them.
6.3.6 Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear,
dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The
principle of intensity implies that a learner will learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute.
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Growing up as a learner

1. Piagets theory of cognitive development

The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to Age 2

The Preoperational Stage: Age 2 to 7

The Concrete Operational Stage: Age 7 to 11

The Formal Operational Stage: Age 11 and Beyond

2. Define mechanisms in education

3. Who was propounder of drive theory of motivation

The four types of reinforcement include:

1. Learning is a process where a learner acquires knowledge, skills and values.

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