Done by Mayan Ahmed Motamed YR 12A

Chapter 2
PART 1
Introduction:
• Fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) are the basis for industrial and
economic growth, and they led to a transport revolution.
• The Industrial Revolution began in the UK in 1750 and started off with coal.
Economic growth in the second half of the 20th century depended more and
more on oil instead of coal for these reasons:
-Since oil is a liquid, it is:
- cheaper to obtain through drilling (rather than mining)
-easier to move long distances by pipelines and tankers
- easier to control in use in engines and machinery
• There have been serious attempts to break away from the total
dependence on fossil fuels by searching for alternative sources of energy:
• Negative factors:
• Concern about the local and global effects of unrestricted fossil fuel use (air
and water pollution, global warming)
• Finite nature of fossil fuels, which will eventually run out
• Positive factors:
• Human ingenuity by R & D to harness what the Earth provides in
abundance, notably wind and sunshine
• Renewable sources of energy are much cleaner and will last forever and
more widely available. Fossil fuels were formed only in certain places on
the Earth’s surface.

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Formation of coal:
• Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of the Earth.
• The vegetation died, decomposed, and formed peat.
• The peat was compressed between layers of sediments of mud and sand to
form lignite (low-grade coal).
• Further compression formed coal.
Formation of oil and natural gas:
• Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of the sea.
• Their remains are covered by sediments.
• As the sediments start forming layers, they start to change into sandstone
as the temperature and pressure increase.
• The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.
• They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling in the pores.
• The rock above the oil and gas is impermeable (non-porous). So, they get
trapped underneath it.

PART 2
Introduction:
• The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:
• Increasing population size.
• Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.
• Improvements in standards of living and expectations.
However:
• The world still relies greatly on energy from fossil fuels.
• Nuclear energy and hydroelectricity are the only non-fossil fuels that are in
widespread use.

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Different methods of generating electricity:

• Coal
• Oil
• Natural gas
• Nuclear power
• Biofuels
• Geothermal power
• Hydroelectric power
• Tidal power
• Wave power
• Solar power
• Wind power
How energy sources are used to generate electricity:

• Turbine: a machine, often containing fins or blades, that is made to

revolve by gas, steam or air (it is connected to a generator).
• Generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

Fossil fuels and the generation of electricity:

Fossil fuels and biofuels:
These produce a massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to
heat water and convert it into steam, which thereby drives the turbines.

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Advantages Disadvantages
Plentiful supply Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are
released when burnt, contributes to
global warming
Provides job opportunities (mining and Damages local area
processing)
The technology used is well-known Limited supply (non-renewable)
and the method used is well-practised

Nuclear power and the generation of electricity:

Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of energy when nuclear
fission (splitting of the atom) occurs. This energy is used to heat the water,
produce steam, and rotate the turbines.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide Risk of radiation leakage
Large amount of energy is produced Radioactive waste cannot be recycled
with a small amount of fuel since it is active for centuries
Provides job opportunities Limited supply (non-renewable)
Refer to Chernobyl and Fukushima
incidents p.38

Hydroelectric power and the generation of electricity:

Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir. Water is released from the
reservoir that flows through the turbine, rotating it. The turbine then activates a
generator that generates electricity.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Dams impact the natural flow of water
doesn’t contribute to global warming
Water can be reused Villages and ecosystems may be
destroyed

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Geothermal power and the generation of electricity:

Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of hot rocks. The rocks heat the
water. The hot water returns to the surface under pressure and heats the second
supply of water using a heat exchanger. The steam produced in the second supply
moves the turbine, generating electricity.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Expensive to install
doesn’t contribute to global warming
Unlimited supply (renewable) Only certain areas have suitable
conditions

Solar power and the generation of electricity:

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to
light. A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of
electricity.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Weather-dependent
doesn’t contribute to global warming

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Biofuels and the generation of electricity:

Biofuels are a renewable energy source, made from organic matter or wastes.
Examples of biofuels include ethanol (often made from corn in the United States
and sugarcane in Brazil), biodiesel (from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats),
green diesel (derived from algae and other plant sources) and biogas (methane
derived from animal manure and other digested organic material).
Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable source Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are
released when burnt
Growing more plants uses carbon A large area of land is needed
dioxide Shortage of land for agriculture,
therefore, increase in food prices
Plentiful supply Removal in natural ecosystems,
therefore there is reduction in
biodiversity

Wind power and the generation of electricity:

Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to wind. Gearbox
maximisesthe rotation of the shaft. Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very
windy conditions, preventing damage to the blade. As the turbine rotates, the
generator produces electricity. Hill tops and onshore are locations with strong
winds.

Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Only certain locations are suitable
doesn’t contribute to global warming Weather-dependent
Renewable Visual impact
Uses a large area

Tidal power and the generation of electricity:

Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an area. When the levels
drop, water is held back by a tidal barrage (a small dam that releases water back
through a turbine).

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Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Limited to specific coastal areas
doesn’t contribute to global warming
Tidal movements are not weather- Impact on tourism and local fishermen
dependent

Wave power and the generation of electricity:

Also uses turbine and generator. Uses the smaller differences in water levels that
are caused by wind.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not produce carbon dioxide, Limited to specific areas
doesn’t contribute to global warming
Renewable Not very efficient at present

PART 3
Why has the demand for energy increased?
• The total world population has increased progressively over the centuries.
Today there are over 7 billion people in the world consuming energy, and
the world population still continues to rise. By 2050, the estimated world
population will be above 9 billion.
• Higher levels of economic development have taken place all around the
world. During the last 100 years, the number, variety, and diversity of
manufactured goods has increased dramatically.
• Personal wealth has increased, and therefore people are constantly seeking
an improved standard of living.

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Domestic demand:
• Domestic demands increase as the public become richer and affordability
and availability of products improve.
• Most of the purchases that are considered as necessities now increase the
demand for energy supplies, notably electricity.
• Example: Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in the season
locally, are produced in glasshouse or in areas with a favorable climate and
are then transported. In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and
transport), the energy cost is significant.
Industrial demand:
• Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts of energy throughout the
production e.g. iron and steel production.
• Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products, that were once
luxury items, cheaper. So, more people want to buy them. The demand for
the product increases. The demand for energy (needed for production) also
increases.
Transport:
• Transport demands have increased as our trade and lifestyles become more
globalised, with huge increases in shipping and air transport.
• Manufacturers supply customers across the globe. This decreases
production costs in countries that import, but increases the transport costs
as they require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.

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Personal and national growth:

- If economic conditions are good:
• Higher employment
• More money to spend on luxury items
• Increase in demand for the product
• Increase in demand for energy (for production).
- If economic conditions are poor:
• Families have less money to spend on luxury items
• Need to make savings
• Reduce the use of fuel
• Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items
• Decrease in the demand for energy
Climate:
• The demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the country.
People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters,
so the energy demand for heating would be far higher.
• They also experience fewer hours of daylight. This increases the usage of
electrical lighting.
• Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy consumption
(particularly in urban areas). There is a need for additional heating or
installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

PART 4
Strategies for the efficient management of energy resources
- Reducing consumption:
• Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a building:
• Insulation: constructing using material with good insulation
properties prevents loss of heat.
• Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof space.
• Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on the floor e.g.
carpet.

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•
Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and outside walls is filled
with an insulating material, causing the heat to pass through more
slowly.
• Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the middle to act as
an insulator. This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas
e.g. argon.
• Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.
• Devices can be left in ‘standby’ mode and can be accessed rapidly.
• More energy-efficient devices must be bought.
• Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further development in
engine technology.
- Energy from waste:
• Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat, that
can be used to generate electricity
• ADVANTAGES: Waste from burning (ash) is small in volume. Thus, it
doesn’t take up much space.
• DISADVANTAGES: Produces poisonous gases during combustion.
• Vegetable oils, once used, should be disposed. These oils can be
collected and recycled into biofuels suitable for running vehicles. It
can be used exclusively or as an additive.
- Education:
• Raise awareness of the negative effects of over-exploiting fossil fuels
and promote new ways of thinking
• The message must be that significant savings in energy bills can be
made over the longer term, reducing energy use
• Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new products to
compare with the old ones

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- Exploiting existing energy sources:

• The type of energy source used depends on social, environmental
and economic factors
• The current solution is to use a renewable resource as a primary
energy source when possible and have a fossil-fuel (or biofuel)
powered station available as a backup when weather conditions are
not suitable. This is a reliable source for industry and households and
reduces the amount of fossil fuels used
- Transport policies:
• Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles
• Check on the fuel efficiency
• Restrictions on where vehicles may go
• Taxation on fuels
• Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars
• Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians
• Encouraging car-sharing
• Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in Delhi and
Mexico City
• Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for
vehicles using cleaner technology
Fracking:
• Fracking is the obtaining of oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open
using water, sand and chemicals
• A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-rich rocks (shale
rocks)
• Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the shale rock layer.
• This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural gas, which are
forced back to the surface and collected
• Purpose of the three components:
- Water: easy to handle (in high pressure)
- Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes
- Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open

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Advantages Disadvantages
Access to more oil and gas Risk of toxins entering the water table
Less pollution than burning coal Chemicals are toxic and may affect
local residents
The need to import reduces Uses a lot of water, may cause water
scarcity
Noise pollution
Provide many jobs locally Natural areas damaged
May cause additional Earth tremors

PART 5
Introduction:
- Although increasing signs of pollution are a great concern, many parts are
still relatively clean compared to coastal regions. 75 % of marine pollution
comes from the land.
- The risk of oil pollution is present in all stages of oil company operations:
• Drilling for oil – from well leaks, oil seeping to the surface, well
blowouts
• Transporting the crude oil – from pipeline leaks, pipeline sabotage
(deliberate breaking of the pipes due to war, terrorism, or hostility
of local communities), tanker accidents (especially in coastal areas)
• Oil refining – leaks into coastal waters and explosions
What areas are most at risk?
• The impacts of oil spills lasts longest in cold environments, where ecological
recovery is slow.
• Sheltered bays and river estuaries, where wave action is weak, so that
pollutants can concentrate more easily. Narrow and enclosed seas and gulfs
are at high risk because water flows are restricted.
• The Arabian Gulf is the world’s largest oil producing region, its many oil rigs
and tanker terminals are potential sources of marine pollution on a large
scale.
• Political instability in the Arabian Gulf region is another factor, which means
that oil tanker and pipeline sabotage is a critical concern.

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Impacts of marine oil pollution:

Organisms or habitat Impact of oil
Phytoplankton Oil floats on the surface of the water and blocks the
sunlight from entering. The phytoplankton can’t
photosynthesize, so they die.
Fish Shortage of food; reduction in phytoplankton.
Oil floating on the surface prevents gas exchange. Fish
become short of oxygen and die;
Direct contact of the fish with oil affects their gills.
Birds Shortage of food as fish and other creatures die;
May consume oil when eating fish (toxic);
When hunting for food, feathers get covered with oil,
affecting their ability to fly.
Mammals Food sources are depleted;
Mammals may also swallow oil while feeding (toxic);
Coating of oil will affect their skin.
Reef Complete devastation of the reef due to lack of oxygen
(species die); Areas may be covered in oil.
Beaches Oil (washed by tides) coats rocks;
Organisms in shallow water and rock pools may die due
to toxic effects of the oil;
Animal food sources and tourism are affected

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Management of oil pollution:

- Reducing oil spills in marine environments:
• IMO (International Maritime Organisation) is a United Nations
agency.
• MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Marine
Pollution from Ships) was issued in 1978. Since then, it has been
amended and updated. One of the most important amendments
was in 1992, concerning the tanker hulls (details in the next slide).
- Regulations of the MARPOL:
• Supervise the transport of oil at sea
• All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate
systems in use
• Else, it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not be permitted
to leave port
- Tankers design:
• Oil spill can be caused by damage to the hull (a hole in the hull of
the boat causes its contents to leak).
• Increase in the number of compartments within the hull of the
ship: if one of the compartments is damaged, the contents of the
whole ship aren’t lost.
• Double-hulled tankers: if the outer layer’s damaged, the contents
are still secure by the inner plate.
• Though double-hulled tankers cost more than single-hulled ones,
the risks of oil spills are far less.

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Minimizing impact of oil spills:

• Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround the oil slick,
preventing it from spreading. This process works well when the spill covers
a relatively small area and the sea is calm.
• Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil slick into smaller
droplets, that eventually degrade, and disperse it. They are effective on
smaller spills, but cause damage to the coral reefs themselves as they’re
not tolerant to detergents.
• Skimmers: clean the water using a material that oil easily attaches to. The
skimmer drags oil off the seawater surface, that is then scraped off into a
container. This system is used when oil slick is contained within a boom and
the sea is calm. When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be removed by
hand (difficult and time-consuming).

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