CE ARTICLE

SECTION EDITOR: FRANCES CHILDRE, MS, RNC, ANP, COHN-S

Project Management Skills

by Karen H. Perce, MBA, RN, COHN-S

P
roject management is a concept long used by engi- built using the principles of project management (Cle-
neering and business colleagues to manage con- land, 1994). In the late 1950s and 1960s, increasingly
struction, product launches, and computer program complex defense and aerospace projects, such as the
development projects. The phases of project management Polaris submarine construction and the race to put a man
and associated tools are applicable to any discipline on the moon, required more sophisticated management
required to manage implementation of new programs or tools. This era was the impetus for formalizing the cur-
initiatives. Health programs implemented and managed rent discipline of project management.
by occupational and environmental health nurses can
While a number of project management tools are
benefit from these skills and tools.
based on commonly known Total Quality and Statistical
For example, implementing a new Employee Assis-
Process Control (SPC) tools, some also were developed
tance Program (EAP) or worksite wellness program
by the military and industry. In the late 1950s the
requires organizational skills that maximize efficiency
military developed the Program Evaluation and Review
and cooperation from business associates outside of the
technique (PERT), and the DuPont Company developed
health unit. Effective project management skills are a
the critical path method (CPM) (Kerzner, 1992).
val- ued commodity in today’s fast paced and demanding
Today, project management processes and tools are
business environment, and having them will only
commonly used in launching new products for consumer
increase the nurse’s value to management and business.
production, construction projects of buildings and new
Project management is very broad, and its practice
homes, and in computer programming for new software
varies by the type of business, organization, and projects.
programs and products. Many different project manage-
This article focuses on the application of project man-
ment process models are available for use. Companies
agement in internal organizational projects a nurse in the
and organizations tend to adopt a process or model of
workplace is most likely to lead, encounter, or observe.
project management that best fits their situation and
busi- ness activities.
HISTORY OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT As the field of project management has matured, it
It is surmised that the project management process is no longer a skill just for technical specialists and engi-
goes back to ancient times. The Great Wall of China, neers. Rather, it now requires highly developed behav-
Roman buildings and roads, and Egyptian pyramids ioral management skills, as well as those that are quanti-
were tative and technical (Cleland, 1994). As project manage-
ment gains acceptance in the future, more use will be
evi-
dent within all types of industries and organizations.
Increasingly, it is being used in projects involving health
care and human services. Behavioral skills in areas such
Ms. Perce is Personnel Manager Procter & as verbal and non-verbal communication, reflective lis-
tening, and conflict resolution are necessary to becoming
OambIe Company, Iowa Oity, IA. a proficient project manager. Thus, behavioral skills
required of nurses in the workplace are good preparation
for project management assignments.
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WHAT IS A PROJECT? projects and programs that efficiently use scarce resources
A project is defined as a focused work activity that (time, staffing, money). Also, nursing effec-
is temporary, and has a starting point and end point. It
often has time and budget constraints, as well as
performance criteria expectations (Pryor, 1993).
Examples of projects for nurses in the workplace are
health fairs or cancer screenings, establishing an
ergonomics program or blood borne pathogens program.
To illustrate, a health fair has an end point and time
constraint (e.g., the date of the fair), is a temporary
activity, and has a set budget. A health fair also may
have performance criteria, such as setting goals of 20%
employee attendance and 15 ven- dors participating.
These types of nursing projects require significant
preparation and planning to be imple- mented
successfully. Following project implementation, the
program is considered to be in a maintenance mode.

WHAT IS PROJECT MANAGEMENT?

Project management is the process of planning and
managing project tasks and resources, and communicat-
ing the progress and results. This requires coordination
of time, tasks, equipment, people, and money. For
example, to implement a cancer screening program the
nurse needs to establish when the program will be held,
what type of screening (breast, colon, skin, etc.) will be
performed, and how many additional resources are
needed to con- duct the program. The resources involved
may include cancer prevention organizations in the
community, addi- tional staffing, testing equipment, and
additional time and space required to conduct the
program.
Given the well known axiom that there is never
enough time, budget, or resources, if project
management is used successfully the outcome is a
project completed within the desired time, cost, and
performance parame- ters. As a result, resources are
used effectively and effi- ciently, an important value in
today’s business environ- ment of “do more, better,
faster.”

THE BENEFITS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Benefits of using project management include:
• All activities are tracked and monitored.
• Priorities are set.
• Scheduling issues are readily identified.
• Problems are identified early.
• Accomplishments and project outcomes are mea-
sured.
For the nurse in the workplace, using project man-
agement skills will increase contribution to the business
or organization through producing higher quality health
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tiveness on the health management team increases as a
result of using the same concepts and tools fellow
busi- ness managers use.

THE TASKS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The five primary functions of the management
process—planning, organizing, staffing, controlling,
and directing (Goldsmith, 1981) provide the
framework for the following project management
tasks:
• Planning—defining the work requirements, and
orga- nizing the resources and staffing needed to do
the work.
• Tracking—using tools to track project progress and
results.
• Monitoring—regular, periodic evaluation of project
progress and comparing actual project status to the
pre- dicted timeline and results.
• Making adjustments—based on the monitoring of
the project, make changes in tasks or action steps,
resources, or timeline.
• Communicating the project status to appropriate
members of the organization.
The project manager is responsible for
coordinating and monitoring the project management
tasks for the pro- ject to succeed. Usually these tasks
are carried out by all members of the project team, not
just by the project man- ager acting alone.

USING PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN THE

BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

the Project Sponsor

In the business environment, a project generally
has a project sponsor. This is often an upper level
manager who assigns or approves the project initiation.
The pro- ject sponsor frequently funds or provides a
budget for the project and delegates or approves a
project manager as the leader (Kerzner, 1992). The
sponsor role operates best when done “at arms length,”
available to provide guidance as needed, with little day
to day involvement.

The Project /tfanager

The project manager has responsibilities for
formu- lating the project plan and tasks, assigning
resources to complete the tasks, monitoring and
tracking the project completion, timeline, and budget.
Based on an assess- ment of the project’s progress, the
project manager makes adjustments to ensure its
success. The project manager also must effectively
communicate the status of the project on a periodic
basis to the team, sponsor, and appropriate members of
the organization.
A challenge to project managers is the ability to

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function in a matrixed work environment. That is, the

Different types of meetings allow project teams to
members of the project team do not work for the project
use time effectively, thus moving the project forward
manager full time, as a project usually isn’t a full time
without problem solving delays. Meetings should be
job. They most likely have other jobs or duties and
flexible and held only if there is work to be done, rather
report to their own direct manager. As a result, a project
than held for the sake of having a meeting (Kerzner,
man- ager must be highly skilled in negotiation, time
1992).
manage- ment, and be able to lead effective meetings.
STARTING A PROJECT: CREATION OF
The Project team THE PROJECT PLAN
The project team consists of members of the organi- Assuming the project has already been proposed
zation with the expertise and commitment required for and approved or designated for completion, the first
the project. The project manager may recruit members of major step is the creation of the project plan.
the project team or they may be assigned to the team by The simplest way to begin creating a project plan is
others, such as the project sponsor. Because members of to break the project into “natural” phases, listing the
the project team may come from different parts of the major tasks that must be completed at the beginning,
organization and not know each other, effective onboard- middle, and end of the project. However, before begin-
ing strategies followed by team building are crucial for ning it is important to make sure the goals and objectives
ensuring cohesiveness and productivity. of the project are clear (Skelton, 1993). To do this, two
questions must be answered: What is the purpose of the
Project ñfeefings project? What is the project supposed to accomplish or
Project teams may have several different types of achieve?
meetings, including team review or status report meet- Tools that can be used to help with these early pro-
ings, working team meetings, subteam meetings, and ject beginnings are the Project Description Report and a
management review meetings. Statement of Work. A Project Description Report may
A team review or status report meeting is a regular vary depending on the company or organization but
meeting (i.e., weekly, monthly) of all team members for com- monly describes the following (Douglas, 1986):
the purpose of reviewing overall task completion, time- • Project name.
lines, and identifying major barriers or project problems. • Project need and description.
These meetings are well structured with defined agenda • Benefits of the project.
topics, standard reporting processes, and minute taking. • Impact to customers.
Major problems or issues are not usually worked out at • Impact to employees/company.
these meetings, but are assigned to separate “working” • Time and resources needed to complete project.
team meetings devoted to solving the problem. Ideally, • Cost/benefit of the project.
project status meetings are held at the same time and • Estimate of initial costs.
place, have a consistent method of documenting meeting • Financial analysis of the project.
proceedings, and begin and end on time. A Statement of Work (SOW) is a narrative descrip-
“Working” team meetings afford the luxury of tion of the work required for the project. It describes the
devot- ing focused time to working through a problem or tasks and task requirements (Kerzner, 1992). Breaking
issue without the distraction of other project agenda the project down into smaller chunks of work is an easy
items. These tend to be lengthier, requiring pre-work way to think of this. An analogy could be breaking a loaf
such as research and data collection to resolve the issue. of bread into three pieces, and then cutting each piece
Some project issues or problems can be resolved into thinner slices (see Figure l).
only by specific members of the team, and so a “sub- Other tools that can be used to assist with this
team” may be formed. Subteam meetings are those in process are the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and
which certain project team members who have identified the Quality Evolution Chart (QEC). A Work Breakdown
skills and expertise meet separately to solve a project Structure (see Figure 2) is often a list of the project tasks
problem. The subteam reports back to the project team plotted against a Gantt chan (Kerzner, 1992).
on their progress. This is an efficient way to resolve A QEC, also referred to as an SEC or Strategic Evo-
project issues without distracting the entire team from lution Chart, is simply a tree diagram in which each set
other pro- ject activities. of branches is a further breakdown of the successive pro-

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PROJECT NAME: Install On-site Fitness Center

PROJECT TASKS TASK REQUIREMENTS

TIME PEOPLE $

Obtain large enough space for the fitness center

Research other fitness centers 4 days 2weeks
4 2weeks 50
Locate appropriate space 3
Determine room requirements 7

Purchase Fitness Equipment

Tour local exercise facilities and stores 4 days 4 50
Set up the budget 2 days 10weeks
2
Ordering and set up lead time 5 5,000

3. Set up center and install equipment

a. Determine room remodeling needs 2 weeks 4
b. Obtain remodeling resources, do and set up 4 weeks 4 4,700
c. Determine fitness center maintenance ownership 4 weeks 3 200
d. Communicate opening and policies, procedures 4 weeks 2
Figure 1. Statement of work.

PROJECT:
INSTALL FITNE66
CEHTER BY
FEBRUARY
PHASE 1:
TASK 1:
OBTAIN SPACE
RESEARCH SPACE
TASK 2: & EQUIPMENT NEEDS
TASK 3: LOCATE SPACE
DETERMINE ROOM
REQUIREMENTS
PHASE PURCHAS U M NT
TASK 1: DETERMINE EQUIPMENT
TO PURCHASE
TASK 2: SET UP BUDGET
TASK 3: ORDER & RECEIVE
EQUIPMENT
P S U NSTA L
TASK 1: DETERMINE TIME
AND BUDGET
TASK2: OBTAIN MAINTENANCE
RESOURCES
TASK 3: INSTALL CENTER

Figure 2. Work breakdown structure and Gantt chart.

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RESEARCH SPACE &

DETERMINE SQUARE FOOTAGE NEEDS
QUIPMENT NEEDS

DETERMINE EQUIPMENT NEEDED

TALK TO SITE MAINTENANCE MANAGER

OBTAIN LOCATE PACE
SPACE GET OK FROM PLANT MANAGER

DETERMINE OOM NUMBER OF WINDOWS VENTILATION SYSTEMS LOCKER/SH

REQUIREMENTS

DETERMINE QUIPMENT
TOUR LOCAL EXERCISE FACILITIES
TO PURCHASE
“TOUR EQUIPMENT STORE
INSTALL EMPLOYEE FITNESS CENTER
PURCHASE EQUIPMENT SET UP ETERMINE EQUIPMENT COSTS OSTS FOR SUPPLIES
UDGET OSTS FOR ROOM SET UP

DETERMINE LEAD TIME FOR ORDERING EQUIPMENT DE

ORDER EQUIPMENT QUIPMENT SET UP

DETERMINEREMODELING DRYWALL TIME & BUDGETAINTING

“VENTILATION

SET UP CENTER & INSTALL EQUIPMENT

OBTAIN O REMODELING
MAINTENANCE RESOURCES

— “SET UP EQUIPMENT
DETERMINE POLICIES AND COMMUNICATE
ASSIGN CENTER
OWNER & OPEN IT
COMMUNICATE OPENING OF CENTER

Figure 3. Quality Evolution Chart.

ject tasks that must be completed (see Figure 3) or other experts), the project manager must answer the
(Bras- sard, 1989). following questions:
After the project has been broken down into • Which tasks need to be completed before the others?
phases of work (beginning, middle, and end), tools • Which tasks can be completed at the same time?
such as the QEC or WBS may be used to subdivide • Are there any task constraints to be considered?
the phases of work into tasks. A project manager may • Are there multiple tasks that can be completed at
need to consult with the project team members or the same time?
other organizational experts about necessary tasks and • Are there some tasks that can only be done at a
the length of time they may take to accomplish. When cer- tain time or need weeks of advance notice?
the tasks have been defined and their duration • Is there a task that, if left uncompleted, will stop a
determined, the sequence of tasks is decided. project from proceeding?
Using resources as needed (such as the project Next, the project manager must assign team mem-
team

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MONTHS AFTER GO AHEAD

PROGRAM GO AHEAD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

RESEARCH SPACE & EQUIPMENT

LOCATE SPACE

DETERMINE ROOM REQUIREMENTS

DETERMINE EQUIPMENT TO PURCHASE

SET UP BUDGET

ORDER & RECEIVE EQUIPMENT

DETERMINE TIME & BUDGET

OBTAIN MAINTENANCE RESOURCES

INSTALL CENTER

Figure 4. Master schedule and timeline. A master schedule includes the scheduling system, listing of activities, interrela-
tionships between activities, and activity time estimates. A timeline is a chart displaying project activities against time.

bers based on work capacity and capability to work on adjustments to the schedule are often necessary through-
each task. At the same time, the project manager must out a project (Pryor, 1993).
determine equipment and resources needed. For
example, some tasks may require additional staffing, or IMPLEMENT AND MANAGE THE PROJECT
perhaps a piece of equipment needs to be purchased. PLAN
Following this initial planning, a schedule needs to After the project plan has been completed, the
be set. The number of hours, days, or weeks to finish the imple- mentation and management phases begin. The
project needs to be determined, as well as a completion project manager works with the team to ensure tasks are
date. If the completion date or deadline has already been fully developed and achieved while maximizing the use
defined by the organization or customer, then the objec- of resources.
tive is to compress the schedule to meet the deadline The project manager determines how team meetings
date. This may involve doing more tasks concurrently will be conducted, including how often status report
or obtaining more resources (e.g., people, time, meetings and other types of meetings will be held. Team
equipment, or budget) to get the project done on time. member roles and responsibilities must be well defined.
Lastly, the pro- ject plan needs to be reviewed regularly
It is often helpful for the entire team to spend initial
for accuracy as

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12

10

EVENT CODE

@ 0 Receive project go ahead

@ O^Research
@@@@ space
@ and equipment needs Locate space
LEGEND
@ Determine room requirements Detemine equipment to purchase Set up budget
Order and receive equipment Determine time and budget Obtain maintenance resources
Install center TIME = WEEKS
= EVENT
= ACTIVITY
= CRITICAL PATH

Figure 5. CPM/PERT (Critical Pathway Method/Program Evaluation and Review Technique). Visual methods of showing the
networMnterdependencies beMeen project tasks and activities which follows the Work Breakdown Structure. A critical
path is that sequence of activities whose accomplishment will require the greatest expected time.

CAUSES

TOTAL BUDGET DOES NOT iNCLUDE EXTRA

EQUIPMENT NO$1000
LONGER AVAILABLE

NO FLEX IN BUDGET NEW EQUIPMENT COSTS $1000 MORE

NEED ADDITIONAL FUNDING

FoR EeuipMENT

TAKES EXTRA MONTH TO RECEIVE EQUIPMENT

NOT INF PIECE
RMED OF EQUIPMENT CHANGE UNTIL DECEMBER

Figure 6. Fishbone diagram.

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70
A more in-depth way to identify possible conflicts
# of 60
in schedules or task interdependencies is the Critical
Path Method Program Evaluation and Review
Injuries” Technique, or CPM/PERT chart (see Figure 5).
40 Developed in the 1950s, its key benefit is that it
30 identifies the sequence of activi- ties that require the
20 greatest expected amount of time (Kerzner, 1992). The
J0 CPM has traditionally been seen as most helpful in very
complex projects, such as in con- struction or building.
Back Hands Eye Fool Shoulder
PROJECT PROBLEM SOLVING
Body Part Affected Barriers to project problems inevitably occur. For
Figure 7. Pareto chart. A simple way to highlight the
example, perhaps a resource is not available on time,
most important causes of a problem or variation in a resulting in a timeline delay. In these instances, the pro-
process. It is a series of bars whose heights reflect the ject manager must be prepared to provide an explanation
frequency or impact of causes of problems. or decision about what to do next. Problem analysis
methods using visual tools such as the fishbone diagram,
meeting time to reach clarification and agreement on Pareto chan, or pie chart (see Figures 6-8) can provide
these items. Many project teams have been sidelined clarity and make it easier to explain the root causes of
when team members have lost clarity about roles, project problems to a project team or sponsor.
respon- sibilities, and project objectives. Documenting The Gap Analysis is a method to analyze and identi-
the “rules of the team” helps to facilitate understanding. fy the gap between the project plans and results or status
The project manager tracks progress by comparing and needs to be conducted in concert with all individuals
the tasks completed against the schedule, looks for prob- with a vested interest in the project’s success. The cause
lem areas, and adjusts the schedule if needed. Resources and effect of the “gap” is displayed using other tools
are monitored to make sure they are used efficiently and such as a fishbone diagram, Pareto chart, or pie chart.
that any resource conflicts are resolved. Through this A fishbone diagram is a display of the causes of the
tracking and monitoring process, the project manager problem (the ribs of the fish) and the effect of the project
may make decisions related to rearranging tasks, problem (the fish’s head) (Brassard, 1989) (see Figure
substituting resources, or obtaining more help. Regular 6). For instance, a fishbone diagram may be used by a
followup with team members is important; it must never pro- ject manager to show the project’s sponsor the
be assumed a task has been completed without reasons a project is over budget or behind schedule.
verification from the responsible team member. A Pareto chart may be used to show the major caus-
Tools that can be used at this point to enhance team es of a problem broken down into more specific parts. It
efficiency are Master Schedules and Gantt chans (see is a series of bars with heights reflecting the frequency
Fig- ure 4). A Gantt chart, named after Henry Gantt or impact of causes of problems. A nurse in the
(considered one of the fathers of industrial engineering), workplace could use this tool to display the number of
is simply a list of tasks on a y (or vertical) axis plotted workplace injuries and body parts affected to help justify
against a calendar displayed on an x (or horizontal) axis a back safety training program (see Figure 7).
(Pryor, 1993). A Master Schedule is a Gantt chart A pie chart can be used to show the causes of the
displaying the scheduling system, listing of activities, project problem, once the causes have been identified.
and activity time estimates and relationships. When bars Each piece of the “pie” is a cause and is displayed by the
are used as a symbol, a Gantt chart may be referred to as size or percentage of the whole pie. For instance, a pie
a bar chart. Symbols such as diamonds or triangles may chart could be used to show how funding is being used
be used as “milestones” on a Gantt chart, thus referred to in a project (see Figure 8).
as a milestone chart.
By putting tasks in a visual format, it is clear where COMMUNICATE PROJECT STATUS
the overlaps in time and tasks exist. This format is easily As noted previously, it is paramount to
understood by the project team and is an effective way communicate information about the project status on a
to display how the project is going to be accomplished. regular basis to the project team and other appropriate
These tools also are a way to track resource performance members of the organization. Ability to communicate
to make sure project goals are being met. well affects the
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A control chart (also called an Upper Control

Limit/Lower Control Limit) (Salazar, 1989) shows data
charted as the degree of variation in a process or as a
result of an improvement action. The mean is
determined by the arithmetic average, and the upper and
lower control limits are determined by a formula. To
illustrate an example, the nurse could use this tool to
measure the impact of a safety project on an injury
trend, such as implementing a back safety training
program to address an increasing number of back
injuries (see Figure 10).
outcome of the project: Are resource needs met? Is the
completed project well received? To assure a successful THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE
outcome, the project manager determines how best After the project plan is implemented, project man-
(report format, charts) and how often (weekly, monthly, agement is a cycle of reviewing and checking the plan’s
quarterly) to communicate with the project team, spon- progress, making adjustments, and communicating the
sor, interested management, or leadership. project’s progress. The project manager must continue to
The project sponsor is usually interested not only in track progress and monitor resources at whatever
the manner in which the project is progressing, but also frequen- cy matches the timeline for the project. A
the way the budget is being used, especially when any project with a short timeline (i.e., 2 weeks) may need
barriers may require the sponsor’s support. If the project daily follow up with project team members, whereas a 6
affects a large number of employees or the entire organi- month project may only need bi-weekly follow up.
zation, regular interaction through communication vehi- A number of project management computer
cles such as a company newsletter, communication software packages have been developed to assist in
boards, or scheduled department meetings increase the managing the cyclical nature of project management.
chances for a favorable outcome. Before using these software programs, the project
Some of the tools a project manager may use to dis- manager must consider sev- eral questions:
play project progress are time/cost/performance graphs, • How many tasks and resources are required for the
control charts, and milestone charts. These tools are pro- ject?
illus- trated as a reference; not every tool is used in • How long is the project timeline?
every project. A time/cost/performance graph shows • How easy is the software to operate?
comparison between time and cost or completion to • Is the cost of the software justified by the size and
measure and dis- bud- get of the project?
play project status (see Figure 9). A number of software programs are designed for
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• Creating and implementing the project plan.

• Reviewing the project plan on a regular basis.
UCL • Checking it for accuracy and perform any problem
solving or adjustments.
• Implementing any plan adjustments, and checking
2.0
for effectiveness.
• Communicating regularly with the project team, pro-
ject sponsor, and organization about the project’s
progress.
LCL . 1.0 • Continuing to review and check the plan, implement,
and communicate until the project is complete (see
Table).
M A M J A S As the role of the occupational and environmental
MONTHS health nurse expands to meet increased business
expecta- tions and needs, it is critical to develop
management skills that maximize the nurse’s ability to
UCL = Upper Statistical Control Limit
provide quality health programs. Below is a fictitious
LCL = Lower Statistical Control Limit case study illus- trating the use of project management
Figure 10. Control chart of recordable injury rate for back skills in a health promotion enterprise.
injuries.
CASE STUDY
Susan Jones, RN, COHN-S, a new occupational
large projects with greater than 5,000 tasks, such as health nurse at ABC Machinery Company, has received
those seen in complex engineering and computer direction from her plant manager (a fitness enthusiast) to
projects. If the software program takes a great deal of install an employee fitness center at the plant. The plant
time to learn and operate, it may take away valuable manager designated her as the project manager and
time from actual- ly managing the project itself. As a wants to have the center up and running in 6 months.
rule of thumb, it is recommended to consider using a She has been given a budget of $10,000. She realizes
computer software package if the project is greater than that this is modest funding for a fitness center, but was
6 months’ duration, requires more than four resources, told that the funds are only available through the end of
and has over 100 pro- ject tasks to complete (Pryor, the fiscal year in June. Susan is expected to complete
1993). Otherwise, a num- ber of commonly used word this project on time and within budget. She has no
processing computer pro- grams exist that display many project team yet.
of the tools described, such as Gantt charts, timelines,
Pareto charts, and pie charts. Organizing ffie Project Team
Project problem identification must be proactive. Susan knows that one of the first things to do is set
The project manager must always be thinking ahead up a project team. She sends out a request to all depart-
about “what if’ situations and plan accordingly so as to ments for volunteers. She gets six volunteers and
anticipate potential problems or bottlenecks in the pro- realizes she will also need help from the following
ject’s progress. Nevertheless, despite excellent tracking departments: Finance (for budget help), Site
and control, some problems or delays still occur as a Maintenance (for space location and set up), Purchasing
result of issues outside of the project manager’s or (for help with purchas- ing exercise equipment and
team’s control. For instance, perhaps team members are supplies), and Human Resources (for help with fitness
pulled off the project by their direct manager due to center policies and lia- bility issues).
other busi- ness or organizational needs. The project She contacts the volunteers, their direct managers,
manager must decide how to minimize the impact of a and the managers of Finance, Site Maintenance,
lost team mem- ber on the project’s progress. If the Purchasing, and Human Resources. She asks them for
project has been well- managed and documented it will their support as well as about 2 hours per week (she
be easier to rearrange tasks, substitute resources, and estimates) of each individual’s time for project meetings
even provide justification to obtain more help. and activities. The other department managers have
In summary, the project management cycle may be committed to be available to the project team on an as
described as: needed basis.
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Project Team Meeting gave her at the project team meeting, she will need to work
Susan holds the first project team meeting on
Septem- ber 10th. She determines the major phases of
the project are:
• Phase One—Obtain space large enough for the
fitness center.
• Phase Two-Purchase fitness equipment.
• Phase Three—Set up center and install equipment.
During the first team meeting, Susan presents the
objective of the project (to install an employee fitness
center on site by February), and the team decides to meet
every Friday at 2:00 pm. Few of the volunteers have ever
worked together, so they first spend some time talking
about what they do at the company and what they would
like to do for the project. They also discuss other tasks
that must be accomplished for the Statement of Work
(SOW) (see Figure 1) and come up with a list Susan later
puts into a tree diagram (QEC) (See Figure 3).

Creating the Project Plan

Phase One—Obtain Large Enou8h Space for the
Fit- ness Center:
• Research other fitness centers in the community
in terms of how much square footage and equipment is
needed for 20 people to exercise (the team figures that
only 5% of the employees will use the center at the same
time).
• Talk to Site Maintenance Manager to locate an
appro- priate space.
• Determine what room requirements (i.e., windows?,
ventilation systems?, lockers and shower facilities?).
Phase Two—Purchase Fitness Equipment:
• Tour local exercise facilities and exercise equipment
stores to determine what and how much to purchase.
• Set up the budget for purchasing equipment,
supplies, and setting up the room.
• Determine amount of lead time needed for ordering
and setting up equipment.
Phase Three—Set up Center and Install Equipment:
• Determine extent of room remodeling needed (i.e.,
dry walling, painting, ventilation) and the related
time/budget.
• Obtain maintenance resources to complete the
remod- eling and set up the equipment.
• Ensure that someone has ownership for the center to
keep it clean and safe, as well as to track employee use.
• Communicate to the plant when the center opens and
any compliance policies (i.e., sign up sheets, waiver
forms).
From these task lists, Susan puts together a WBS
and Gantt chart (see Figure 2). She realizes that based on
the time estimates that the other department managers
AUGUST 1998, VOL. 46, 4
 C ARTICLE
TABLE
Project Management
Summary Checklist
Is Project /tfanagement /Veez/ez/*
1. Is the work to be accomplished complex?
2. Is there a dynamic/changing environment?
3. Are there constraints on time/people/budget?
4. Do several activities need to be integrated?
5. Does the project cross several functional
boundaries?
If yes to any of the above, use project
mangement.

Step One: Create the Project Plan

1. Break the project into phases of work
(beginning, middle, end).
2. Subdivide phases into tasks.
3. Determine duration of each task.
4. Determine sequence of tasks:
• which tasks need to be completed before the
others?
• which tasks can be completed at the same
time?
• define task constraints.
5. Assign resources.
• who will work on each task?
• what equipment and resources are needed for each
task?
6. Set a schedule.
• define the number hours/days/weeks of the
project.
• if not given, determine the project completion
date.
7. Review the plan and check for accuracy
on a regular basis.
8. Adjust the plan as needed throughout
the project.
(continued on pa8e 400)

quickly on finding a space for the fitness center and pur-

chasing fitness equipment (it will take 3 months).

Implementing and Managing the Project

Plan By the fourth project team meeting, the major
tasks from the WBS have been broken down further
and each

40 AAOHN
 C ARTICLE

team member is responsible for completing some of the

tasks. Two subteams have also been formed: a team of
TABLE CONTINUED four people to tour different fitness centers and exercise
equipment stores, and a team of three people to locate an
Project Management appropriate space at the plant site.
Summary Checklist In October, the vendor and type of equipment has
been determined by the team, as well as a location for
Step Two: /mp/emenf and Manage the center, a vacated office adjacent to the locker rooms.
1. Implement the plan with your project team
and participants. Communicating Project Status
• determine when/how often you will have status In November, the equipment is selected and
report meetings, working meetings. ordered. In addition, Susan has met with the Plant Man-
ager to review the status of the project using her WBS
2. Track progress. and QEC charts, as well as a breakdown of the budget
• determine what tracking tools to use for the project. She has also sent out a communication in
(Gantt, timeline, milestone, control the company newsletter informing employees of the
charts). progress of the fitness center installation and when it
• compare progress of plan schedule to original. will be available for use.
• look for problem areas.
• adjust the schedule if needed. Project Problem Solving
3. Monitor resources. Everything seems to be going well, except when
• make sure resources are used efficiently. Susan is informed in December by the equipment
• resolve resource conflicts: vendor that one of the pieces of exercise equipment is no
1. rearrange tasks. longer available and the new model will cost $1,000
2. substitute resources. more. She shares this with the team and they decide to
3. obtain more help. ask the Plant Manager for more funding. This change
• track resource performance to make sure project may also delay opening the center by one month. She
goals are met. readjusts the pro- ject timeline on the Gantt chan.
4. Manage project information.
• update task and resource status with regular
Pr• ieot Management Gycfe
Susan puts together a fishbone diagram and pie
follow up of project task owners.
chart and shares the information with the Plant
Manager and Finance Manager (see Figures 6 and 8).
Step three: Common/cate
The Plant Manager approves the additional expen-
1. Communicate project status. diture, and the equipment is ordered. That same day,
• determine what information on projects to Susan is informed that two of the project team members
communicate. have been moved to new job assignments, and no longer
• how often (weekly, monthly, quarterly)? have time available to help on the team. She decides to
• communicate to whom (project team, project meet with their direct managers to see if someone else
sponsor, employees, management, may be available to help out. Only one additional person
leadership)? can be freed up to help with the project, so she decides
2. Create reports on a regular basis. to make do with one person. She shares her documenta-
• determine what types of charts, tools, and reports tion and assigns the new team member to the subteam
to use (what does the organization typically working on setting up the fitness center.
use?). In December, the Maintenance Department paints
• circulate reports. the vacant office and installs a new air conditioner.
Human Resources and Health Services jointly develop
3. Return to Step 1, #7. an employee policy for fitness center use and waiver
• review the project plan; check for accuracy, forms. The project team agrees to decrease the frequen-
adjust. cy of meetings to every 2 weeks instead of weekly.
The ordered piece of equipment is still not expected

AUGUST 1998, VOL. 46, 4

 C ARTICLE

to be received on time, but Susan decides to go ahead

and open the fitness center as scheduled and install the
piece of equipment later.
In January, the fitness center room is ready and
Susan has sent out flyers to all employees about the Project Management Skills.
open- ing date in February. Physical therapy students Perce, K.H.
from the local college have been recruited to help run the
fitness center for college credit. Susan decides she will AAOfN Journal 1998; 46(8), 391-403.
monitor the students’ work in the center, as well as track Project management skills are
employ- ee usage. She meets with the Plant Manager to important to develop because
share a status report on the project, and to discuss what occupational and envi- ronmental health
will be tracked (i.e., employee use, exercise related nurses are increasingly asked to
injuries, cen- ter operating costs), and how often this will implement and manage health related
be commu- nicated and to whom. projects and programs.
In February, the project team meets for the last time,
decides to have a celebration and officially disband as a
team. Susan makes sure that all the team members are
2. Project management is the process of
planning and managing project tasks
and
recognized (i.e., in the company newsletter, as well as a resources, and communicating the
letter of thanks to their direct managers). progress and results. This requires the
coordination of time, tasks, equipment,
REFERENCES people, and budget.
Brassard, M. (1989). The memory jog ger plus+. Methuen, MA:
GOAL/QPC.
Cleland, D.I. (1994). Project management strategic design and imple-
mentation. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
3. Three main critical skill areas are
needed to be an effective project
manager: behav-
Douglas, T. (1986). The complete portfolio of project management
forms. Caddylack Systems, Inc. ioral skills such as negotiation, conflict
Goldsmith, S.B. (1981). Health care management. Rockville, MD: res- olution, and interpersonal problem
Aspen Systems Corporation. solving; use of project management
Kerzner, H. (1992). Project management. A systems approach to plan- tools to man- age project tasks and
ning, scheduling, and controlling (4th ed.). New York: Van resources; and effective communication
Nostrand Reinhold. skills.
Project management. (1993). Fred Pryor Audio Seminars. Shaunee
Mission, KS: Pryor Resources, Inc.
Salazar, M. (1989). Applying the Deming philosophy to the safety sys- tern. Pmfessional Safety, Dec., 22-27.
Skelton, T.M., & Thamhain, H.J. (1993). Concurrent project manage-
ment: A tool for technology transfer, R&D-to-Market. The Project
Management Journal, Dec., 46.

40 AAOHN
 CE M 0 D U L E

Project Management Skills

C. Monitoring compliance with use B. Pareto chart.

of personal protective C. CPM/PERT chart.
equipment. D. Strategic evolution chart.
D. Establishing an ergonomics pro-
gram. 7. During the implementation
phase of a project to develop a
2. The nurse uses which of the fol- worksite health fair, the nurse
lowing tasks in the project man- pro- ject manager uses this tool
agement process? to enhance team efficiency:
A. Organizing. A. Master Schedule.
B. Staffing. B. Quality Evolution Chart.
C. Monitoring. C. Work Breakdown Structure.
D. Directing. D. CPM/PERT chart.

3.The person responsible for com- 8. An nurse project manager wish-

municating the status of the pro- es to convey the results of a job
ject on a periodic basis is the: analysis to the project sponsor.
A. Project manager. The best tool to depict the per-
B. Project sponsor. centage of various causes to the
C. Project team leader. budget overrun is a:
D. Nurse. A. Gantt chart.
B. Pie chart.
4. The nurse project manager C. Fishbone diagram.
rec- ognizes that an identified D. Pareto chart.
problem needs to be discussed
in depth by the project team at 9. At a team review meeting, the
this type of pro- ject meeting: nurse project manager would most
A. Team review meeting. likely use this tool to illustrate the
B. Working team meeting. effect of an ergonomic program
C. Subteam meeting. in reducing the incidence of
D. Management review meeting. cumula- tive trauma disorders:
A. Control chart.
5. Early in the project management B. Fishbone diagram.
process, the nurse project manag- C. Time/cost/performance graph.
er develops a description of the D. Gantt chart.
project, its benefits and impact,
resources needed, cosVbenefits, 10. Pryor (1993) recommended this
and estimates of initial costs. This condition be met to consider using
Directions: Circle the letter of the best project management tool is known a computer software program for
answer on the answer sheet provided. as a: project management:
(Note: you may submit a photocopy for A. Statement of Work. A. Project >3 months duration.
processing.)
B. Work Breakdown Structure. B. Project involves at least 20
C. Project Description Report. employees.
1. For which of the following is the
D. Quality Evolution Report. C. Project requires more than
nurse most likely to use project
four resources.
management?
6. A tree diagram that depicts the D. Project has over 50 project
A. Enforcing a new sexual
breakdown of successive project tasks to be completed.
harass- ment policy.
B. Conducting preemployment phys- tasks to be completed is known as
ical exams. a:
A. Gantt chart.

40 AAOHN
 ANSWER SHEET
Continuing Education Module

Project Management Skills

August 1998
(Goal:To gain ideas and strategies to enhance personal and
professional growth in occupational and environmental health nursing.)

Mark one answer only!

(You may submit a photocopy of the answer sheet for processing.)
1. A B C D 6. A B C D
2. A B C D 7. A B C D
3. A B C D 8. A B C D
4. A B C D 9. A B C D
5. A B C D 10. A B C D

EVALUATION (must 6e completed to obtain credit)

Please use the scale below to evaluate this continuing education module.

4 - To a great 3 - To some 2 - To little 1 - To

no extent extent extent extent
1. As a result of completing this module, I am able to:
A. Identify the basic concepts, benefits, and tasks of project
4 2
management.
B. Describe the roles, process, and tools in creating a project plan. 4 2
C. Discuss the process and tasks in implementing and managing
the project plan, problem solving, and communicating
project
status. 4 3 1
2. The objectives were relevant to the overall goal of this independent
study module. 4 1
3. The teaching/learning resources were effective for the content. 4 3 1
4. How much time (in minutes) was required to read this module and
take the test? 50 $g 70 80
Please print or fype: (this information will be used to prepare your certificate of completion for the
module). DEADLINE: JULY 31, 1999

NAME
ADDRESS
CITY STATE ZIP
PHONE
LICENSE NUMBER

Enclose check or money order for $10.00 payable to AAOHN in U.S. Funds and mail to: Professional A/fziirs—CE Module
AAOHN
Ste. 100
2920 Brandywine Rd.
Atlanta, Georgia
30341

AUGUST 1998, VOL. 46, 4