Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology

24(1): 1-9, 2017; Article no.CJAST.36712

Previously known as British Journal of Applied Science & Technology
ISSN: 2231-0843, NLM ID: 101664541

Effect of the Stage of Ripening on the Nutrients,

Anti-nutrients and Functional Properties of Flours
Made from Whole Plantain Fruit
U. E. Inyang1*, S. E. Nkop1 and E. B. Umoh2
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Uyo, Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Biochemistry, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

The study was carried out in collaboration between authors UEI, SEN and EBU. Author UEI designed
the study. The three authors carried out the experimentation and gathered the initial data. Authors UEI
and SEN managed the literature searches. Author UEI wrote the protocol and the first draft while
author SEN performed the statistical analysis. The three authors read and approved the finial
manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/CJAST/2017/36712
Editor(s):
(1) Ming-Chih Shih, Professor, Department of Health and Nutrition Science, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan.
Reviewers:
(1) Arise Abimbola Kemisola, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.
(2) Edith Graciela González Mondragón, Universidad Tecnológica de la Mixteca, Mexico.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/21281

Received 11th September 2017

Accepted 2nd October 2017
Original Research Article th
Published 7 October 2017

ABSTRACT

Background and Aim: Plantain processing generates large quantities of peel that is discarded
despite its nutritional and bioactive constituents. The aim of the study was to produce whole
plantain flour at unripe, semi-ripe and fully ripe stages and compare the nutrients, anti-nutrients and
functional properties of the flours.
Study Design: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out.
Place and Duration: Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom
State, Nigeria, from September 2016 to March 2017.
Methodology: Freshly harvested unripe plantains were shared into three portions. Portion 1 was
processed into whole plantain flour immediately. Portions 2 and 3 were ripened naturally and
processed into flours at semi-ripe and fully ripe stages, respectively. For flour production, unpeeled
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: E-mail: inyang.ufot@yahoo.com;

 Inyang et al.; CJAST, 24(1): 1-9, 2017; Article no.CJAST.36712

plantains were washed, steam blanched (100°C for 10 min), cooled, sliced, oven dried (60°C),
milled and sieved to obtain the flour used for analysis.
Results: The results revealed that all the parameters analyzed varied with ripening stages. Protein,
carbohydrate, Na, and Fe in the flours decreased from 6.39%, 86.73%, 28.14mg/100g, and 2.45
mg/100 g at unripe stage to 5.98%, 85.69%, 27.96 mg/100 g and 2.38 mg/100 g at fully ripe stage.
Conversely, fat, ash, crude fibre, K, Ca, Mg and Zn increased from 0.70%, 2.57%, 3.61%, 476.09
mg/100 g, 148.52 mg/100 g, 121.32 mg/100 g and 3.60 mg/100 g in unripe plantain flour to 1.16%,
3.43%, 3.74%, 481.21 mg/100 g, 149.58 mg/100 g, 124.11 mg/100 g and 3.66 mg/100 g,
respectively in fully ripe flour. All the anti-nutrients decreased significantly (P = .05) with ripening.
Bulk density, water and oil absorption capacities as well as swelling index decreased while foaming
capacity increased with stages of ripening.
Conclusion: Production of flours of high nutrients and low anti-nutrients from unpeeled plantain at
various stages of ripening would ensure efficient utilization of plantain fruit with no waste generation
and should be exploited.

Keywords: Whole plantain flour; ripening stages; nutrients; anti-nutrients; functional properties.

1. INTRODUCTION (fried ripe fruit), “dodo ikire” (fried over-ripped

fruit), roasted plantain and consumed with other
Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) is an important delicacies such as roasted chicken or fish, or
staple crop that contributes to the calories and processed into flour. Processing of plantain fruits
subsistence economies in West and Central into any of these products generates large
Africa [1]. It is widely cultivated in most of the quantities of peel as the major by-product which
Eastern and Southern parts of Nigeria. According is usually thrown away or used for feeding
to FAO [2], over 2.11 million metric tons of ruminant animals. These peels account for about
plantains are produced in Nigeria annually. 40% of the total weight of fresh plantain [10] and
Plantain is attractive to farmers due to low labour are underutilized. The peels are known to
requirement for production relative to rice, maize, constitute a menace to the society thereby
yam and cassava production. Plantain is a adding to the problem of environmental pollution
climacteric fruit showing an increase in particularly in places where ruminant (sheep and
respiration resulting in colour, flavour, aroma and goat) are not allowed to roam about coupled with
texture changes. Post- harvest loss is a major the fact that waste disposal is a major problem in
problem affecting the production of plantain in Nigeria. Peels of a variety of fruits are explored
Africa due to unavailability of established storage as natural source of antioxidant and dietary fibre
facilities that can guarantee longer shelf life. In [11]. Recent reports revealed that plantain peel is
order to reduce high post- harvest losses, a very good source of dietary fibre and
plantains are harvested at mature green stage antioxidant [11,12,13]. On dry weight basis, the
and processed into flour or other products. peel from unripe plantain fruit contains 6 – 10%
protein, 6 – 12% ash, 2 – 6% lipid, 11 – 39%
Nutritionally, mature plantain pulp is low in starch and 33 – 43% total dietary fibre [14].
protein and fat but relatively high in Ighodaro [12] reported that plantain peels contain
carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals [3,4,5]. The substantial levels of bioactive compounds
starch in unripe plantain pulp is mainly amylose including flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins,
and amylopectin and this is replaced by sucrose, phlobatannins and terpenoids. The presence of
fructose and glucose during ripening stage due these compounds is a strong indication that the
to hydrolysis of starch [6]. Plantain pulp is rich in peels possess valuable medicinal properties
dietary fibre (8.82%) and resistant starch which are yet to be explored. In addition to the
(16.20%) [7]. Dietary fibre in human diets lowers high dietary fibre and antioxidant capacity, it has
serum cholesterol, reduces the risk of heart been reported that plantain peel flour possesses
attack, colon cancer, obesity, blood pressure functional characteristics that could be used as a
and many other diseases [8]. The chemical functional ingredient for the elaboration of food
composition of plantain varies with the products [13]. Akubor and Ishiwu [15] reported
variety, maturity, degree of ripeness and soil type on the production of cakes from wheat flour
[9]. supplemented with plantain peel flour. Also, Arun
et al. [11] reported that acceptable cookies could
There is a large consumption rate of plantain in be produced by replacing wheat flour with 10%
Nigeria either as chips (fried unripe pulp), “dodo” plantain peel flour.

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 Inyang et al.; CJAST, 24(1): 1-9, 2017; Article no.CJAST.36712

Green plantain, especially unpeeled can be an 2.2 Preparation of Whole Plantain Flour
important ingredient in food formulation and
product development and may have positive The method described by Ojure and Quadri [17]
effects on health. Besides adding nutritional was followed in processing whole plantain fruits
value to food products, unpeeled plantain flour into flour with slight modifications. The plantain
also stands out for not creating production waste, fruits were individually plucked from plantain
thus representing complete use of the fruit, hands, washed thorough with potable water,
increasing the yield and reducing man power drained, the apex and stalk cut off and discarded.
cost due to peeling that is not required. However, The unpeel fruit were individually cut into two
for the flour to be successfully used in food halves, steam blanched for 15 minutes to
product formulation and product development, it inactivate enzymes, drained, cooled, sliced to
must possess satisfactory functional properties. about 1 cm diameter using a sharp stainless
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the steel knife and dried in a conventional air oven
nutritional composition, anti-nutritional factors (model P.P. US, Genlab, England) at 60°C for 72
and functional properties of flours produced hours. The dried chips were milled with hammer
from whole plantain at different stages of mill, sieved to pass through a sieve with an
ripening. aperture size of 425 micrometer, packaged in air
tight plastic containers, labeled and stored at 4°C
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS for various determinations.

2.1 Plantain Procurement and Natural 2.3 Methods of Analysis

Ripening The crude protein, crude fat, ash and crude fibre
contents were determined following the methods
Mature green plantain bunches (“ayan ukom” described in AOAC [18]. Carbohydrate content
cultivar) were obtained from a farm in Ifa Atai in was calculated by difference [19]. The caloric
Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, value was calculated using the Atwater factor
Nigeria, immediately after harvest and method [20]. Mineral elements (K, Ca, Na, Mg,
transported to the laboratory where the study Fe and Zn) were determined using atomic
was conducted. Plantain hands were separated absorption spectrophotometer (UNICAM, Model
from five bunches and left for about 2 hours for 939, UK) as described in AOAC [18]. Hydrogen
latex to drain off from the cut portions. Plantain cyanide (HCN), oxalate, tannin, and saponin
hands present in the proximal and distal ends contents were determined by AOAC [18]
(top and bottom ends) of each bunch were methods. The method describe by Oberleas [21]
separated and discarded. The remaining plantain was followed for the determination of phytate
hands were thoroughly washed with potable content. The method described by Okezie and
water to remove dirt and foreign materials and air Bello [22] was followed for the determination of
dried at room temperature (27±2°C) to remove bulk density of the samples. Water absorption
surface water. The washed plantain hands were capacity (WAC), oil absorption capacity (OAC),
shared into three portions to tally with the three foaming capacity (FC) and swelling index (SI)
stages of ripening employed in this study. The were determined following the methods
stage of ripening was judged primarily by peel described by Abbey and Ibeh [23].
colour using a 1 – 7 ripening scale described by
Sogo-Temi et al. [16]. Fruits from the first portion 2.4 Statistical Analysis
were immediately processed into flour at stage 1
of the ripening scale (deep green colour) and Data obtained (triplicate) were subjected to One
served as control sample. Fruits from the second Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SPSS
and third portions were kept in a well ventilated version 18 statistical package (SPSS, Inc., USA).
room (27±2°C) and allowed to undergo natural Significant differences between means were
ripening. All the samples were daily monitored for determined using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
colour changes of the peel as indicative of (DMRT) at P = .05.
ripening. Fruits from the second portion were
processed into flour at stage 4 of the ripening 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
scale or semi ripe stage (more yellow than
green) while fruits from the third portion 3.1 Proximate Composition
were processed into flour at stage 6 of the
ripening scale of fully ripe stage (bright yellow The proximate composition of whole plantain
colour). flours produced at mature green, semi-ripe and

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fully ripe stages is presented in Table 1. The pulp flours with ripening had been reported by
result showed that the proximate composition of other researchers [16,25-27]. Flour from mature
whole plantain flours varied with the stages of green plantain had insignificantly (P =.05) higher
ripening. Zakpaa et al. [6] had earlier listed caloric value (378.78 kcal/100 g) than flours from
degree of ripeness as one of the factors that semi-ripe (378.73 kcal/100 g) and fully ripe
influence variation in the chemical composition of (377.12 kcal/100 g) plantains. This could be
plantain. The crude protein content in the flour attributed to insignificant (P =.05) reduction of
prepared from mature green whole plantain was both crude protein and carbohydrate contents in
6.39%. This was higher than the range of 3.69% the flours with ripening.
to 5.46% reported by Adeniji et al. [24] for whole
plantain flour made from new cultivars of Conversely, the crude fat, ash and crude fibre
plantain. contents in the whole plantain flours increased
with ripening stages ranging from 0.70%, 2.57%
The protein content in the flour samples and 3.61% in the flour produced at mature green
decreased insignificantly (P = .05) with ripening stage to 1.16%, 3.43% and 3.74%, respectively
from 6.39% at mature green stage to 5.98% at in the flour produced at fully ripe stage. Similar
fully ripe stage. Sogo-Temi et al. [16], Adewole increases in crude fat, ash and crude fibre
and Duruji [25], Odenigbo et al. [26], and Adamu contents in plantain pulp flours as a result of
et al. [27] had similarly reported that ripening led ripening were reported by other researchers [29,
to reduction in protein content in plantain pulp 30]. Vivienne et al. [31] similarly reported
flours from 4.82 – 3.15%, 5.18 – 5.13%, 4.12 – increases in ash and crude fibre contents in
3.68% and 5.14 – 3.50%, respectively. However, plantain pulp flours as a result of ripening from
the protein content obtained in this study for 2.11 – 2.33% and 0.49 – 1.31%, respectively.
unpeeled plantain flours prepared at unripe The crude fat and ash contents obtained for flour
(6.39%) and fully ripe (5.98%) stages were from mature green plantain in this study were
higher than the values reported by the above lower than the values of 1.36 – 1.65 and 3.41 –
mentioned authors [16,25-27] for flours from 5.19%, respectively reported by Adeniji et al. [24]
peeled plantain. The protein content in the for whole plantain flour made from five new
plantain peel might have contributed to the plantain cultivars. The variations could be due to
higher protein content in the flours from unpeeled varietal differences, geographical location and
plantain relative to the reported values for flours soil properties [32]. The percentage ash content
from peeled plantain. Happi-Emaga et al. [14] of a food material gives an idea about the
had earlier reported that unripe plantain peel inorganic content of the sample from where the
contained 6-10% protein. Ripening also resulted mineral element could be derived. The increased
in insignificant (P =.05) reduction in carbohydrate in ash content of the flours with ripening is
content in the flour from 86.73% in the flour therefore an indication that flours from semi-ripe
made from mature green plantain to 85.69% in and fully ripe plantains would contain higher
the flour from fully ripe plantain. The decrease in mineral elements than flour from mature green
carbohydrate content in the flours with ripening plantain. The low crude fat and relatively high
could be attributed to degradation of starch by  crude fibre contents in the flours suggest their
– and  – amylases to simple sugar [28]. Similar possible usefulness in the preparation of foods
reduction in the carbohydrate content in plantain for diabetic and hypertensive individuals.

Table 1. Proximate composition of flours produced from whole plantain fruits at different
ripening stages (dry matter basis)

Parameters Ripening stages

Unripe Semi-Ripe Fully Ripe
Crude protein (%) 6.39a±0.11 6.04 a±0.05 5.98 a±0.14
b a a
Crude fat (%) 0.70 ±0.03 1.13 ±0.00 1.16 ±0.21
Ash (%) 2.57c±0.09 b
3.04 ±0.04 a
3.43 ±0.06
Crude fibre (%) 3.61b±0.31 3.69b±0.15 3.74a±0.20
a a a
Carbohydrate (%) 86.73 ±0.07 86.10 ±0.02 85.69 ±0.05
Caloric value (kcal/100 g) 378.78a±0.08 378.73a±0.11 377.12a±0.09
Values are means ± SD (standard deviation) of triplicate determinations. Means on the same row with different
superscripts are significantly different at P = .05

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3.2 Mineral Content in the Flours higher levels of K, Ca and Mg in ripe plantain
pulp flour relative to the values in unripe plantain
The mineral contents in whole plantain flours pulp flour.
produced at mature green, semi-ripe and fully
ripe stages are presented in Table 2. The results Conversely, Na and Fe contents in the flours
showed variations in the mineral content in the progressively decreased insignificantly (P = .05)
flours with ripening. At all stages of ripening, with ripening ranging from 28.14 mg/100 g and
potassium was the most abundant mineral 2.45 mg/100 g in the whole mature green
element in the flours. This result is in plantain flour to 27.96 mg/100 g and 2.38 mg/
consonance with the reports by other 100 g in the fully ripe plantain flour, respectively.
researchers [6,30,33-34] that potassium was the Similar observation was reported for unripe and
most abundant mineral in plantain. Potassium is ripe plantain pulp flours [36]. The higher content
required in relatively large amount in human of K than Na in the flours samples would be of
body because it functions as an important comparative advantage because intake of diets
electrolyte in the nervous system, plays a role in with higher K to Na ratio has been reported to
osmoregulation and can help control high blood reduce incidence of hypertension [37]. According
pressure [35]. to Liu et al. [38], increasing the potassium intake
of hypertensive rats that were fed high sodium
The potassium content significantly (P =.05) diets lowered blood pressure, reduced incidence
increased from 476.09 mg/100 g in the mature of stroke and stroke related death, and prevented
green plantain flour to 481.21 mg/100 g in the cardiac hypertrophy, mesenteric vascular
fully ripe plantain flour while calcium, magnesium damage and renal injury.
and zinc contents insignificantly (P =.05)
increased from 148.52 mg/100 g, 121.36 mg/100 3.3 Anti-nutrient Levels in the Flours
g and 3.60 mg/100 g in the mature green
plantain flour to 149.58 mg/100 g, 124.11 mg/g The impact of ripening on levels of some anti-
and 3.66 mg/100 g, respectively in the fully ripe nutrients in whole plantain flours is presented on
plantain flour. Baiyeri [36] similarly reported Table 3.

Table 2. Mineral content of flours produced from whole plantain fruits at different ripening
stages (mg/100 g)

Minerals Ripening stages

Unripe Semi-Ripe Fully Ripe
c b a
K 476.09 ±1.15 479.50 ±0.92 481.21 ±0.11
a a a
Ca 148.52 ±0.04 148.94 ±0.13 149.58 ±0.00
a a a
Na 28.14 ±0.16 28.05 ±1.21 27.96 ±0.82
a a a
Mg 121.36 ±1.10 123.93 ±0.09 124.11 ±0.20
a a a
Fe 2.45 ±0.05 2.40 ±0.01 2.38 ±0.42
Zn 3.60a±0.60 3.64a±0.38 3.66a±0.19
Values are means ± SD (standard deviation) of triplicate determinations. Means on the same row with different
superscripts are significantly different at P = .05

Table 3. Anti-nutrient content of flours produced from whole plantain fruits at different
ripening Stages (mg/100 g)

Parameters Ripening stages

Unripe Semi-Ripe Fully Ripe
-5a -5b -5c
HCN 5.29x10 ±0.16 3.74x10 ±0.09 2.31x10 ±0.03
a b c
Oxalate 0.82 ±1.13 0.67 ±2.01 0.55 ±1.08
a b c
Tannin 0.38 ±0.08 0.31 ±0.53 0.29 ±0.40
-5a -5b -5c
Phytate 6.85 x10 ±2.11 4.629x10 ±0.92 3.71x10 ±0.15
a b c
Saponin 2.15 ±0.53 1.94 ±1.12 1.36 ±0.32
Values are means ± SD (standard deviation) of triplicate determinations. Means on the same row with different
superscripts are significantly different at P = .05. HCN = Hydrocyanic acid

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The results showed that the stages of ripening plantain pulp flours as a result of ripening were
had significant reductive effect (P = .05) on the reported by other authors [31,41]. The low bulk
anti-nutrients in the flour samples. The levels of densities of the flour are desirable in infant food
HCN, oxalate, tannin, phytate and saponin in the production [42].
whole mature green flour were 5.29 x 10-
5
mg/100g, 0.82 mg/100 g, 0.38 mg/100 g, 6.85 x All the flour samples exhibited high water
-5
10 mg/100 g and 2.15 mg/100 g, respectively. absorption capacity (WAC). However, the water
These values were within the ranges of 1.2 x 10-5 absorption values decreased significantly (P =
-5
– 8.0 x 10 for HCN, 0.64 – 0.88% for oxalate, .05) from 2.50 g/g for the flour from mature green
0.16 – 0.36% for tannin, 3.5 x 10-5 – 9.3 x 10-5% plantain to 1.40 g/g for the flour from fully ripe
for phylate and 1.03 – 2.90% for saponin plantain. Other authors [41,43] had similarly
reported by Adeniji et al. [23] for whole unripe reported reduction in water absorption capacity
plantain flour made from hybrid plantain cultivars. of plantain and banana pulp flours as a result of
The HCN content significantly (P = .05) ripening. The higher water absorption capacity
decreased from 5.29 x 10-5 mg/100 g in the flour exhibited by the flour from mature green plantain
-5
from mature green plantain to 2.31 x 10 mg/100 might be attributed to the higher carbohydrate
g in the flour from fully ripe plantain. The HCN content in the flour relative to the flours from
levels in all the flour samples were below the semi-ripe and fully ripe plantain (Table 1).
safety level for cyanide poisoning. The lethal Zakpaa et al. [6] had earlier noted that unripe
dose range of ingested cyanide for humans is plantain has higher amylose and amylopectin
estimated to be 0.5 – 3.5 mg/kg body weight [39]. contents than ripe plantain and hence ability to
bind more water. Water absorption represents
The oxalate, tannin, phytate and saponin also the ability of the flour to associate with water
decreased significantly (P = .05) from 0.82 under conditions where water is limited [43]. The
mg/100 g, 0.38 mg/100 g, 6.85 x 10-5 mg/100 g high water absorption capacities exhibited by the
and 2.15 in flour made at mature green stage to flour samples suggest that they could be
0.55 mg/100 g, 0.29 mg/100 g, 3.71 x 10- incorporated in food formulations especially
5
mg/100 g and 1.36 mg/100 g, respectively in the those involving dough handling [42]. The
flour from fully ripe plantain. Ripening is exhibition of least water binding ability by the
associated with hydrolysis of starch to sugars flour from the ripe plantain could be exploited in
and solubilization of protopectin to pectin leading the formulation of baby foods as it is capable of
to softening of the fruit. The textural changes that making the food less bulky and hence more
occurred during ripening might have enhanced palatable and easily digested [6].
the loss of the anti-nutrients during storage for
ripening and during autoclaving of the fruits prior The oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the flour
to flour production. Lower levels of oxalate and samples decreased significantly (P = .05) with
phytate in the flours from semi-ripe and fully ripe ripening ranging from 1.27 g/g for the flour from
plantain could lead to better bioavailability of mature green plantain to 1.09 g/g for flour from
calcium, magnesium and zinc that usually form fully ripe plantain. The higher oil absorption
complexes with these elements [40]. It was capacity of the flour from unripe plantain relative
observed that the levels of these anti-nutrients in to the values for the flours from ripe plantain
the flour samples were relatively low and would could be attributed to the higher carbohydrate
pose no threat to the health of consumers. content in the flour from unripe plantain (Table
1). Osundahunsi [41] similarly reported reduction
3.4 Functional Properties of the Flours in oil absorption capacity of plantain pulp flour
from 210% at unripe stage to 187% at fully ripe
The functional properties of whole plantain flour stage. According to Rodriquez-Ambriz [44], oil
samples produced at mature green, semi-ripe absorption capacity relates to the hydrophilic
and fully ripe stages are presented on Table 4. character of starches present in the flour. Oil
absorption capacity of flour is important since oil
The results showed that the functional properties acts as flavour retainer, increases the mouth feel
of the flours varied significantly (P = .05) with and improves the palatability of food [45]. Good
ripening stages. The bulk density (BD) of the oil absorption capacities of the flour samples
flour samples decreased significantly (P = .05) suggest that they could be useful in food
from 0.79g/cm3 for the flour from mature green preparation that involve oil mixing, such as
plantain to 0.68g/cm3 for the flour from fully ripe bakery products in which oil is one of the
plantain. Similar reduction in bulk density of important ingredients.

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Table 4. Functional properties of flours produced from whole plantain fruits at different stages
of ripening

Parameters Ripening stages

Unripe Semi-Ripe Fully Ripe
3 a b c
BD (g/cm ) 0.79 ±0.02 0.75 ±0.11 0.68 ±0.04
WAC (g/g) 2.50a±0.16 1.80b±0.09 1.40c±0.20
a b c
OAC (g/g) 1.27 ±0.71 1.18 ±0.45 1.09 ±1.10
a b c
FC (%) 2.00 ±1.30 5.00 ±0.24 6.00 ±0.08
SI (ml/g) 3.23a±0.06 1.70b±0.04 1.58c±0.11
Values are means ± SD (standard deviation) of triplicate determinations. Means on the same row with different
superscripts are significantly different at P = .05. BD = Bulk density. WAC = Water absorption capacity;
OAC = Oil absorption capacity; FC = Foaming capacity; SI = Swelling index

All the flour samples exhibited poor foaming mature green plantain would ensure efficient
capacity. The foaming capacity of the flour utilization of minerals that usually form
samples increased significantly (P = .05) with complexes with some of the anti-nutrients. All the
ripening ranging from 2.00% for the flour from anti-nutrients were low and would not pose threat
mature green plantain to 6.00% for the flour from to the health of consumers. Production of flours
fully ripe plantain. The increase in foaming from unpeeled plantains at various stages of
capacity of the flours with ripening could be due ripening would ensure efficient utilization of
to increase in protein content with ripening (Table plantain fruits with no waste generation, reduce
1). According to Yellavila et al. [46], foaming man power cost as no peeling is required and
capacity generally depends on the interfacial film may increase the income of the processor.
formed by protein, which maintains the air Consumers of the flours stand to benefit from the
bubbles in suspension and slows down the rate nutrients and beneficial bioactive compound
of coalescence. present it the peel that is usually discarded.

The swelling index of the flour samples COMPETING INTERESTS

significantly decreased (P = .05) with ripening
ranging from 3.23 ml/g for the flour from mature Authors have declared that no competing
green plantain to 1.58 ml/g for flour from fully ripe interests exist.
plantain. This could be attributed to the reduction
of carbohydrate with ripening (Table 1). The REFERENCES
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