RKMFILES CENTER FOR

COMPREHENSIVE STUDIES
Room 309, 3rd Floor A-Building, Main AUF Campus, Angeles University Foundation
Email: rkmfiles@yahoo.com Website: www.rkmfiles.net CP: 09088849680

REVIEW NOTES IN
CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS
& HUMAN RELATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR & CRISIS MANAGEMENT

STUDY ON JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

CRIMINOLOGICAL (POLICE) ETHICS

CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

COMPILED BY:

LUCIA M. HIPOLITO -- ROMMEL K. MANWONG -- ALFIE P. SARMIENTO

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INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY defined

Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon (Tradio,
1999). It may also refer to the study of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing scientifically their causes and
control and the treatment of criminals.

Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that many disciplines are
involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action, including, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology,
neurology, political science and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology, and psychiatry have dominated
the study of crime.

Sub-Fields of Criminology

Sociological Criminology – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is
primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as
socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in
relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances
surrounding the crime.

Psychological Criminology – the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on
the individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified. Both the environmental and
personality influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior.

Psychiatric Criminology – the science that deals with the study of crime through forensic psychiatry, the
study of criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual. (Psychoanalytic Theory -
Sigmund Freud – traditional view). It also explains that criminals are acting out of uncontrollable animalistic,
unconscious, or biological urges (modern view).

Scope of the Study of Criminology

1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology - the scientific analysis of the causes of crime;
2. Sociology of Law - the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or Correction - the study that deals with punishment and the treatment of criminals; 4.
Criminalistics or Forensic Science - one more area of concern in crime detection and investigation.

Nature of Criminology

Understanding crime is as complex as other fields of interest. It requires therefore a systematic and balanced
knowledge in the examination of why they exist. In this sense, criminology is:

1. An Applied Science – Anthropology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences may be applied in the
study of the causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. maybe utilized in crime
detection.
2. A Social Science – Inasmuch as crime is a societal creation and that it exists in a society, its study must be
considered a part of social science.
 3. Dynamic – Criminology changes as social condition changes. That means the progress of criminology is
concordant with the advancement of other sciences that have been applied to it.
4. Nationalistic – The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing criminal law with in the territory.

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OBJECT OF INTEREST IN CRIMINOLOGY

CRIME

In as much as the definition of crime is concerned, many field of study like law, sociology and psychology
have their respective emphasis on what crime is.

Crime may be defined as:

• An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point of view.

• An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society; they are the
unacceptable acts in its social definition.
• Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral maladjustment of the
offender; acts that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.

CRIME is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.

• Offense – is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws ( a special law is a statute enacted by
Congress, penal in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal Code) such as Republic Acts,
Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and Regulations (
Reyes, 1960)
• Felony – is an act or mission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the criminal law in the Philippines
(Reyes, 1960).
• Delinquency/Misdemeanor – acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations usually referring to acts
committed by minor offenders.

Criminological Classification of Crime

Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their existence. Criminologists consider the
following as criminological classification of crimes (Criminology Reviewer, 1996).

• Acquisitive and Extinctive Crimes - Acquisitive Crime is one which when committed, the offender acquires
something as a consequence of his criminal act. The crime is extinctive when the result of criminal act is
destruction.
• Seasonal and Situational Crimes - Seasonal crimes are those that are committed only at certain period of the
year while situational crimes are those that are committed only when given a situation conducive to its
commission.
• Episodic and Instant Crimes - Episodic crimes are serial crimes; they are committed by series of act within a
lengthy space of time. Instant crimes are those that are committed the shortest possible time. • Static and
Continuing Crimes - Static crimes are crimes that are committed only in one place. Continuing crime are crimes
that are committed in several places.
• Rational and Irrational Crimes - Rational crimes are those committed with intent; offender is in full possession
of his mental faculties /capabilities while Irrational crimes are committed without intent; offender does not
know the nature of his act.
• White Collar and Blue Collar Crimes - White Collar Crimes are those committed by a person of responsibility
 and of upper socio-economic class in the course of their occupational activities. Blue Collar Crimes are those
committed by ordinary professionals to maintain their livelihood.
• Upper World and Underworld Crimes - Upper World Crimes are those committed by individuals belonging to
the upper class of society. Under World Crime are committed by members of the lower or under privilege
class of society.
• Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion - Crimes by Imitation are crimes committed by merely duplication
of what was done by others. Crimes by Passion are crimes committed because of the fit of great emotions.

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• Service Crimes - Service Crime refers to crimes committed through rendition of a service to satisfy desire of
another.

Legal Classification of Crimes

Under the law, crimes are classified as:

• Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations -

Example – Treason, Espionage, Piracy
• Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State.
Example – Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
• Crimes against Public Order.
Example – Rebellion, Sedition, Coup d’tat
• Crimes against Public Interest.
Example – Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
• Crimes against Public Morals
Example – Gambling and betting, offences against decency and good customs like scandals,
obscenity, vagrancy, and prostitution
• Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Example – Malfeasance and Misfeasance
• Crimes against Person
Example – Murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
• Crimes against Properties
Example – Robbery, Theft
• Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security
Example – Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and Coercion
• Crimes against Chastity
Example – Concubinage, Adultery, Seduction, Abduction, Acts of Lasciviousness
• Crimes against Civil Status of Persons
Example – Bigamy and Other Illegal Marriages
• Crimes against Honor
Example – Libel, Oral Defamation
• Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example – Imprudence and Negligence

THE CRIMINAL

On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be defined in three ways:

• A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a court of the violation of a criminal law. (legal
definition)
• A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-social act. (social definition) • A person
who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment. (psychological definition)
 Criminological Classification of Criminals

Based on Etiology

• Acute Criminal is one who violates a criminal law because of the impulse or fit of passion. They commit
passionate crimes.
• Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime
ahead of time. They are the targeted offenders.

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Based on Behavioral System

• Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest form of criminal in a criminal career. He doesn’t stick to crime as a
profession but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great opportunity.
• Organized Criminal is one who associates himself with other criminals to earn a high degree of organization to
enable them to commit crimes easily without being detected by authorities. They commit organized crimes. •
Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in criminal activities with high degree of skill. He is usually one
who practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.

Based on Activities

• Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a profession for a living. Criminal activity is constant in
order to earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
• Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when the situation is conducive to its commission. •
Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of self
– control.

Based on Mental Attitudes

• Active Criminals are those who commit crimes due to aggressiveness.

• Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit crimes because they are pushed to it by reward or
promise.
• Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective in their socialization process or
development.

Based on Legal Classification

• Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of ten years from the date of his release or last conviction
of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification, is found guilty of any
of the said crimes or a third time oftener.

• Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously convicted by final
judgment of another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised Penal Code.

CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Crime in its legal definition may constitute an intentional act in violation of the criminal law and penalized by
the state a felony, offense or misdemeanor. Criminal behavior, therefore, is an intentional behavior that violates a
criminal code (Bartol, 1995).

Criminal behavior may also refer to the study of the human conduct focused on the mental processes of the
criminal: the way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and influences if his criminal behavior.

VICTIMS OF CRIME

Victimology is simply the study of victims of crimes and contributory role, if any, in crime causation. It is also
the scientific process of gaining substantial amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of
victims. (Schmalleger, 1997).

PENOLOGY (CORRECTION)

This is another object of interest of criminology that deals with punishment of criminal offenders. Punishment
is justified by deterrence, retribution, atonement, societal protection, and reformation of criminals.

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APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME

SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES - deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of
abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999).
Included under this approach are:

1. Anthropological Approach – the study on the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non
offenders in the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach - the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental and
physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime (Positivist). 3. Biological Approach
–the evaluation of genetic influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is one force pushing the criminal
to crime (Positivist).
4. Physiological Approach – the study on the nature of human being concerning his physical needs in order to
satisfy his ants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs is an important
determiner of the commission if crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which
constitute the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions (Freud,
Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the
criminal behavior (Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory, which traces behavior
as the deviation of the repression of the basic drives (Freud).

OBJECTIVE APPROACHES - The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and
institutions as influences to behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:

1. Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography, natural resources, geographical location, and
climate lead an individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition,
social discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors of crime (Park).
3. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of inadequacy and
other necessities to support life as factors to criminality (Merton).
4. Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions, economic, financial, education, political, and
religious influences to crime (Cohen).

THEORIES OF CRIME AND THE PIONEERS

PRE-CLASSICAL ERA
 The Demonological Theory - Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one of
the most popular explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990). According to this explanation individuals were thought
to be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that criminal behavior
was believed to be the result of evil spirits and demons something of natural force that controls his/her behavior.
Centuries ago, Guilt and innocence were established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the
supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were innocent if they could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous signs
appeared. They were guilty if they died at stake, or if omens were associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh
punishments were also given.

PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES (18th C – 1738 - 1798)

In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or psychiatric in bent,
has traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thought about the causes of crime: the classical, neo-classical
and the positivist schools of criminology.

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The Classical School of Criminology

This is the school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria whose real name is Cesare Bonesara Marchese
de Beccaria together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory, which explains
that a person always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Cesare Beccaria in his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment” presented his key ideas on the abolition of
torture as a legitimate means of extracting confessions. The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a moral
creature with absolute free will to choose between good and evil therefore tress is placed upon the criminal himself; that
every man is responsible for his act. Freewill (Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment severe enough for
people to choose, to avoid criminal acts. It includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment
without any punishment without any variation. Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people choose pleasure and avoid
pain.

The Neo-Classical School of Criminology

The neo-classical school of criminology argued that situations or circumstances that made it impossible to
exercise freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction. This school of thought maintains that while the
classical doctrine is correct in general, it should be modified in certain details, that children and lunatics should not be
regarded as criminals and free from punishment, it must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.

The Positivist/Italian School (1838 – 1909)

It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity.
That crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment
but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures. Cesare Lombroso and his two students, Enrico Ferri
and Rafaele Garofalo advocated this school.

Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) – The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, was criticized for
his methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics of offenders, but his emphasis on the need to study
offenders scientifically earned him the “father of modern criminology.” His major contribution is the development of a
scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and to reform the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled “CRIME:
Its Causes and Remedies” that contains his key ideas and the classifications of criminals.

Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso

 1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief that being criminal behavior is
inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of anger. 3. Insane
Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commits crime due to less physical stamina/self self control. 5. Occasional Criminal
– are those who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a given occasion.
6. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.

Enrico Ferri (1856 – 1929) – He was the best-known Lombroso’s associate. His greatest contribution was
his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held morally responsible for their
crimes because they must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.

Raffaele Garofalo ( 1852 – 1934) – Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator,
and professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the
only way to understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic
stigmata (man’s inferior/ animalistic behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to
their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies”.

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The Classical and Positivist School Compared
Classical School Positivist School

• Legal definition of crime • No to legal definition

• Punishment fit the crime • Punishment fit the criminal
• Doctrine of free will • Doctrine of determinism
• Death penalty allowed • Abolition of death penalty
• No imperical research • Inductive method
• Definite sentence • Indeterminate sentence

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES

1. David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 - 1917) - He advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that focused
on the sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of norms in a society
provides a setting conductive to crimes and other anti-social acts. According to him, the explanation of human
conduct lies not in the individual but in the group and the social organization.

2. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1969) - Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for individual
differences – defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate childhood socialization, maternal
deprivation, and poor moral development. The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based on the use of
Psychology in explaining an approach in understanding criminal behavior – the foundation of the
Psychoanalytical theory.

3. Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - Park is a strong advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality but
he is a sociologist. He advocated the “Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the
interrelationship of people and their environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social
change that occurs along with environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation,
competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people are the major influences of
criminal behavior and crimes.
MIDDLE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1. Ernest Kretschmer (1888 – 1964) - The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German
Psychiatrist, Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished three principal types of physique as:
a. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
b. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
c. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face

Kretschmer related these body physique to various pychotic behavioral patterns: Pyknic to manic
depression, asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia.

2. William H. Sheldon (1898 – 1977) - Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of Criminology, which
related body built to behavior. He became popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are
concentrated on the principle of “Survival of the Fittest” as a behavioral science. He combines the biological
and psychological explanation to understand deviant behavior. Sheldon’s “Somatotyping Theory” maintains
the belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable indicator of
personality.

Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon

a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness through out the regions of the
body. They have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.

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b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connective tissue, normally heavy,
hard and firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are routinely active and aggressive, and
they are the most likely to commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They
tend to look more fatigue and withdrawn.

3. Edwin Sutherland (1883 - 1950) - Sutherland has been referred to as “the most important criminologist of the
twentieth century” because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected
extension of social perspective. For this reason, he was considered as the “Dean of Modern Criminology.”
He said that crime is learned and not inherited.

He advocated the DAT – Differential Association Theory, which maintain that the society is composed of
different group organization, the societies consist of a group of people having criminalistic tradition and anti
criminalistic tradition. And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is learned through the process
of communication, and learning process includes technique of committing the crime, motive and attitude.

4. Walter Reckless (1899 - 1988) - The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual there exists a
containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense, protection or
insulation against crime or delinquency. According to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are the
external pressures such as poverty, unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner containment
refers to the person’s self control ensured by strong ego, good self image, well developed conscience, high
frustration tolerance and high sense of responsibility. (Adler, 1995)

5. Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 -1940) -They are the proponents of the Social Class
Conflict and Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling class in a capitalist society is
responsible for the creation of criminal law and their ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement
of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the demoralized
surplus of population, which is made up of the underprivileged usually the unemployed and underemployed.
Willem Bonger, a Marxist-Socialist, on the other hand, placed more emphasis on working bout crimes of
economic gain. He believes that profit -motive of capitalism generates an egoistic personality. Hence, crime is
an inevitable outcome.
LATE 20TH CENTURY: THE CONTEMPORARY PIONEERS

1. Robert King Merton (1910) - Robert Merton is the premier sociologist of the modern days who, after Durkheim,
also related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain Theory, which maintains that the failure
of man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for that status/goal to be
attained. He argued that crime is a means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the crime
problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes that people are law abiding but when under
great pressure will result to crime.

2. Albert Cohen (1918) - He advocated the Sub-Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the lower
class cannot socialize effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle class behavior.
Thus, the lower class gathered together share their common problems, forming a subculture that rejects
middle class values. Cohen called this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to be
called delinquent behavior; the subculture is called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put
emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process and purposes as factors to crime.

3. Gresham Sykes (1922) - He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It maintains that an individual will obey or
disobey societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or
destruction. People become law abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are
not favorable to them.

4. Lloyd Ohlin (1928) - He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explained that
society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. He claimed that there is

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differential opportunity, or access, to success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on
the specific location of the individual with in the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with
greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.

5. Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 - 1982) - They are the advocates of the Labeling
Theory – the theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The theory maintains that the original
cause of crime cannot be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior becomes criminal if it is
labeled as such.

6. Earl Richard Quinney (1934) – He was a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory of
capitalist rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that
labors for the benefit of the ruling class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their interest
and t the same time the unwanted behavior of all other members of society. Quinney major contribution is that
he proposed the shift in focus from looking for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination of
the Criminal Justice System for clues.

OTHER THEORISTS

1. Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809 - 1882) - In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other
animals, are parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals
for survival. Thus, man kills and steal to live.

2. Charles Goring’s Theory (1870 - 1919) - The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the
Lombroso’s challenge that body physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that there is no
such thing a physical chemical type. He contradicted the Lombroso’s idea that criminality can be seen
through features alone. Nevertheless, Goring accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal
individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter and have less weight than non-criminals.

3. Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 - 1954) - An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out
 that “Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars, short heavy
person commit assault, rape and other sex crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique flounder around
among other crimes.” He also contended that criminals are originally inferior; and that crime is the result of
the impact of environment.

4. Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on
his research, that crimes against persons increased during summer and crimes against property tends to
increase during winter.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF THE THEORIES

The history of criminology dates back from the works of criminological thinkers or theorists in criminology. The
origins of criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century writings of those who sought to reform criminal
justice and penal systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary. These old systems applied the law
unequally, were subject to great corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty indiscriminately.
THEORY MOTIVE

Demonology (5,000 BC-1692 AD) Demonic Influence

Astrology (3500 BC-1630 AD) Zodiac/Planetary Influence

Theology (1215 BC-present) God's will

Medicine (3000 BC -present) Natural illness

Education (1642-present) Academic underachievement/bad teachers

Psychiatry (1795-present) Mental illness

Psychoanalysis (1895-present) Subconscious guilt/defense mechanisms

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Classical School of Criminology (1690--) Free will/reason/hedonism

Positive School of Criminology (1840--) Determinism/beyond control of individual

Phrenology (1770-1875) Bumps on head

Cartography (1800-present) Geographic location/climate

Mental Testing (1895-present) Feeble-mindedness/retardation/low IQ

Osteopathy (1892-present) Abnormalities of bones or joints

Chiropractics (1895-present) Misalignment of spine/nerves

Imitation (1843-1905) Mind on mind crowd influences

Economics (1818-present) Poverty/economic need/consumerism

Case Study Approach (1909-present) Emotional/social development

Social Work (1903-present) Community/individual relations

Sociology (1908-present) Social/environmental factors

Castration (1907-1947) Secretion of androgen from testes

Ecology (1927-present) Relation of person with environment

Transexualism (1937-1969) Trapped in body of wrong sex

Psychosurgery (1935-1959) Frontal lobe dysfunction/need lobotomy

Culture Conflict (1938-1980) Conflict of customs from “old” country

Differential Association (1939-present) Learning from bad companions

Anomie (1938-present) State of normlessness/goal-means gap

Differential Opportunity (1961-present) Absence of legitimate opportunities

Alienation (1938-1975) Frustration/feeling cut off from others

Identity (1942-1980) Hostile attitude/crisis/sense of sameness

Identification (1950-1955) Making heroes out of legendary criminals

Containment (1961-1971) Outer temptation/inner resistance balance

Prisonization (1940-1970) Customs and folkways of prison culture

Gang Formation (1927-present) Need for acceptance, status, belonging

Behavior Modification (1938-1959) Reward/Punishment Programming

Social Defense (1947-1971) Soft targets/absence of crime prevention

Guided Group Interaction (1958-1971) Absence of self-responsibility/discussion

Interpersonal Maturity (1965-1983) Unsocialized, subcultural responses

Sociometry (1958-1969) One’s place in group network system

Dysfunctional Families (1958-present) Members “feed off” other’s neurosis

White-collar Crime (1945-present) Cutting corners/bordering on illegal

Control Theory (1961-present) Weak social bonds/natural predispositions

Strain Theory (1954-present) Anger, relative deprivation, inequality

Subcultures (1955-present) Criminal values as normal within group

Labeling Theory (1963-1976) Self-fulfilling prophecies/name-calling

Neutralization (1957-1990) Self-talk, excuses before behavior

Drift (1964-1984) Sense of limbo/living in two worlds

Reference Groups (1953-1978) Imaginary support groups

 Operant Conditioning (1953-1980) Stimuli-to-stimuli contingencies

Reality Therapy (1965-1975) Failure to face reality

Gestalt Therapy (1969-1975) Perception of small part of "big picture"

Transactional Analysis (1961-1974) No communication between inner parent-adult-child

Learning Disabilities (1952-1984) School failure/relying on "crutch"

Biodynamics (1955-1962) Lack of harmony with environment

Nutrition and Diet (1979-present) Imbalances in mineral/vitamin content

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Metabolism (1950-1970) Imbalance in metabolic system

Biofeedback (1974-1981) Involuntary reactions to stress

Biosocial Criminology (1977-1989) Environment triggers inherited "markers"

The "New Criminology" (1973-1983) Ruling class oppression

Conflict Criminology (1969-present) Structural barriers to class interests

Critical Criminology (1973-present) Segmented group formations

Radical Criminology (1976-present) Inarticulation of theory/praxis

Left Realism (1984-present) Working class prey on one another

Criminal Personality (1976-1980) Errors of thinking

Criminal Pathways Theory (1979-present) Critical turning/tipping points in life events

Feminism (1980-present) Patriarchial power structures

Low Self Control Theory (1993-present) Impulsiveness, Sensation-seeking

General Strain Theory (1994-present) Stress, Hassles, Interpersonal Relations

CRIMES OF THE MODERN WORLD

The crimes in the modern world represent the latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the
something-for-nothing-complex problems of society. This includes Organized Crimes, White-Collar Crimes,
Conventional Cries, Victimless Crimes and the so-called Transnational Crimes. The transnational character of many
crimes in this modern world, although not new, has not been fully recognized until recently. Crime was traditionally
viewed as a purely domestic law enforcement issue and, therefore, treated and addressed as an exclusive concern of
individual states. As such crimes, being a new threat to domestic and international interest and security, has given
recognition to be known as Transnational Crimes.

Transnational crime is an offense that has an international dimension and implies crossing at least one
national border before, during or after the fact. This include but not limited to illegal drug trafficking, money laundering,
terrorism, arm smuggling, piracy, kidnapping, trafficking in persons, and cyber crimes. Most of these crimes falling
under this category reflect connection with organized and white-collar criminals.

ORGANIZED CRIMES

An organized Crime is a criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and devoted
primarily to the pursuit of profits through illegal means. It is sometimes referred to as the “MOB”, “MAFIA”,
“SYNDICATE” or the “COSA NOSTRA”, which are known as “the enemy with in”, “the 2nd government“, “the 5th estate”
or the “crime confederation.”

The term Cosa Nostra (literally means “one thing”) or mafia is use to signify organized crimes, and one of the
varieties names for either mob or syndicate. A strict code of conduct governs their behavior called the “Omerta” – the
mafia’s code of secrecy, and informal, unwritten code of organized crime, which demand silence and loyalty, among
other thing, of family members. (Abandinsky, 1991). Whatever be the name, the organization is known to be formal,
with division of labor, with coordination of activities through rules and codes and with allocation of task in order to
achieve illegitimate goals. The organization seeks profit from crimes and tries to prevent itself from threats, prosecution,
and even punishment from legal authorities.

Criminal organizations keep illegal actions secret, and members communicate by word of mouth, therefore
police will never be able to trace phone calls or letters. Many organized crime operations have legal fronts, such as
licensed gambling, building construction, and trash hauling, or which operate in parallel with and provide cover for drug
trafficking, money laundering, prostitution, extortion, murder for hire, hijacking, fraud, and insider trading. Other criminal
operations engage in human trafficking, political corruption, black marketeering, political violence, racist and religiously
motivated violence, terrorism, abduction, prison break and crimes against humanity.

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In order for a criminal organization to prosper, some degree of support is required from the society in which it
lives. Thus, it is often necessary to corrupt some of its respected members, most commonly achieved through bribery,
blackmail, and the establishment of symbiotic relationships with legitimate businesses. Judicial and police officers and
legislators are especially targeted for control by organized crime via bribes.

Globalization occurs in crime as much as it does in business. Criminal organizations easily cross boundaries
between countries. This is especially true of organized groups that engage in human trafficking. The newest growth
sectors for organized crime are identity theft and online extortion. These activities are troubling because they
discourage consumers from using the Internet for e-commerce. E-commerce was supposed to level the playing ground
between small and large businesses, but the growth of online organized crime is leading to the opposite effect; large
businesses are able to afford more bandwidth (to resist denial-of-service attacks) and superior security. Furthermore,
organized crime using the Internet is much harder to trace down for the police (even though they increasingly deploy
cybercops) since police forces and law enforcement agencies in general operate on a national level while the Internet
makes it even more simple for criminal organizations to cross boundaries and even to operate completely remotely.

Organized Crime Families

Perhaps the best-known criminal organizations are the Sicilian and American Cosa Nostra, most
commonly known as the Mafia. The Neopolitan Camorra, the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, and the Apulian Sacra
Corona Unita are similar Italian organized crime groups.

Other notable groups include the Colombian drug cartels, the Mexican drug cartels, The Irish Mob, the
Japanese Yakuza, the Chinese Triads, the Russian Mafia, the Mexican Mafia, the Indian Mafia, the Bulgarian Mafia, the
Chechen mafia, the Brazilian Comando Vermelho (CV) and Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), and the Central
American Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13). Prisoners may also be involved in criminal organizations. Many terrorist groups,
such as Hezbollah, Al Qaeda, the Provisional IRA and the Ulster Defence Association also engage in criminal activity
such as trafficking and money laundering as well as terrorism.

World leaders throughout history who have been accused of running their country like a criminal organization
include Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Mobutu Sese Seko, Nicolae Ceauşescu,
Francisco Franco, Hugo Banzer, Chiang Kai-shek, Slobodan Milošević, Vladimir Putin, Silvio Berlusconi, Alberto
Fujimori (in league with his advisor Vladimiro Montesinos), Senior General Than Shwe of Burma and various other
dictators and military juntas. Corrupt political leaders may have links to existing organized crime groups, either
domestic or international, or else may simply exercise power in a manner that duplicates the functioning and purpose of
organized crime.

In the past criminal organizations have naturally limited themselves by their need to expand. This has put
them in competition with each other. This competition, often leading to violence, uses valuable resources such as
manpower (either killed or sent to prison), equipment and finances. The Irish Mob boss of the Winter Hill Gang (in the
1980s) turned informant for the FBI. He used this position to eliminate competition and consolidate power within the city
of Boston which led to the imprisonment of several senior organized crime figures including Gennaro "Jerry" Anguilo
underboss of the Patriarca crime family. Infighting sometimes occurs within an organization, such as the
Castellamarese war of 1930-31 and the Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s and 70s.

Today criminal organizations are increasingly working together, realizing that it is better to work in cooperation
rather than in competition with each other. This has led to the rise of global criminal organizations such as Mara
Salvatrucha. The Sicilian Mafia in the U.S. have had links with organized crime groups in Italy such as the Camorra, the
'Ndrangheta and the Sacra Corona Unita. The Sicilian Mafia has also been known to work with the Irish Mob (John
Gotti of the Gambino family and James Coonan of the Westies are known to have worked together, with the westies
operating as a contract hit squad for the Gambino family after they helped Coonan come to power) , the Japanese
Yakuza and the Russian Mafia.

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How the Organized Crime Group Works?

For the organization to work there must be:

1. An Enforcer – one who make arrangements for killing and injuring (physically, economically, psychologically)
the members or non-members.

2. A Corrupter – one who bribes, buys, intimidates, threatens, negotiates, and “sweet talks” into a relationship
with the police, public officials or any else who might help the members security and maintain immunity from
arrest, prosecution and punishment.

3. A Corruptee – a public official, usually not a member of the organization family, who can wield influence on
behalf of the organization’s interest.

Sources of Illegal Profit

The organization gains from goods and services that are of great demand by the society but are prohibited by
law. It includes but not limited to most victimless crimes such as illegal drugs, alcohol, gambling, pornography, and
including bank fraud, extortion or racketeering and others.

Characteristics of Organized Crimes

1. It is a conspiracy activity involving coordination of members.

 2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is achieved through illegal means.
4. Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation, violence and corruption.
5. Effective control over members, associates, and victims.
6. Organized crimes does not include terrorist dedicated to political change.

Generic Types of Organized Crimes

1. Political Graft – manned by political criminals (Political Graft), who use of force and violence of a means to
obtain profit or gain, and or achieving political aims or ambitions. An example of this is vote buying, and the
employment of private armies to control a certain political area.

2. The Mercenary/Predatory Organized Crime – crimes committed by groups for direct personal profit but prey
upon unwilling victims. Example: extortionist/racketeer

3. In – Group Oriented Organized Crime – groups manned by semi organized individual whose major goals are for
psychological gratification such as adolescent gangs. Example: Motorcycle Gangs

4. Syndicated Crime – the organization that participates in illicit activity in society by the use of force, threat, or
intimidation. The group with a formal structure – whose purpose is to provide elicit services, which are in
strong public demand through the use of secrecy on the part of the associates. There is assurance of
protection necessary for its operations through political corruption or avoidance of prosecution.

Essential Composition of Organized Crime

Organized crime needs professional criminals to successfully operate in the organization. Professional
crimes refer to occupations or their incumbents, which possesses various traits including useful knowledge that
requires lengthy training, service orientation and code of ethics that permits occupations to attempt to obtain autonomy
and independence with high prestige and remuneration.

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Characteristics of Professional Crimes (Sutherland)

1. Crime is a sole means of livelihood.

2. Careful planning, and reliance upon technical skills and methods.
3. Offenders are of migratory life style.
4. The groups have shared sense of belongingness, rules, codes of behavior, and mutual specialized language.

Criminological Types of Organized Crimes

1. Traditional Crime Syndicates.

2. Non-traditional Crime Syndicates
3. Semi- Organized Crime
4. Politically Controlled Organized Crime

Controlling Organized Crimes

Organized crimes can be controlled through: Law Enforcement Effort, Organization of Anti-Organized Crime
measures, Community Awareness and Cooperation

Philippine Center for Transnational Crime

 In response to organized criminal activities, the Philippine government has instituted programs and projects
to address these threats to national and international interest and security. It has created the Philippine Center on
Transnational Crime (PCTC) (E.O. No.62 s1999) to establish a shared central database among concerned agencies for
information on criminals, methodologies, arrests, and convictions on transnational crime in all its forms. Apart from this,
the Center is mandated to discharge the following:

1. Supervise and control conduct of anti-transnational crime operations of all government agencies and
instrumentalities:
2. Establish a central database on national as well as international legislations and jurisprudence on transnational
crime, with the end in view of recommending measures to strengthen responses and provide immediate
intervention for the prevention, detection and apprehension of criminals operating in the country;
3. Establish a center for strategic research on the structure and dynamics of transnational crime, predict trends
and analyze relationships of given factors for the formulation of strategies to combat the same; 4. Design
programs and projects aimed at enhancing national capacity-building in combating transnational crime, as well as
supporting the related programs and projects of other ASEAN and international centers; and
5. Explore and coordinate information exchanges and training with other government agencies, foreign countries
and international organizations involved in containing and eliminating transnational crime.

Executive Order No. 100 s1999

To further strengthen the operational, administrative and information support system of the PCTC, E.O. No.
100 s1999 empowered the Center to exercise general supervision and control over the following:

1. Loop Center of the National Action Committee on Anti-Hijacking and Terrorism (NACAHT) whose primary
mission is to assist and support the NACAHT in integrating and orchestrating the efforts of all law
enforcement agencies against international and domestic terrorism;
2. International Criminal Police Organization ICPO-INTERPOL NCB-Manila which has been reconstituted to serve
as the national liaison office and main coordinating body for international police cooperation against
transnational crime;
3. Police Attachés of the Philippine National Police (PNP); and
4. Political Attachés/ Counselors for Security Matters of the Department of the Interior and Local Government
(DILG)

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WHITE COLLAR CRIMES

Edwin Sutherland defined white-collar crime as criminal acts committed by a person of respectability and high
social status in the course of his or her occupation.

Forms of White Collar Crimes

1. Corporate crimes - the violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity or by its executives,
employees or agents, acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership or other business
entity.
2. Environmental crimes - violation of criminal law which, although typically committed by businesses or by
business officials, may also be committed by other persons or organizational entities, and which damage
some protected or otherwise significant aspect of the natural environment.
3. Occupational crimes - any act punishable by law, which is committed through opportunity created in the
course of an occupation that is legal.

• Organizational Occupational Crime - crimes committed for the benefit of the entire organization in such
instances only the organization or the employer, not individual employees.
 • State Authority Occupational Crime - crimes by officials through the exercise of their state-based
authority. Such crime is occupation specific, and can only be committed by person in public office or
by working for such persons.
• Professional Occupational Crime - crimes by professionals in their capacity as professionals. The
crimes of physicians, attorneys, psychologists, and the like are included here.
• Individual Occupational Crime - crimes by individuals as individuals which include income tax evasion,
theft of goods and services by employees, the filing of false expense report, and the like.

Occupational crimes also refer to:

• White-collar crime (Sutherland)

• Avocational crime - committed by one who does not think for himself as criminal and whose major source of
income is something other than crime.
• Corporate crime - committed by corporate officials for their corporations and the offenses of the corporation and
the offenses of the corporation itself.
• Economic crime - illegal activity that principally involves deceit, misrepresentation, concealment, manipulation,
breach of trust and illegal circumvention.
• Organizational crime - illegal actions taken in accordance with operative organizational goals that seriously harm
employees or the general public.
• Upper-world crime - law-breaking acts, committed by those who, due to their positions in the structure, have
obtained specialized kinds of occupational slots essential for the commission of these offenses.

Types and Schemes of White Collar Crimes

1. Bank Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity where the purpose is to defraud a bank of funds. 2.
Blackmail: A demand for money or other consideration under threat to do bodily harm, to injure property, to
accuse of a crime, or to expose secrets.
3. Bribery: When money, goods, services, information or anything else of value is offered with intent to influence
the actions, opinions, or decisions of the taker. You may be charged with bribery whether you offer the bribe
or accept it.
4. Cellular Phone Fraud: The unauthorized use, tampering, or manipulation of a cellular phone or service. This
can be accomplished by either use of a stolen phone, or where an actor signs up for service under false
identification or where the actor clones a valid electronic serial number (ESN) by using an ESN reader and
reprograms another cellular phone with a valid ESN number.
5. Computer fraud: Where computer hackers steal information sources contained on computers such as: bank
information, credit cards, and proprietary information.

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6. Counterfeiting: Occurs when someone copies or imitates an item without having been authorized to do so and
passes the copy off for the genuine or original item. Counterfeiting is most often associated with money
however can also be associated with designer clothing, handbags and watches.
7. Credit Card Fraud: The unauthorized use of a credit card to obtain goods of value. 8. Currency Schemes: The
practice of speculating on the future value of currencies. 9. Embezz1ement: When a person who has been
entrusted with money or property appropriates it for his or her own use and benefit.
10. Environmental Schemes: The over billing and fraudulent practices exercised by corporations which purport
to clean up the environment.
11. Extortion: Occurs when one person illegally obtains property from another by actual or threatened force, fear,
or violence, or under cover of official right.
12. Forgery: When a person passes a false or worthless instrument such as a check or counterfeit security with
the intent to defraud or injure the recipient.
13. Health Care Fraud: Where an unlicensed health care provider provides services under the guise of being
licensed and obtains monetary benefit for the service.
14. Insider Trading: When a person uses inside, confidential, or advance information to trade in shares of publicly
 held corporations.
15. Insurance Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity wherein one obtains proceeds from an insurance
company through deception.
16. Investment Schemes: Where an unsuspecting victim is contacted by the actor who promises to provide a
large return on a small investment.
17. Kickback: Occurs when a person who sells an item pays back a portion of the purchase price to the buyer. 18.
Larceny/Theft: When a person wrongfully takes another person's money or property with the intent to appropriate,
convert or steal it.
19. Money Laundering: The investment or transfer of money from racketeering, drug transactions or other
embezzlement schemes so that it appears that its original source either cannot be traced or is legitimate. 20.
Racketeering: The operation of an illegal business for personal profit.
21. Securities Fraud: The act of artificially inflating the price of stocks by brokers so that buyers can purchase a
stock on the rise.
22. Tax Evasion: When a person commits fraud in filing or paying taxes.
23. Telemarketing Fraud: Actors operate out of boiler rooms and place telephone calls to residences and
corporations where the actor requests a donation to an alleged charitable organization or where the actor
requests money up front or a credit card number up front, and does not use the donation for the stated
purpose.
24. Welfare Fraud: To engage in an act or acts where the purpose is to obtain benefits (i.e. Public Assistance,
Food Stamps, or Medicaid) from the State or Federal Government.
25. Weights and Measures: The act of placing an item for sale at one price yet charges a higher price at the time
of sale or short weighing an item when the label reflects a higher weight.
26. Advanced Fee Schemes: Actor induces victim to give him some type of advanced fee in return for a future
benefit. The future benefit never occurs and victim never receives the advanced fee back. 27. Airport Scam: Actor
approaches victim in an airport stating that the newspaper stand cannot change his one hundred dollar bill and
asks the victim for change. Victim provides actor with the change, actor returns to the store to get the one hundred
dollar bill back, however, never returns to victim.
28. Auto Repair: Actor hangs out around an auto repair shop and approaches victims who leave after getting
estimates. Actor claims to do work off duty at a very low cost. Once actor has the car, inferior work is
completed and victim cannot get the return of the car until the very high bill is paid.
29. Check Kiting: A bank account is opened with good funds and a rapport is developed with the bank. Actor then
deposits a series of bad checks but prior to their discovery, withdraws funds from the bank. 30. Coupon
Redemption: Grocery stores amass large amounts of coupons and redeem them to manufacturers when in fact
merchandise was never sold.
31. Directory Advertising: Actor either impersonates sales person from a directory company like the yellow
pages or fraudulently sells advertising which the victim never receives.
32. Fortune Telling: Actor advises victim that victim is cursed. Actor advises victim that the curse must be
removed. Actor advises that she must meditate to the spirits and will require payment. Over a period of time,
victim pays fortune teller thousands of dollars to remove curse.

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33. Gypsies: Actor states that victims’ money is cursed. In order to remove the curse, the money must be placed
into a bag or box that the actor provides. The bag or box is switched. Actor advises victim to perform certain
rituals over the money and the curse will be removed. The bag or box cannot be opened for a period of time
when it is opened, the money is gone.
34. Home Improvement: Actor approaches a home owner with a very low estimate for a repair or improvement.
Inferior or incomplete work is performed. Once the repairs are completed, actor intimidates the victim to pay a
price much greater than the original estimate.
35. Inferior Equipment: Actors travel around selling inferior equipment such as tools at high prices. 36. Jamaican
Switch: Actor #1 approaches a victim looking for the address of a prostitute. Actor #1 shows a large sum of money
to the victim. Actor #2 arrives and tells Actor #1 where he can find the prostitute but cautions on taking all the
money as the prostitute might rob him. Actor #1 asks the victim to hold the money for him. Actor #1 puts his money
into a handkerchief with the victim’s money. Actor #1 shows the victim how to hide the money under his arm,
inside his shirt while switching handkerchiefs. Victim takes the handkerchief and the parties split up, however,
 Actor #1 leaves with victim’s money.
37. Land Fraud: Actor induces victim to purchase tracks of land in some type of retirement development which
does not exist.
38. Odometer Fraud: Unscrupulous used car salesman purchased used cars and turns back the odometers. The
used car is sold at a higher price due to its low mileage.
39. Pigeon Drop: Actor #1 befriends the victim. Actor #2 shows both Actor #1 and victim a "found" package
containing a large amount of cash. Actor #1 insists that the found money be divided equally but only after
each person puts up his own money to demonstrate good faith. All the money is put in one package and the
package is later switched.
40. Police Impersonation: Actor tells victim that his bank is being operated by fraudulent bank officers. Actor
instructs victim to take money out of bank and place it into a good bank. After the money is withdrawn, the
actor allegedly takes the money to the police station for safe keeping. The victim never sees the money
again.
41. Ponzi: An investment scheme where the actor solicits investors in a business venture, promising extremely
high financial returns or dividends in a very short period of time. The actor never invests the money, however,
does pay dividends. The dividends consist of the newest investors funds. The first investors, pleased to
receive dividends, encourage new investors to invest. This scheme falls apart when the actor no longer has
sufficient new investors to distribute dividends to the old investors or the actor simply takes all the funds and
leaves the area.
42. Pyramid: An investment fraud in which an individual is offered a distributorship or franchise to market a
particular product. The promoter of the pyramid represents that although marketing of the product will result in
profits, larger profits will be earned by the sale of franchises. For example, if a franchise price is P10, 000.00,
the seller receives P3, 500.00 for every franchise sold. Each new franchise purchaser is presented with the
same proposal so that each franchise owner is attempting to sell franchises. Once the supply of potential
investors is exhausted, the pyramid collapses. Many times, there are no products involved in the franchise,
simply just the exchange of money.
43. Quick Change: Victim is confused by actor’s speedy series of money exchanges and in the end, is short
changed.
44. Shell Game: Actor #1 manipulates a pea beneath three walnut shells or bottle caps. Actor #1 moves the caps
around and shows victim the cap with the pea under it. With the encouragement of another player, also Actor
#2, victim places larger and larger bets as to which cap contains the pea. The game is ended by Actor #1
when the take is large enough.
45. Utilities Impersonators: Actor impersonates utilities employees by wearing jumpsuits with name tags. Actor
approaches victim with story about a gas leak or electrical surge to gain entry to the home. Valuables are
taken by actor.
46. VCR Scam: Actor purports to sell new VCR's or televisions at an extremely low cost due to his connections.
Victim pays for the VCR or television only to discover that the box has been filled with rocks. 47. West African
Investment Scams: Actors target businesses and obtain business' bank account information from which all funds
are later withdrawn.

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Dealing with White-Collar Crimes

Gary Green pointed out that professional criminals would probably continue to enjoy immunity from
prosecution. Hence, they are unlikely to be deterred by sanction or threat and are unlikely to be formally disqualified by
their professional organizations. They will there fore feel free and are free to continue or begin their activities
(Schmallenger, 1999). James W. Coleman suggests four areas of reform, which white-collar crime might be effectively
addressed:

1. Ethical Reforms - reform include such things as working to establish stronger and more persuasive codes of
business ethics. Courses in ethical businesses might be offered in universities, and corporations could school
 their employees in right livelihood.

2. Enforcement Reforms - reform center on the belief that white-collar criminals must be severely published, but
also include such things as better funding for enforcement agencies dealing with white-collar crime, and
insulation of enforcement personnel from undue political violations.

3. Structural Reforms - involve basic changes in corporate structure to make white-collar crime more difficult to
commit such as selective nationalization of firms that have long records of criminal violations.

4. Political Reforms - focus on eliminating campaign contributions from corporations and businesses, but also
include the level of fairness in determining government grants and contracts, the government must serve as a
police itself. This includes the enforcement of laws and the regulation of the activities of elected officials and
administrative personnel.

THE CONVENTIONAL CRIMES

Conventional crimes are those traditional, illegal behaviors that most people think of as crime. Most crime is
conventional crime. Non-conventional crime may be organized crime, white-collar crime, political crime, etc.
Conventional crimes are groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (index crimes) and property crimes. It has been
argued that cyber crime is just a conventional crime committed with high-tech devices.

Violent Crimes - Violent crimes are criminal acts, which in the threat of or actual physical harm by an
offender to a victim. It presents not only index offenses that every one recognizes as violent (murder, rape, robbery) or
other acts involving force and intimidation but also “violent crimes” that are commonly categorized as “social problem”
such as domestic violence, child abuse, elder abuse, etc.

Violent acts are in the forms of:

1. Interpersonal Violence - Forcible Rape. Murder, Serious Assault, Family Violence, Robbery 2.
Political Violence - Terrorism
3. Collective Violence - Riots, Mobs, Crowds, Urban Violence

Property Crimes - are crimes of economic interest. It includes those crimes that would most commonly be
categorized as theft in ordinary language. It also includes but not limited to offenses such as unlawful entry to commit
theft, shoplifting, vandalism, and arson. Property crimes are also in the forms of:

1. Occasional Property Crimes - Shoplifting, Vandalism, Motor vehicle theft, Check Forgery 2.
Conventional Property Crimes - Burglary/unlawful entry to commit theft, Fence, Larceny/Theft

Violent Crimes (Index Crimes)

Murder – is the unlawful killing of human being with malice and with the “act of violence”. Serial Murder – an
act involving killing of several victims in three or more separate incidents over a week, a month or year. Mass Murder –
it is the killing of four or more victims at one location with one event. Spree Murder – the killing of in two or more
locations with almost no time break between murders.

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Homicide and Assault - Homicide is also unlawful killing with out the qualifying circumstances of murder. It
is generally regarded as the most commonly committed of all the index crimes (based on the UCR offenses). Assault is
called “unlawful attack” to another person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries. It is a crime that involves offering
to give bodily harm to a person or placing the person in fear.

Robbery - INTERPOL defined robbery as “violent theft”. It is the taking of property belonging to another with
intent to gain by means of force upon things, violence of intimidation against the person. It could be in the form of:
 1. Robbery of person – “hold up cases”
2. Robbery in open place following sudden attack – “snatching cases”
3. Robbery in private premises – “forcible entry”
4. Robbery after preliminary association of short duration between victims and offender
5. Robbery in case of previous association between victim and offender.

Types of Robbers

1. The Professional Robber – robber who has long-term commitment to the crime of robbery as a major source of
livelihood.
2. The Opportunist – the commonly known as “bandits”, one who has little commitment to or specialization in
robbery and one who is all purpose property offender.
3. The Addict Robber – one who committed the crime of robbery to support the drug habit. (Unplanned) 4. The
Alcoholic Robber – like the addict robber who engages to robbery occasionally in order to support his habit.
(Unplanned)
5. The Muggers – they are the most feared robbers. They are semi-professional robbers who are sometimes
called “strong armed robbers” – the street robbers who commit everything from snatching to the brutalization
of the victim.

Rape - is commonly defined as “carnal knowledge of a woman against her will”. Rape is the fastest growing
of all UCR index crime. It could be in the form of:

1. Real Rape – aggravated rape involving violence, weapons and attackers.

2. Simple Rape – anything else not fall as “real rape” such as: victims are viewed as suspicious, particularly if the
victim did not physically resist.

Rape is a violent crime due to the means employed usually characterized by violence, aggression and
domination. It has the general effect of “Rape Trauma Syndrome” – refers to the adverse psychological impacts rape
victims continue to suffer long after the incident. It includes:

1. Sexual anxiety
2. Pervasive fear to the opposite sex
3. Problems in interpersonal relationship
4. General problem of unhappiness

Classification of Men who Rape

1. Anger Rape – sexual attack becomes a means of expressing anger or rage and involves more physical assault
upon the victim.
2. Power Rape – assailant primarily wishes to express his domination over the victim.
3. Sadistic Rape – perpetrator combines the sexuality and aggression aims in psychic desires to often torture or
otherwise abuse the victim.

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Family Violence - Family violence are violent crimes involving physical assault by a family member to
another family members such as the following:

1. Child Abuse – an attack or assault of an adult against the defenseless or people who cannot defend
 themselves, usually by a parent to a child.
2. Spouse Abuse – “husband vs wife battering”

Types of Violent Offenders

1. Culturally Violent Offenders – those who live in cultures which violence is an acceptable problem mechanism.
2. Criminally Violent Offenders – those who use violence as a means to accomplish criminal acts. 3. Pathological
Violent Offenders – those who commit violent crimes due to mental disturbances. 4. Situational Violent Offenders –
those who commit acts of violence on rare occasions, often under provocations. They are the criminals “by
passion”.

Property Crimes (Non-Index Crimes)

Occasional Property Crimes - Occasional Property crimes are group of property crimes committed by
ordinary property criminals with little progressive knowledge on criminal techniques. Offenders injure or steal property
on an infrequent basis. They tend to commit crimes such as Auto theft of motor vehicle theft, Shoplifting or good
pilferage, Vandalism, Check Forgeries

Conventional Property Crimes - These are group of property crimes committed by professional criminals on
a persistent basis, which constitute form of career criminality. Conventional property crimes include:

1. Burglary (Robbery) – unlawful entry of forcible entry in order to commit a felony of theft. 2. The Fence
– dealers of stolen properties, the act of “buy and sale of stolen properties” 3. Larceny (theft) – simple
taking of properties with intent to gain and without the consent of the owner.

Destructive Property Crime – includes Arson – unlawful burning of property on another such as:

1. Profit-motivated Arson – illustrated by insurance fraud

2. Revenge Arson – burning of properties due to hatred or spell jealousy
3. Vandalism Arson – fire is employed as a means of expressing vindictive vandalism toward the property of a
group of people or an individual.
4. Excitement Arson – those set by “pyromaniacs”
5. Sabotage Arson – fires during civil disturbances.

Cybercrime

Although the term cybercrime is usually restricted to describing criminal activity in which the computer or
network is an essential part of the crime, this term is also used to include traditional crimes in which computers or
networks are used to enable the illicit activity.

Examples of cybercrime which the computer or network is a tool of the criminal activity include spamming and
criminal copyright crimes, particularly those facilitated through peer-to-peer networks. Examples of cybercrime in which
the computer or network is a target of criminal activity include unauthorized access (i.e, defeating access controls),
malicious code, and denial-of-service attacks. Examples of cybercrime in which the computer or network is a place of
criminal activity include theft of service (in particular, telecom fraud) and certain financial frauds. Finally, examples of
traditional crimes facilitated through the use of computers or networks include Nigerian 419 or other gullibility or social
engineering frauds (e.g., hacking "phishing", identity theft, child pornography, online gambling, securities fraud, etc.
Cyberstalking is an example of a traditional crime- harassment - that has taken a new form when facilitated through
computer networks.

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Additionally, certain other information crimes, including trade secret theft and industrial or economic espionage
are sometimes considered cybercrimes when computers or networks are involved. Cybercrime in the context of national
security may involve hacktivism (online activity intended to influence policy), traditional espionage, or information
warfare and related activities.

Another way to define cybercrime is simply as criminal activity involving the information technology
infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public
transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging,
deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the
functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing
computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and electronic fraud.

THE VICTIMLESS CRIMES

In common understanding of what crime means is that the act implies that there is both perpetrator and a
victim of the wrongful behavior. With victimless crimes, this general rule does not apply. Victimless crimes refer to
those crimes in which no clear victim is readily identifiable. In other words, the only injured party is the offender, who
engages in self-destructive behavior. These crimes are also called moral offenses or vice. Many of these crimes
generally refer to Public Order Crimes – an offense that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant. It is rare in
these cases are victims who week prosecution.

Examples of Victimless Crimes

• Related to Sex Crimes (against Chastity): Adultery and, in general, sex outside marriage where all those
involved, including spouses, give consent. Adultery without the spouse's consent is arguably not victimless,
as it violates the spouse's marriage contract rights, but it is also arguable that the non-consenting spouse is
the victim of a civil wrong, not a criminal wrong; Bigamy and other non-traditional marital and family practices;
Prostitution, other sex work, and related acts. According to some people, prostitutes are "victims" of economic
circumstances; others point out that many strippers and ditch diggers are "victims" of economic
circumstances, and arguably so is anyone who performs a service only for the money, but that doesn't mean
stripping, ditch digging or performing any other services solely for the money is or should be a crime; Incest
between legal adults where offspring cannot result from the sexual activity.

• Related to Religion: Practice of religions or cults or superstitions other than those locally sanctioned. Practices
involving banned substances (such as hallucinogens) or banned social arrangements (such as polygamy);
Blasphemy; Apostasy.

• Related to Financial Matters: Ticket scalping

• Related to Political Matters: In general, most specifically political crimes are necessarily victimless, as they by
definition are against the body politic such as Flag Desecration or expressing negative opinion of prominent
national figure (e.g. Turkey, North Korea); Public obscenity, though offense (damage) to others is possible;
Treason; High Crimes and Misdemeanors, and other abuses of Political power that do not involve specific
persons; Electoral fraud, where such fraud does not involve the votes of specific persons

• Related to Self-Preservation and Public Safety: Suicide; attempted suicide; euthanasia.

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 STUDY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

In general, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use
the methods of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes, from the activity of a single nerve cell
to the social conflict in a complex society (Bernstein, et al, 1991). In particular, criminal Psychology is a sub-field of
general psychology where criminal behavior is only, in part by which phenomena psychologists choose to study. It may
be defined as the study of criminal behavior, the study of criminal conduct and activities in an attempt to discover
recurrent patterns and to formulate rules about his behavior.

A major description of criminal psychology is the word behavior. Behavior refers to actions or activities
(Kahayon, 1985). To the criminologist, behavior is the observable actions because he is more interested in actions and
reactions that can be seen and verified than in concepts, which cannot be directly verified.

Classification of Behavior

1. Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) – the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior
because they follow the standard norms of society. understanding criminal behavior includes the idea of
knowing what characterized a normal person from an abnormal one. A normal person is characterized by:
Efficient perception of reality, Self-knowledge, Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior, Self
esteem and acceptance, Productivity, Ability to form affectionate relationship with others.

2. Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive/maladjusted behavior) - A group of behaviors that are deviant from social
expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of society.

A maladaptive (abnormal) person may be understood by the following definitions:

Abnormal behavior according to deviation of statistical norms based in statistical

frequency: Many characteristics such as weight, height, an intelligence cover a range of values when,
measured over a population. For instance, a person who is extremely intelligent or extremely happy would be
classified as abnormal.
Abnormal behavior according to deviation from social norms: A behavior that deprives from
the accepted norms of society is considered abnormal. However, it is primarily dependent on the existing
norm of such society.
Behavior as maladaptive: Maladaptive behavior is the effect of a well being of the individual and
or the social group. That some kind of deviant behavior interferes with the welfare of the individual such as a
man who fears crowd can’t ride a bus. This means that a person cannot adopt himself with the situation
where in it is beneficial to him.
Abnormal behavior due to personal distress: This is abnormally in terms of the individual
subjective feelings of distress rather than the individual behavior. This includes mental illness, feeling of
miserably, depression, and loss of appetite or interest, suffering from insomnia and numerous aches and
pains.
Abnormality in its legal point: It declares that a person is insane largely on the basis of his
inability to judge between right and wrong or to exert control over his behavior (Bartol, 1995).

KINDS OF BEHAVIOR

1. Overt or Covert Behavior - Behaviors that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are
overt behaviors. On the other hand, covert behavior are behaviors that are hidden – not visible to the naked
eye.
2. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness. It
is unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s subconscious – unaware.
3. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in the
process of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior involved more
number of neurons, a combination of simple behaviors.
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4. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and
there is irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man
loses his sanity and laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular.
5. Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when we
discriminate, decide or choose while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even
when we are awake or asleep like respiration, circulation and digestion.

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR

1. Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving, problem,
processing info and coping with the environment.
2. Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong motivational force. 3.
Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate with other people
4. Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
5. Psychosexual Aspect - this pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love 6.
Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards society/government
7. Value/Attitude – this pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes

THE CRIMINAL FORMULA

C=T+S
R
Where:

C – Crime/Criminal Behavior (the act)

T – Criminal Tendency (Desire/Intent)
S – Total Situation (Opportunity)
R – Resistance to Temptation (Control)

The formula shows that a person’s criminal tendency and his resistance to them may either result in criminal
act depending upon, which of them is stronger. This means that a crime or criminal behavior exist when the person’s
resistance is insufficient to withstands the pressure of his desire or intent and the opportunity (Tradio, 1983).

In understanding this, the environment factors such as stress and strains are considered because they
contribute in mobilizing a person’s criminal tendency and the individual’s psychological state while resistance t
temptation arises from the emotional, intellectual and social upbringing and is either manifestation of a strong or weak
character.

DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

The answer to these questions requires the study and understanding of the influences of HEREDITY and
ENVIRONMENT. As cited by Tuason:

Heredity (Biological Factors) - This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained by heredity,
the characteristics of a person acquired from birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains that certain
emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and potentials and our physical appearance are inherited. It is the primary
basis of the idea concerning criminal behavior, the concept that “criminals are born”. It also considers the influences of
genetic defects and faulty genes, diseases, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition and other physical deprivations that can
be carried out from one generation to another.
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Environmental Factors (Socio-Cultural Influences)

Family Background – it is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an individual first
experiences how to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the cradle of personality development as a
result of either a close or harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the disturbed family, broken family,
separated or maladjusted relations.

Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such as:

• The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It
lacks the resources, physical of psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction. • The anti-social
family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of parents to their children.
• The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by non-satisfaction of one or both parent from the relationship
that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value differences as common sources of conflict
and dissatisfaction.
• The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separation or
some other circumstances.

Childhood Trauma – the experiences, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing
developmental processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental deprivation as a
consequence of parents or lack of adequate maturing at home because of parental rejection, overprotection,
restrictiveness, over permissiveness, and faulty discipline.

In the environment, the following are also factors that are influential to one’s behavior:
1. Institutional Influences such as peer groups, mass media, church and school, government institutions, NGO’s,
etc.
2. Socio-Cultural Factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and
employment problems and other social changes.
3. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influences man to commit crime because
poverty is one of the may reasons to criminal behavior.

OTHER DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

In order to further understand and provide answers on the question that why do some people behave
criminally, it is important to study the other determinants of behavior. These are needs, drives and motivation.

Needs and Drives - Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement for well being of
the individual. This need creates drives – a psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action
(Bernstein, et al, 1991). Drive therefore is an aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused
condition motivates the person to remedy the need. For example, If you have had no water for some time, the chemical
balance of the body fluids is disturbed, creating a biological need for water. The psychological consequence of this
need is a drive – thirst – that motivates you to find and drink water. In other words, drives push people to satisfy needs.

Motivation - Motivation on the other hand refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of behavior (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Thus motivation refers to the causes and “why’s” of
behavior as required by a need. Motivation is the hypothetical concept that stands for the underlying force impelling
behavior and giving it s direction (Kahayon, 1975). Drives are states of comfortable tension that spur activity until a goal
is reached. Drive and motivation are covered in the world of psychology, for they energize behavior and give direction to
man’s action. For example, a motivated individual is engaged in a more active, more vigorous, and more effective that
unmotivated one, thus a hungry person directs him to look for food.
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Biological needs Motivational Systems
Food Hunger – the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to
function effectively. “An empty stomach sometimes drives
a person to steal.”

Water Thirst – just like food, the body needs water.

Sex A powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not
vital for survival but essential to the survival of species.

Pain Avoidance The need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the

survival of the organism. Pain will activate behavior to
reduce discomfort.

Stimulus seeking Curiosity is most people and animal is motivated to

explore the environment even when the activity satisfies
no bodily needs.

Psychological Needs - are influenced primarily by the kind of society in which the individual is raised. Psychological
motives are those related to the individual happiness and well being, but not for he survival, unlike the biological
motives that focuses on basic needs – the primary motives.

Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs form a hierarchy from the most basic biological
requirements to the needs for self-actualization – the highest of all needs The pyramidal presentation shows that from
the bottom to the top of the hierarchy, the levels of needs or motive according to Maslow, are:

1. Biological or Physiological Needs – these motives include the need for food, water, oxygen, activity, and
sleep.
2. Safety Needs – these pertains to the motives of being cared for and being secured such as in income and
place to live.
3. Love/Belongingness – Belongingness is integration into various kinds of social groups or social
organizations. Love needs means need for affection.
4. Cognitive Needs – our motivation for learning and exploration
5. Esteem Needs – our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect for a person as a useful and honorable
human being.
6. Aesthetic Needs - our motivation for beauty and order
7. Self- actualization – pertains to human total satisfaction, when people are motivated not so much by
unmet needs, as by the desire to become all they are capable of (self-realization).

According to the Maslow”s formulation, the levels that commands the individuals attention and effort is
ordinarily the lowest one on which there is an unmet need. For example, unless needs for food and safety are
reasonably well-met behavior will be dominated by these needs and higher motives are of little significant. With their
gratification, however, the individual is free to devote time and effort to meet higher level. In other words, one level must
at least be partially satisfied before those at the next level become determiners of action.

Frustration, Conflict and Anxiety

 Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form of
stress, which results in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes, wishes,
plans and expectations (Coleman, 1980). Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible
motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein,
et al, 1991).

Types of Conflicts

1. Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be
pursued simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict – a person faces two undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is the
exposure to the other resulting to an intense emotion.

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3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a desirable and undesirable feature. It is
sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be accepted
regardless which course of action is chosen.
4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the
features of each portion are often difficult to compare.

Anxiety is an intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to resolve it. It is also called neurotic fear. It
could be intense, it could be low and can be a motivating force (Coleman, 1980). Stress is the process of adjusting to
or dealing with circumstances that disrupts, or threatens to disrupt a person’s physical or psychological functioning
(Bernstein, et al, 1991)

The Ego Defense Mechanisms

The defense mechanisms are the unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s self image from being
damaged. When stress becomes quite strong, an individual strives to protect his self-esteem, avoiding defeat. We all
use ego defense mechanisms to protect us from anxiety and maintain our feeling of personal worth. We consider them
normal adjustive reactions when they are use to excess and threaten self-integrity (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Example:
Denial of Reality – protection of oneself from unpleasant reality by refusal to perceive or face it. Simply by avoiding
something that is unpleasant. Fantasy – the gratification of frustration desires in imaginary achievement. Paying
attention not to what is going on around him but rather to what is taking place in his thoughts.

Perspective on the Causes of Criminal Behavior

1. Anxiety (Psychological Perspective) – stressful situations that when become extreme may result to
maladaptive behavior.
2. Faulty Learning (Behavior Perspective) – the failure to learn the necessary adaptive behavior due to wrongful
development. This usually result to delinquent behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary social
values and norms.
3. Blocked of Distorted Personal Growth (Humanistic Perspective) - presumably, human nature tends towards
cooperation and constructive activities, however, if we show aggression, cruelty or other violent behavior, the
result will be an unfavorable environment.
4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship - self concept in early childhood by over critical parents or by rigid
socialization measures usually causes deviant behaviors among individuals because they are not contented
and even unhappy among individuals because they are not contented and even unhappy to the kind of social
dealings they are facing.
5. Pathological social conditions – poverty, social discrimination, and destructive violence always results to
deviant behavior.

PATTERNS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

 NEUROTIC OR PSYCHONEUROTIC PATTERNS - are groups of mild functional personality disorders in which
there is no gross personality disorganization, the individual does not lose contact with reality, and hospitalization is not
required.

Anxiety Disorders - Anxiety disorders are commonly known as “neurotic fear”. When it is occasional but
intense, it is called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry” which is usually accompanied by
physiological symptoms such as sustained muscular tension, increased blood pressure, insomnia, etc. They are
considered as the central feature of all neurotic patterns. These disorders are characterized by mild depressions, fear
and tensions, and mild stresses.

1. Obsessive-compulsive disorders - Obsessions usually centered on fear that one will submit to an
uncontrollable impulse to do something wrong. Compulsion on the other hand resulted from repetitive acts
(Wicks, 1974). An obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by the following: When an individual is
compelled to think about something that he do not want to think about or carry some actions against his will,

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and the experience of persistent thoughts that we cannot seem to get out of our minds such as thoughts
about haunting situations.
2. Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) - An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical fatigue
and various aches and pains. Symptoms include spending too much sleep to avoid fatigue but to no avail,
even feel worse upon awake, headaches, indigestion, back pains, and dizziness.
3. Phobic Disorders - These refer to the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual
danger to the person. Examples of Phobia: Acrophobia - fear of high places

Somatoform Disorders - Complaints of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem but
no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health or diseases.

1. Hypochondriasis - This refers to the excessive concern about state of health or physical condition (multiplicity
about illness)
2. Psychogenic Pain Disorder - It is characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical
basis is apparent reaction greatly in excess of what would be expected from the physical abnormality. 3.
Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) - It is a neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or
loss of control without any underlying organic abnormality.

Dissociative Disorders - A response to obvious stress characterized by amnesia, multiple personality, and
depersonalization.

1. Amnesia - The partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences following a traumatic incident. Brain
pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple means. It requires long period
of medication. Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they are beneath the level
of consciousness but “forgotten material.”
2. Multiple Personality - It is also called “dual personalities.” The reason manifests two or more symptoms of
personality usually dramatically different.
3. Depersonalization - The loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body experience. There is a feeling of
detachment from one’s mental processes or body or being in a dream state. Cases of somnambulism (sleep
walking) may fall under this disorder.

Mood Disorders (Affective Disorders) - often referred to as affective disorders however the critical
pathology in these disorders is one of mood which is the internal state of a person, and not of affect, the external
expression of emotional content (Manual of Mental Disorder).

1. Depressive Disorders (Major Depressive Disorder) – Patients with depressed mood have a loss of energy and
interest, feeling of guilt, difficulty in concentrating, loss of appetite, and thoughts of death or suicide, they are
 not affected with manic episodes.
2. Dysthymic Disorder – a mild form of major depressive disorder
3. Bipolar Disorders - those experienced by patients with both manic and depressive episodes. 4.
Cyclothymic Disorder – a less severe form of bipolar disorder

PSYCHOPATHIC PATTERNS - group of abnormal behaviors, which typically stemmed from immature and
distorted personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking. They are
generally called “personality or character disorders”. These groups of disorders are composed of the following:

Personality Disorders - The disorders of character, the person is characterized as a “problematic” without
psychoses. This disorder is characterized disrupted personal relationship, dependent or passive aggressive behavior.

• Paranoid Personality Disorder - It is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive

self-importance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of one’s own mistakes.
• Schizoid Personality Disorder - This is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of
interest in doing so. The person seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called
“loners”.
• Schizotypal Personality Disorder - It is characterized by seclusiveness, over sensitivity, avoidance of
communication and superstitious thinking is common.

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• Histrionic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by immaturity, excitability, emotional instability and self
dramatization.
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and pre
occupation with receiving attention. The person usually expects and demands special treatment from others
and disregarding the rights and feeling of others.
• Borderline Personality Disorder - It is characterized by instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior
problems. The person usually displays intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive,
unpredictable, and periodically unstable.
• Avoidant Personality Disorder - It is characterized by hypersensitivity to rejection and apprehensive alertness
to any sign of social derogation. Person is reluctant to enter into social interaction. • Dependent Personality
Disorder - It is characterized by extreme dependence on other people – there is acute discomfort and even panic
to be alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless. • Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder - It is
characterized by being hostile expressed in indirect and non-violent ways. They are so called “stubborn”.
• Compulsive Personality Disorder - It is characterized by excessive concern with rules, order, and efficiency
that everyone does things their way and an ability to express warm feeling. The person is over conscientious,
serious, and with difficulty in doing things for relaxation.
• Anti-social Personality Disorder - It is characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others through
aggressive, anti-social behavior with out remorse or loyalty to anyone.

PSYCHOTIC PATTERNS - are group of disorders involving gross structural defects in the brain tissue, severe
disorientation of the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality.

Organic Mental Disorders - A diagnosis of organic mental disorder is associated with a specific, identified
organic cause, such as abnormalities of the brain structure. These are mental disorder that occurs when the normal
brain has been damage resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.

1. Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain function. Its symptoms range from mild
mood changes to acute delirium.
2. Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of other
conditions. Its symptoms includes impairment of orientation (time, place and person), impairment of memory,
learning, comprehension and judgement, emotion and self-control.

Groups of Organic Mental Disorders

 1. Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the basic process of attention,
perception, memory and thinking.
2. Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation. The defect in the process
of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgement.
3. Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events more than a few minutes after they have
taken place.
4. Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that arise in full wakefulness
state. This includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.
5. Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or suspected brain damage. 6.
Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or depressive state with the impairment of the cerebral
function.
7. Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes following brain damage. 8. General Paresis
– also called “dimentia paralytica”, a syphilitic infection o f the brain and involving impairment of the CNS.

Disorders Involving Brain Tumor - A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal enlargement of body tissue.
Brain tumor can cause a variety of personality alterations, and it may lead to any neurotic behavior and consequently
psychotic behavior.

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Disorders Involving Head Injury - Injury to the head as a result of falls, blows and accidents causing
sensory and motor disorders.

Senile and Presenile Dementia

Mental retardation - Metal retardation is a mental disorder characterized by sub-average general functioning
existing concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before the age of 18. The person
is suffering from low I.Q., difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.

Schizophrenia and Paranoia - Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by
gross distortions of realty, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts
and emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split mind”. Paranoia – it is
a psychosis characterized by a systemized delusional system. A delusion is a firm belief opposed to reality but
maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary. It is also a psychosis characterized by delusion of apprehension
following a failure or frustration.

ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS - Psychoactive substance-use disorders such as alcoholism affects

millions of people. Addiction and psychological dependence on these substances create disastrous personal and social
problems (Bernstein, 1991).

SEXUAL DYSFUCNTIONAL PATTERNS - Sexual deviations to the impairment to either the desire for sexual
gratification or in the ability to achieve it (Coleman, 1980).

Those Affecting Males

1. Erectile Insufficiency (Impotency) – it is a sexual disorder characterized by the inability to achieve or maintain
erection for successful intercourse.
2. Pre-mature Ejaculation – it is the unsatisfactory brief period of sexual stimulation that result to the failure of the
female partner to achieve satisfaction.
3. Retarded Ejaculation – it is the inability to ejaculate during intercourse – resulting to worry between partners.

Those Affecting Women

1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – a sexual disorder characterized by partial or complete failure to attain the
lubrication or swelling response of sexual excitement by the female partner.
2. Orgasmic Dysfunction – a sexual disorder characterized by the difficulty in achieving orgasm 3. Vaginismus – the
involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance to the vagina that prevent penetration of the male sex organ.
4. Dyspareunia – it is called painful coitus/painful sexual acts in women.

Sexual Behaviors leading to Sex Crimes

As to Sexual Reversals

• Homosexuality – it is a sexual behavior directed towards the same sex. It is also called “lesbianism/tribadism” for
female relationship.
• Transvestism – refers to the achievement of sexual excitation by dressing as a member of the opposite sex such
a man who wears female apparel.
• Fetishism – sexual gratification is obtained by looking at some body parts, underwear of the opposite sex or
other objects associated with the opposite sex.

As to the Choice of Partner

• Pedophilia – a sexual perversion where a person has the compulsive desire to have sexual intercourse with a
child of either sex.
• Bestiality – the sexual gratification is attained by having sexual intercourse with animals

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• Auto-sexual (self-gratification/masturbation) – it is also called “self abuse”, sexual satisfaction is carried out
without the cooperation of another.
• Gerontophilia – is a sexual desire with an elder person.
• Necrophilia – an erotic desire or actual intercourse with a corpse
• Incest – a sexual relation between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry. As

to Sexual Urge

• Satyriasis – an excessive (sexual urge) desire of men to have sexual intercourse

• Nymphomania – a strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual urge.

As Mode of Sexual Expression

• Oralism – it is the use of mouth or the tongue as a way of sexual satisfaction.

a.Fellatio – male sex organ to the mouth of the women coupled with the act of sucking that initiates
orgasm.
b.Cunnilingus – sexual gratification is attained by licking the external female genitalia.
c.Anilism (anillingus) – licking the anus of the sexual partner

• Sado-Masochism (Algolagnia) – pain/cruelty for sexual gratification.

Sadism – achievement of sexual stimulation and gratification through the infliction of physical pain on the
sexual partner. It may also be associated with animals or objects instead of human beings. Masochism –
infliction of pain to oneself to achieve sexual pleasure.

As to Part of the Body

• Sodomy – is a sexual act through the anus of the sexual partner.

• Uranism – sexual gratification is attained through fingering, holding the breast of licking parts of the body. •
Frottage – the act of rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another person.
 • Partailism – it refers to the sexual libido on any part of the body of a sexual partner. As

to visual stimulus

• Voyeurism – the person is commonly called “the peeping Tom”, an achievement of sexual pleasures through
clandestine peeping such as peeping to dressing room, couples room, toilets, etc. and frequently the person
masturbate during the peeping activity.
• Scoptophilia – the intentional act of watching people undress or during sexual intimacies. As

to Number of Participants in the Sexual Act

• Troilism – three persons participate in sex orgy such as two women versus on man or vice versa. • Pluralism –
group of persons in sexual orgies such as couple to couple sexual relations. It is also called “sexual festival”.

Other Sexual Abnormalities

• Exhibitionism – it is called “indecent exposure”, intentional exposure of genitals to members of the opposite sex
under inappropriate conditions.
• Coprolalia – the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction.
• Don Juanism – the act of seducing women as a career with out permanency of sexual partner or companion.

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CRISIS MANAGEMENT

CONCEPTS OF CRISIS AND EMERGENCY

CRISIS is a period of disorganization, period of upset during which people attempts at arriving at solution of
problems. It is a crucial or decisive point or situation; a turning point; an unstable condition, as in political, social, or
economic. It is a state provokes when a person faces obstacles or hazards to an important life goal. The term Crisis is
derived from the Greek word “krisis” which means to separate; a turning point decision in a process of an affair or a
series of events.

EMERGENCY – is derived from the Latin word “emergencia” which means dipping/plugging. A sudden
condition or a state of affairs calling for an immediate action.

TYPES OF CRISIS

MAN-MADE CRISIS - civil disturbances - strike, riot, demonstration - revolt such as mutiny and insurrection -
revolution, border incident - war: conventional or nuclear – crimes: kidnapping, hijacking, hostage-taking, etc

NATURAL CRISIS - fire, floods, earthquake, tidal waves - marine/air disaster, hazardous spills, power failure,
nuclear accidents - water/food shortage/scarcity, drought - volcanic eruption, epidemic, etc.

INDIVIDUAL CRISIS – It refers to the feeling that arises when a person faces unpleasant situation such as
frustrations and conflicts. This includes:

1. Physical Crisis – those that are related to health problems or bodily sickness/sufferings. 2. Economics Crisis
– the deprivation of the basic necessities of life like food and material things. 3. Emotional Crisis – when an
individual is affected by negative feelings like emotional disturbances, fear, etc. 4. Social Crisis – the experiencing
lack of interest, confidence and social skills to relate meaningful, harmonious relationship with others.
5. Moral Crisis – the person has an irrational or distorted concepts of what is right or wrong, lack of moral values
 and integrity of the person.
6. Psychosexual Crisis – failure of the person to assume ones sex role and identity as a man or woman. The
person has an inappropriate sex objective, inadequate and distorted expression of affection.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT defined

Crisis management is the proper utilization of all available resources and the formulation of policies and
procedures to effectively deal with progressive sequence of events (crisis) and sudden or unforeseen state
(emergency).

PURPOSES OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

1. It sets concepts, policies and general procedures of handling crisis situation.

2. It guides and assist law enforcers in the formulation of crisis management contingency plans and SOP’s to
address crisis situations.

THE CRISIS MANAGEMENT DOCTRINE

This doctrine specifically addresses crisis situations arising out of the action of mentally deranged individuals, criminals
or terrorist elements that use violence or threat to pursue their needs. Crisis envisioned to be covered under this
doctrine include among others, hostage taking, sea jacking, hijacking, occupation of vital installation, ambush and
arson, with the use of violence or threat followed by blackmail, demands for ransom, safe-control, publicity and the like.

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The crisis may start as basically police or special unit matter, but could develop in proportion and dimension requiring
further military operations. This doctrine also will not address crisis when the purview and jurisdiction of the National
Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC), Peace and order council, the Cabinet Crisis Committee or the National Security
Council (NSC) and other national committee which could be military, economic, political, social or combination thereof,
in nature. The general idea is to prevent the occurrence of a crisis, ensure a probability of success in minimizing or
neutralizing the perpetrator or to return the situation into normalcy.

NATIONAL POLICY

The Philippines subscribed to all international conventions and initiatives against terrorism and will participate in all
endeavors designed to strengthen international cooperation in order to prevent and neutralize terrorist acts.

PNP/AFP POLICY

The PNP/AFP shall be guided by the national policy on terrorism and will strictly implement it. The use of peaceful
means shall always be employed. The AFP will not compromise nor make concessions to terrorist even if involves the
personnel or property. The AFP will act promptly, decisively and effectively, choosing from the whole range of military
actions appropriate to the circumstances.

PHASES OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

PRO-ACTIVE PHASES – is the stage of advance planning, organization and coordination and control in
response to an anticipated future crisis occurrence. This phase is designed to predict or prevent probability or
occurrence of the crisis while at the same time prepares to handle them when they occur.

1. PREDICTION - The first stage of anticipating future crisis occurrences through the following;
 ▪ Update- Intelligence – involves the collection of information from variety of sources as basis of
actions and plan; those that are related to crisis management contingency planning.
▪ Events – are those incidents that are already passed which can facilitate analysis necessary for
identification of probable threat groups, targets and necessary for advance planning.
▪ Threat Analysis of Threat Groups

a. Political Terrorist – ideologically inspire individuals who grouped together for a

common purpose usually for change of government or political power. Ex.
CPP/NPA, SPT’s, etc.
b. Criminals – these are people who commit terrorist acts for personal rather than
ideological gains. Some of the terrorist acts such as kidnapping are well planned,
other are not planned, but happens as a result of the fast response time by LEAs to
an on going crime. For instance, a number of bank robberies have evolved into
unplanned hostage situation when policemen arrive in response to an alarm robbery
is in progress.
c. Mentally Deranged Individuals – people commit terroristic acts during a period of
psychiatric disturbance. This type is the most difficult terrorist to deal with. Many of
them are impulsive and unpredictable.

2. PREVENTION - This pro-active phase considers counter measures as part of the total system of
operation. Such counter measures involves the following;

• Operation Security – a counter intelligence measure where all aspect of awareness and training
must be considered to prevent threat groups from learning the units plans methods of
operations. It also refers to measures taken in conducting operations or activities in secure
and effective manner.

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• Personal Security – it considers that all personnel are susceptible to terrorist attack so the is a
need for securing them. All security measures designed to prevent unsuitable individuals of
DOUGHTFUL LOYALTY from gaining access to classified matters or security facilities.

Considerations of Personnel Threat Assessment

1. Rank and Risk – higher ranking personnel have great risk level. In high-risk areas, secure high ranking
officers because they may be selected as terrorist targets by special knowledge they possess.

2. Threat Level (Potential Threats)

a. Primary targets are high-ranking military or police officers, government officials, foreign ministries,
other VIPs and persons possessing sensitive information.
b. Secondary targets – those selected as alternative terrorist targets to gain publicity.
c. Randomly selected targets – Military or police personnel who are not off duty or engage in private
activities and become targets of opportunity.

Stages in preparation of Personnel Security Program

1. Planning – threat analysis and assessment of available personnel security resources. 2.

Personal security education procedures are adopted.
3. Awareness – periodic briefing, public info drive, printed materials.
4. Education – education on terrorist tactics, sparrow opens and the like.
5. Physical Security – encompasses protection of info, material and people including perimeter installation.
 A system of barrier placed between the potential intruder and the material to be protected.

3. PREPARATION - this pro-active phase involves organizing training and equipment personnel of the
organization. In general, military commanders and officers of the PNP must organize, train and
equip special reaction, security and negotiation elements and provide their immediate activation
when the need arises.

National Level Organization

NCCM – National Committee on Crisis Management - Serves as the umbrella organization for crisis
management. The primary concern is the formulation of crisis management policies, integration of mil/pol to public
efforts towards the prevention and control of crisis. It is composed by:

1. PAFSECOM – Philippine Air Force Security Command

2. PNSWG – Philippine Navy Special Welfare Group
3. PASAG – Philippine Army Special Action Group
4. PNPSAG – Philippine National Police Special Action Group

RCAG – Regional Crisis Action Group

RCMOC – Regional Crisis Management Operation Center - the point of all communications from the OSCP
OSCP – On-Scene Command Post

The OSCP shall establish with in the crisis incident site. It is a post or unit with in a probable target to be headed by an
on-scene commander (OSC) whose responsibility is to take charge of every happening of a crisis incident scene.

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Composition of the OSCP

TACTICAL UNIT – composed of regular military or police placed under the operational command of the OSC.

1. Reaction Element – Special action unit which are specially organized, equipped and deployed in the region to
hold special operation in cases of crisis incident.
2. Security Element – military or police personnel task to protect the area of perimeter security to prevent
occurrence of unnecessary incidents.

SUPPORT UNIT – It is a unit that provides the necessary administrative, operational and logistic support of
the OSC.

1. Intelligence Team – responsible for the collection and processing of all information needed by the OSC. 2.
Communication Team – responsible for insuring effective communication between OSC and other units or
sub-units.
3. Logistic Team – responsible for ensuring mess services, supplies (clothing, equipment, transportation) and other
logistic services.
4. Medical Team – responsible for all medical supplies and services in cases of crisis incidents. 5. Fire Fighting
Team – responsible for all services related to extinguishing fires intentionally set by perpetrators or during the
result of operations.
6. Administrative Personnel – personnel assigned to OSC to keep written records of events, in coming or outgoing
communications.
 7. Legal/Investigation Team – services of investigation, preservation of evidence, documents and legal advice to
the OSC.

NEGOTIATION UNIT – It is headed by a chief negotiator and composed of two or more members. Their
primary concern is to serve first life, prevent destruction and pave the way for a peaceful resolution of crisis situations.

THE REACTIVE PHASE

When a crisis occur despite the pro-active effort, the organization concerned must be prepare to perform the crisis
management in accordance with their plan.

PERFORMANCE - It is the action stage, the implementation of the crisis management contingency plan.

1. The Initial Action – the stage taken by the Initial Action Unit, which is composed of police and military
personnel immediately organized into team to initially respond to take incident and begin the containment
effort. They are responsible for:
• maintain control of the situation
• report the matter to the RCAG through channels
• secure the scene by establishing perimeter security
• evacuate by standers if possible
• prevent escape of perpetrator
• take maximum control

2. The Action Stage - The action stage starts as soon as the tactical, support unit and the negotiation unit arrived
and are deployed. The OSC discusses the incident with his commander and staff and decides on the plans
and actions to be taken.

• Negotiation – chief negotiator undertakes negotiation as soon as he has been properly briefed and
received appropriate instruction from the OSC. He shall keep the OSCP informed of the progress of
negotiations and shall take instructions only from the OSC. No further negotiation shall be under
take when the tactical unit commander initiates tactical operations.

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• Tactical Action – the tactical commander makes a complete estimate of the crisis situation and plans
his courses of action upon arrival at the scene while negotiation is in progress. He shall maintain
and continuous contact with the OSCP. He shall take over authority on reaction element through
out the tactical operations. He shall take instructions only from the OSC and coordinate all support
requirements with the OSCP.

3. The Post Action Stage - This stage begin as soon as the perpetrator surrendered, captured or neutralized.
OSC shall ensure that the following are accomplished:
• Protection of the incident scene
• Investigation of the incident preservation of evidence
• Documentation
• SS – witnesses, hostage, perpetrators and other key participants of the incident.
• Recovered, documented, preserve evidences
• Pictorials, written reports
• Filing and prosecution of cases
• Damage Compensation and rehabilitation

He also initiates recommendation for the compensation and provide assistance to civilian killed and injured during
tactical operations. He initiates recommendation for the rehabilitation, construction of damage or essential
infrastructures.
 Training and re-training of unit personnel special units and negotiators shall continue with their training to
improve their proficiency and enhance their readiness.

CONCERNS OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT

TERRORISM

Terrorism is …
• a threat or actual use of force or violence for political or other purpose, to foster fear, insecurity, distrust, and
unrest among a specific group or the general population.
• “Violence for effect… not primarily, and sometimes not all for the physical effect on the actual target, but
rather for its dramatic impact on an audience.”
• “The calculated use of violence or the threat of violence t attain goals, often political or ideological in
nature”.
• “ Is violent criminal behavior designed to generate fear in the community, or a substantial segment of it, for
political purposes.

Classification of Terrorist

1. National Terrorist - A terrorist who operates and aspires to political power primarily within a single nation. 2.
Transnational Terrorist - This is a terrorist who operates across national boarders, whose actions and political
aspirations may affect individual of more than one nationality.
3. International Terrorists - A terrorists who is controlled by, and whose actions represent the national interest of
a sovereign state.

MOTIVATION AND GROUP CLASSIFICATION

What causes a rational thinking human being to terrorize society? Assuming that the terrorists think rationally
( and most of them possess a high degree of rationality ), we must look to the terrorists motives if we are to understand
them, to think like them, and to ultimately them.

1. Minority Nationalistic Groups - groups fighting the majority of the community where the support base will
depend one ethnic, religion, linguistic minorities at odd with the majority community.

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2. Marxist Revolutionary Groups – here, the terrorists’ movement is characterized by its possession of a
coherent Marxist ideology and of a long-term strategy for bringing about the socialistic revolution.

3. Anarchist Group - True Anarchist are difficult to find since true anarchy brings lawlessness and disorder, which
is not a natural state in which the human race exists.

4. Pathological Groups – problematic individuals who are grouped together for some terrorist activities for
emotional satisfaction.

TERRORISTS PROFILE (based on commonalties of international terrorists)

1. under 30 years of age

2. action oriented - some are college educated
3. from affluent/middle-class
4. often trained in medical, legal, engineering, teaching professions
5. terrorism rarely full-time occupation
6. inward assurance of strength
7. paradoxically, basically lonely
 8. believes he/she to be morally superior and in own mind is right
9. indifferent to suffering of his immediate victims
10. looks to colleagues for acceptance
11. wants respect from victims
12. willing to sacrifice self
13. seek publicity
14. believes violence is morally justified to support cause

Nature of Political Terrorist

1. It is a part of revolutionary strategy.

2. Manifest in acts on socially unacceptable means.
3. Symbolic target selection.
4. Creates psychological effects on population to change behavior attitude.
5. It forces the government to take drastic measures.
6. Combines political and criminal terroristic tactics.

Aims of Political Terrorist

1. Influence, discredit and destroy present system.

2. To break down social structures.
3. Erode trust in established government.
4. Foster insecurity and fears.
5. Shows that the government is incapable of protecting the people.
6. Forces the government to overreact to use excessive measures or force.
7. Destroy property.
8. Disrupt law and order
9. Propaganda
10. Create a ripe climate to revolution.

Common Characteristics of Terrorist

1. Promote fear
2. Main objective is publicity
3. Highly mobile
4. Fatalist – they can create destruction affecting the whole nation.
5. Undercover operations
6. Small groups mean security efficiency

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Immediate Goals of Terrorist

1. Local, national, worldwide recognition for a cause.

2. They cause government reactions.
3. Harass, weaken, embarrass government and government forces.
4. Demonstrate power and threat credibility.
5. Obtain money and equipment.
6. Destruction of communication.
7. Prevent and delay executive decisions.
8. Cause strikes or prevent elections, free or prevent elections.
9. Satisfy vengeance.

Long Range Goals of Terrorist

1. Cause drastic changes in the government.

 2. Turn the system favorable to their side.
3. Gain political recognition as a legal body representing an ethnic or national group.

Cooperation among Terrorist

1. Sharing resources (logistic support)

2. Sharing expertise.
3. Sharing safe havens.
4. Participating in joint operations.

Organization of Terrorist Groups

The way terrorist group organized is determined by it’s the need of security and the number of people in the
group.

1. Larger Groups – less secured

2. Small Groups – high degree of security but limited to operational capabilities.

As to group size, the large group can only succeed over a longer term in a week political environment. As to group
security, government forces attempt to destroy terrorist group or keep them in defensive position to discourage them
from mobilizing new to be extremely covert.

Terrorist Operation

1. Covert and well executed.

2. Carried out by specially well-trained and organized clandestine elements.
3. Weapons – basic arms and explosives but continue to seek advance weaponry.
4. Training – they are trained on subversion, weaponry, negotiation practices and espionage. 5.
Members of clandestine elements are of above average intelligence.

Methods of Operations

1. They operate in small bands

2. They carry light automatic weapons, grenades, basic explosives, ammunitions and communication equipment.
3. They mask their activities with the local populace.
4. Team includes assaults and security elements.
5. Leaders serve as negotiators.
6. They watch out for counter intelligence measures of the government forces.
7. In hostage taking, hostages are usually separated in safe houses to prevent communications and escape,
planning, and intelligence gathering.

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Sequence of Terrorist Action

1. Pre-incident phase – reconnaissance mission, Rehearsal

• Often reconnaissance team, planners, perpetrators do not meet.
• Communication are through intermediaries or by message drop.

2. Initiative Phase – moves to their target covertly.

• they use false names, ID, passports
• they use separate routes
• weapons and other items are separately to pre-arrange locations

3. Negotiation/Climax Phases
• they use negotiation to gain publicity.
 • Negotiation- often requires inter-government negotiations at the highest level.
• When government failed to give demands, they initiate more terror

4. Post incident Phase

• they learn from their failures and success
• terrorist re-groups, criticize and give critique about the operation.

TERRORIST TACTICS

BOMBING

Delivery to target is done through:

1. Vehicle Bomb-booby traps with attached devices

2. Laid Charges-bomb plates
3. Projected bombs-launched from riffles by a mortal device
4. Postal/mail bombs

Activation means:

1. Command activation by leads, pull wire or mechanism

2. Action by the subject/top pressure device, light sense electric switch
3. Time delay clock/burning chemical delay

ARSON - This is use to destroy or to disrupt public utilities, political HQs and industrial facilities.

HIJACKING - Hijacking and skyjacking are commonly used by terrorists. The hijack supply, ammunitions, fuel
cargoes, and vehicles to provide them to gain entry to a close military area, skyjacking of commercial aircraft to gain
publicity or to ask demands.

ASSASSINATION - The oldest but the commonly used terrorist tactic where targets are often police or
military officials or political features and they always claim responsibility of assassination.

AMBUSH - This is a well-planned, well thought-out, properly rehearsed and precisely

executed operation. The terrorist has time on his side and will spend considerable time preparing for an operation.
Terrorist have an advantage in that they can choose the time and place of operation.

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KIDNAPPING - Kidnapping for ransoms is the most common form of this tactic. The victim is normally
confined in a secret hideout and kidnappers make material demands.

HOSTAGE TAKING - The hostage-taker confronts the authorities and openly holds the victims for ransom.
His demands are more than just material in nature. Political concessions are the frequency demanded in exchange for
the hostage lives.

ROBBERIES/EXTORTIONS - Terrorist operations are expensive. To help finance their activities, terrorists rob
banks and armored vehicles carrying large sums of cash. Bank robberies are also used as graduation exercises for
terrorist training programs and viewed as a tactical operation. The conduct reconnaissance, plan escape routes and
operates in the high degree of efficiency and the progressive taxation scheme of the CPAA/NPA is a form of extortion
through coercion or use of force against the victim or his property.

TERRORIST TARGETS

1. MILITARY/POLICE
• command and control facilities
• logistic/storage facilities
• computer facilities
• explosives, sensitive weapons, arms and ammunition depots

2. ENGINEERING AND ENERGY SYSTEM

• hydroelectric plants
• offshore oil rigs
• nuclear facility sites
• gas pipelines
• dams and electric power lines

3. COMMUNICATION AND SUPPLIES

1. communication lines and facilities
2. chemical storage sites
3. dock facilities
4. equipment warehouse
5. computer facilities

4. TRANSPORTATION
• rail lines and cars
• bus depots
• airports and aircraft
• trucking and facilities
• shipyards and ships
• mainland routes and bridge

5. HUMAN
• members of the diplomatic crops
• government officials
• corporate executives
• police and military forces
• dependents/close relatives of the above

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6. VULNERABILITIES - Vulnerabilities are the weaknesses the installation security and high risk targets with in
such installation. These vulnerabilities are normally identified through security surveys and inspections
conducted periodically or on the spot intelligence and security units staffs.

The analysis of the threat to certain installation is based on information with both static and dynamic dimensions.

• STATIC DIMENSIONS – terrain, nationality of population, major industry in the area, location of installation,
mission of the installation
 • DYNAMIC DIMENSIONS - assignment of personnel, security measures used relations with civilian security,
demonstrations within post location
• DYNAMIC DIMENTIONS THAT ARE HARDLY CONTROLLABLE – weather, activities of hostile groups,
economic conditions, local law enforcement, off post demonstrations

The vulnerability of installations can be determined to some extent through the consideration of the following
factors:

• Installation characteristics and its attractiveness as a target for the terrorist acts.
• status of training personnel
• availability of communications
• non-military law enforcement resources
• time and distance from military installation able to lend assistance
• geographic region
• proximity to foreign borders
• access to installation
• terrain

HOSTAGE SITUATION

This is termed as crisis by the law enforcement officers and behavioral professionals. This situation exist
when one or more individuals are held captive by other person or persons against their will for purposes of demanding
material things or due to behavioral maladies. Criminal type hostage takers may direct their demand towards the
government or to other private individuals. Mentally or emotionally disturbed may take hostages out of nothing or due to
uncontrollable forces.

In dealing with hostage situations, the priorities are to 1) preserve lives, 2) apprehend the captors, and 3)
recover or protect properties. Negotiators should be prepared for this kind of situation since it will take them a long
period of time to contain the situation. According to experts, a hostage taking may last for an hour to more than forty
hours. Hostage takers and hostages and even the negotiators become tired and stressed out of the long period of crisis
intervention. Hostages become impatient waiting for their safe release or rescue. With this, there is a great possibility of
the birth of the Stockholm’s Syndrome. This is characterized by transference of attention between the captors and
captives. The hostage towards his captors may generate positive feelings.

Negotiators can have enough time to contain and isolate the scene. The initial state of high emotion is given
time to subside and rational thinking to return. The lives of the hostages become more secure as the holder realizes the
value of their continued safety; and fatigue will set in and alertness will fade.

It was research by experts that passage of time is in favor of the hostages and to the negotiators. In the first
hour of the situation, the hostage taker is at rage and tension is at peak. As time passes mental, emotional and physical
fatigue will be increased and will operate against the hostage taker. As this happen, the above-enumerated benefits of
slowing time operate.

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STAGES OF A HOSTAGE SITUATION

Alarm Stage - This stage is the most traumatic and dangerous. In the alarm stage, the emotion of the
hostage taker is exceedingly in its highest peak, his rationalization and proper thinking is low, He may be extremely
aggressive in his reaction to any perceived threat. E.g. escape of hostages, tactical assault, trickery etc.
 In order for the perpetrator gain cooperation from the hostages, he usually terrorizes the hostages into
submission. At this stage he may also inclined to inflict physical harm or even kill anyone who interferes with their
attempts. (Strentz, 1984, p. 190). The same is the situation in the part of the hostages. Since no one knows when or
does not want that they will be held hostages. This is considered as a traumatic stage as they fear much for their lives.
From a peaceful situation, turns into a life and death situation ticking every minute and the lives of the hostages depend
on the hand of the hostage taker. (Herman, 1995, p. 92). A person taken as hostage becomes impatient, denial of
reality sets in them, particularly when those they expect to help seem to be doing nothing. In order to cope immediately
with this agitated feeling, one must put into place a will to survive since panic may cause over reaction in the part of the
hostage taker and diminishes the chances of survival. It is also important that hostages should disregard any notion of
being a hero. (Strentz, 1984, p. 196)

Crisis Stage - In this stage, when negotiation attempts are being initiated by the crisis negotiator. Outrageous
demands and unpredictable emotion is marked or commonly noted in the hostage taker. There is still a great deal of
danger since hostage takers try to consolidate their positions. To do these, they try to move their hostages to a safer
ground area. On the part of the captive, this is the most critical because this stage may predict the remainder of the
situation. Chances of survival may be enhanced or reduced during this stage through the hostage – hostage taker
interaction. It is advisable that hostages must control their fear as it increases unpredictable outburst of anger and
violence on the captor. The hostage taker may inconsistently enforce numerous demands and petty rules and this may
result to unsuccessful negotiation. In addition, the perpetrator seeks to destroy the victim’s sense of autonomy by
depriving him of his basic needs.

At this stage hostages may start to feel three (3) problems: 1) Isolation, 2) Claustrophobia, and 3) Sense of
time. Sense of time becomes important on hostages who are hoping for rescue. This situation may also in favor of the
hostage taker as they earn compliance from their captives.

Accommodation Stage - This is distinguished by boredom, and with moments of terror. Though is
considered as the longest yet is the most tranquil. In the crisis stage, and even in the alarm stage, hostages are
considering escape options but in the accommodation stage, their initiative and planning are narrowed since captors
has increased control over them. The hostages’ sense of life preserving has increased and even tries to obey the
orders. Stockholm’s syndrome will likely to occur between the captors and the victims. One looks into this phenomenon
in the negative that one must say that cooperation of hostages to the negotiator is constricted.

In the right manner, the hostages in good effect can make use of this phenomenon. It lessens tension and
openness is generated. It is advisable that hostages must avoid political discussions as it accentuates differences with
captors and hostages. (Miron and Goldstein)

Resolution Stage - This is the stage when the hostage taker is being stressed out or fatigued of the
situation. He is seemingly losing interest of the situation and lost most of his bargaining points. Tension between the
hostages, hostage taker and the crisis negotiator is notably low. It should be regarded also that the crisis intervention
techniques of the negotiation team have increased. In this stage, reactions of the hostages are mixed either blaming
their captors or may become hostile and uncooperative to their rescuers and even accusing them to be the responsible
for the whole situation. They might even appraise their captors for taking care (saving) their lives though their captors
placed them into a hell experience.

Released victims become paranoid and often experience post trauma attacks after liberation. These may
even last for a long period of time. Such experience becomes part of their lives and haunts them from time to time if not
being properly treated. They, being a paranoid, continue to monitor their captors if taken away from them or safely put
behind bars.

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THE HOSTAGE TAKER
 It is a must that a police officer who first arrived at the scene has the necessary skill to determine what type
or personality of the hostage taker is. This does not mean that he must diagnose the perpetrator. In assessing the
situation, one must be able to determine and know the two kinds of behavior:

• Instrumental behavior- those who are engaging in this kind of behavior are having goals to obtain or to be
fulfilled. Generally, hostage takers of instrumental behavior are criminal types and intervention usually
needs bargaining. E.g. barricaded criminals, or other organized crime groups.

• Expressive behavior- This kind of behavior is characterized by their attempt to display power. Those who
engage in this kind are emotionally disturbed individuals. E.g. mentally insane, etc.

In many hostage situations committed, statistics reveals that most of those involve are mentally disturbed
individuals and the remaining are results of instrumental behaviors. According to research, twenty five (25%) percent of
all hostage situations are instigated by expressive acts. With this data, it is important that we must learn the different
types of hostage takers and we will begin with the emotional aspect.

Mentally Disturbed

This group suffers from different kinds of psychological maladies. They may or may not in touch with reality. A
mentally disturbed individual may be a loner, act in accordance with an non existing irresistible force, or on a false belief
or a stimuli (Cooper, 1981). Symptoms may include such things as dramatic and sudden changes of behavior, loss of
memory, mistreatment of a loved one, a sudden, impulsive act of theft, extreme depression, or anxiety that is out of
proportion to the circumstances that appear to be causing the anxiety.

The individual may talk to himself of hear voices, or he may be displaying dangerous behavior without any
apparent reason. Mentally or emotionally disturbed individual may be in a very docile mood for a while and become
extremely violent without any apparent cause (Adams).

A patrol officer is usually the first person to respond to a crisis situation before the crisis team arrives. In some
instances where Crisis Management Teams (CMT) are not available, he usually starts and event finalizes the job. Police
officers are empowered to bring the mentally and emotionally disturbed individuals to the psychiatrist for evaluation and
treatment.

Paranoid Schizophrenics

To begin with the different kinds of mental disorder, we must first understand the different topics associated
with this. Below are items of information discussed in the book of Adams that serve as a guide to a police officer who
will respond to a hostage situation involving mentally disturbed.

Psychosis is a gross and persistent falsification of conventional reality that leaves the person unable to
manage conventional reality with any degree of effectiveness. Psychosis has two major components.

Delusion is the faulty belief that is motivated primarily by the individual’s needs and wishes and in fact, has
no basis. Hallucination is manifested in a visual image that is quite vivid and real to the individual who experiences it.

Paranoia is a set of fixed delusional beliefs that are accompanied by clear and orderly thinking outside the
delusion system. Paranoia manifests itself. A paranoid has been described as “vigilant suspicious, distrustful, insecure,
and chronically anxious”. There are two types of a paranoid individual as:

The True paranoid or the Classical paranoid as psychologists prefer, may be of high level of intelligence and
so persuasive that he will successfully recruit other persons to help him in his war against enemy. Individual with
Paranoid Reaction do not handle the problem in as much logic or intelligence as the true paranoid.
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Schizophrenia is a thinking disorder. Expert says that, approximately 80 percent of the mentally ill of the
population are schizophrenic. There are subcategories of this kind of mental disorder, the catatonic state and the
hebephrenic state. Catatonic state is demonstrated by the patient’s rigidly held position for some interminable period of
time, while Hebephrenic state is when the subject acts childlike and silly.

The signs and symptoms of the schizophrenic condition may appear in three (3) different ways such as the
following:

1. The subject’s language may be rambling and tangential; he may make up meaningless rhymes, or echo
anything he hears;
2. The subject may show his split personality incongruent between his expressed ideas and emotional
responses. This indicates that two thought operate simultaneously.
3. The subject may isolate or alienate himself from the rest of the society and pull himself into his personal
shell (Schizotype personality).

Neurosis is suffered by a person if most likely to be observed in a continuous state of anxiety. Erratic
behavior would more than likely be displayed by reaction to anxiety in the form of ego defense mechanism such as
rationalization, projection or displacement. The signs and symptoms are shaking uncontrollably and depression without
explanation.

In general, they are characterized by being out of touch with reality and being recognized by their false belief.
Hostage taking is done in order for them to carry out plans from someone who compels them to do. Their routine is to
accomplish something but there is no accomplishment. Most of the paranoid schizophrenics are in conflict and with
difficulty in coping even in a minimal stress situation.

Male paranoid may have problems with gender identity and religious beliefs. It is so noted that frustration and
conflict is involved. When these two combines, severe anxiety will surface that makes a person so sensitive and
volatile. Lack of interpersonal trust, religious conviction, sexual disfunction, persecutory beliefs about family or
significant individuals or even distrust to the negotiator or police may lie in the person’s behavior. This variety of issues
may cause the negotiation difficult and dangerous (1986).

The first thing a negotiator should do is to keep the dialogue at an even pace. Since paranoid schizophrenics
are out of touch with reality, it is a must that the hostage taker should be kept calm enough to stay in touch with reality
while the negotiation process is going on. A good negotiation strategy is suggested below:

1. Reduce anxiety at the same time create a problem solving atmosphere

2. Do not trick the captor
3. Accept the statement as true but do not agree
4. Do not convince that he is wrong
5. Emphatic understanding is needed

Manic depressive personality

Depressed individuals are in an incapacitated mental state. He may frequently know the hostages and the
latter might be the cause of his depression. Negative outlook in life, feeling unworthy, slow speech, suicidal and
unpredictable and extremely dangerous are the characteristics of this type of mentally disturbed. To a one who is a
suicidal type, he might inflict harm or even kill one of the hostages and the police will be forced to shoot him (Strentz,
1984).

When dealing with this kind of mentally disturbed hostage taker, the negotiator must be:
 1. Firm and manipulative
2. Understanding and be supportive
3. Able to induce subject to talk about something positive

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Inadequate personality

This is a type of person that displays attention-seeking behavior. Hostage taking is his action to prove himself
or his worth. During the commission of the crime, he tends to delay his actions and be caught in flagrante in order for
him to prove himself (“I’ll show them”). His characteristics are homicidal, loser complex, maybe fired from many jobs
and is in touch with reality. Though they are emotionally disturbed, yet they are apologetic to their behavior (“I’m sorry
but I have to do this to prove that I can be a good worker…”).

The negotiator should be aware that those statements mean that it’s either murder or physical harm to the
hostages. It is but wise to present problem solving alternatives so that the hostage taker will not feel that he has failed
again. The person needs acceptance and understanding. An initial action is to offer promises that can be kept and do
not allow relatives in the scene.

Anti-social personality

Those who belong to this kind of personality are repeatedly having conflict with the people around them and
notably having a deviant behavior from groups, social values and or individuals. They defend their face from
embarrassment by blaming others in the form or rationalization. Anti-socials, when takes hostages, are generally
engages in expressive acts and they are likely to dehumanize the hostages and this is an indication that they are
dangerous individuals.

According to Lanceley, antisocial individuals did not internalized moral values yet they know the
consequences of their acts and they are therefore considered or more likely to become a foe. These hostage takers are
only concerned for themselves indicating egotism. Though they are aware of the consequences of their acts, they feel
no remorse and the negotiator must be aware of this. At any time the hostage taker may consider his hostages as
burden and might harm or even end killing his hostages. A guideline of action suggested is that the ego of the hostage
taker is stimulated.

In this situation, the stimulus of this situation might be the hostages and the negotiator must diverse the
attention away from them. It is also suggested that it is but wise not to refer or talk about hospitalization or treatment
during the crisis intervention as this might agitate the perpetrator if they believe they might loose their freedom or is
insinuated that they are crazy. Since the hostage taker is a street and police wise, it is advisable not to use trickery
(Fusilier, 1981).

The estranged person

Domestic problem is the main cause why an estranged individual takes hostages. The hostages are
commonly known to him and mostly are his family members. The hostage taker is experiencing from relationship
breakdown in his or her interpersonal relationships and hostage taking is employed to compel the relationship to be
maintained. The hostage taker at his point is afraid of loosing the significant others. In order to carry out hostage taking,
alcohol and prohibited drugs are used to have the necessary courage (Cooper, pp. 27-28). Knowledge in domestic
intervention is essential when dealing with this kind of volatile situation. The negotiator should be careful when
intervening on personal disputes as oral arguments between the hostage and the hostage taker may occur.

The negotiator must be an emphatic listener and with good responding skill. He must also be aware of the
personal nature if the situation. The negotiator should also have the ability to bar the denial of reality into despair. The
resolution is that the perpetrator needs to be shown a graceful way out (Cooper, 1981).
Terrorists

Terrorism throughout the world has been alarming for the past decades and even at present. Countries
around the world have been facing terrorism problems either local or international groups. In the United States alone, it
has been reported that there are local terrorists sowing fear, insecurity and unrest amongst the people. They create
chaos through assassinations, bombing, arson and other forms of malicious destruction of properties. (CMD, AFP/PNP)

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Though global terrorism is seemingly increasing and alarming, the international law enforcement community is trying
its best to address to this kind of problem. (The international police organizations, other law enforcement, religious and
civic organizations team up together in fighting these terrorists.)

Regardless of their cause, their terroristic activities are condoned by most of the people.

Characteristics, Modus Operandi and Causes

In order for them to attain their goal, careful planning is involved. They employ professional members [most of the
planning team members are educated enough on political matters] to outwit and deceive the authorities. They also
employ undercover agents and divide into groups.

Hostages are in serious jeopardy when their demands are not met immediately or if the military pressure hovers them
(i.e deployment of troops, hovering choppers). The local police may not be able to meet the demands immediately and
only serve as perimeter security as they need government attention. They use media to get attention from the
government.

Since most of the longest running crisis situation involves political terrorists, they want to negotiate directly to the
Government and pay less attention to the agents or crisis management teams. Terrorists also try to let the government
overreact n the situation so when worse come, they, the hostages and the rights groups will turn ire and blames on the
government.

The common question asked is what causes them to do such. Evidently, hostage taking is their means to get the
much-needed attention from the government or private individuals just like other types of hostage takers. In this way,
the authorities will initiate actions to negotiate for the safe release of the hostages on the fear that the latter will end
killed or harmed.

On the issue on ransom, according to them are just demanded to cover their expenses while hostages are at their
custody, but in sense, will serve as their resources to buy additional firepower or in the recruitment for additional
manpower in preparation for the anticipated military or police pressures.

Just like other types of hostage takers, they need to be negotiated with . The only difference is that a mentally
deranged, inadequate and antisocial personalities needs more the help of mental health professionals and rapid police
response as the last resort to rescue hostages away from danger. While on terrorist hostage takers, painstaking
bargaining on social and political demands is traditionally used. Government negotiators are utilized to the fullest to
negotiate and bargain issues with the kidnappers.

Barricaded Criminals

This type might be robbers cornered by the police while in the act of committing their crime (i.e bank robbers).
Either barricaded in a building, road block or on getaway cars. Hostages are may be employees, bystanders or both
caught in the process of escaping. The hostage taking is a spontaneous reactions of the criminal when cornered. Some
law enforcement officers consider barricaded criminals as attention seekers, but others describe then in the contrary as
they avoid being identified. Their primary aim is to escape safely taking with them the hostages as shield to prevent
being shot by the police. Usually barricaded criminals are engaged in instrumental acts as they demand for material
things such as getaway cars, firearms, money, and safe escape.

Barricaded criminals may initiate bargaining negotiation as the police closely monitor them. As earlier presented they
might ask a safe conduct pass for the release of the hostages, or they might ask for additional money or getaway car
and leave the hostages immediately. The negotiator, upon gathering all the facts and assessment of the situation,
including the mental faculties, he may use his own discretion in the negotiation process, whether to grant the demand
or not

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Prisoners

While most prisoners spend most of their time inside the correctional institutions, some are concentrated on
penal colonies under tight guards and to those who are completely secluded inside their prison cells, they are haunted
by boredom, get tired and hostile. These may be due to the strict implementation of house rules, favoritism and poor
prison conditions (Lack of recreational activities and inadequate facilities, poor structuring etc.).

These conditions may largely contribute to the occurrence of riots and crisis [hostage taking] situations in our
correctional institutions. Most probably, the hostages are the prison authorities and staffs or even some of the inmates.
For some institutionalized individuals, hostage taking is their means of effecting escape [hostages serve as their shield
against assault of authorities] to stay away from the harsh prison condition. Another group of prisoner-hostage takers
are those who do not consider escape but a rather total improvement of the conditions and services of the prison
institution.

Prisoners who initiate hostage taking may be involved on either instrumental or expressive acts or both.
Instrumental behavior involves those situationally related, substantive and objective wants and commonly known as the
commodity goal of the hostage taker (Roloff and Jordan, 1992). An example of this is the demand for prison condition
as these are the causes of the situation.

Additionally the first group almost has similar purpose to the barricaded criminals as they inhibit instrumental
acts or behaviors.

The negotiation approach in this situation based on the acts involved is bargaining approach. They need to
be bargained with at the soonest possible time as the lives of the hostages are in great danger. This is possible, as the
hostage taker believes that the hostages are the main cause of the problem.

NEGOTIATION MODELS In Crisis Situations

Whenever a crisis [hostage] situation is reported to the police or other law enforcement professionals, the
initial action being taken is the activation of tactical assault or Initial Action team and the coordination of trained crisis
negotiators within their departments. In cases where the hostage taking is initiated by a perpetrator, purely engaged in
expressive acts, the services of a mental health professional trained in crisis management is indispensable. On cases
of instrumental behaviors, tactical assault teams are mobilized to contain and isolate the area and on standby when
worst come along as the negotiator/s enter the situation. However, the services of mental health professionals are
sought since most of hostage takers with instrumental behaviors are partially engaged in expressive acts.

In assessing a crisis situation, one must understand and be able to determine the two kinds of behavior.
Firstly, Instrumental behavior refers to actions on the part of the perpetrators and negotiators that facilitates some types
of substantive outcome in terms of instrumental issues (situationally related, substantive and objective wants of each
party). Additionally, those who are engaging in this kind of behavior are having goals to obtain or to be fulfilled.
Generally, hostage takers of instrumental behavior are criminal types and intervention usually needs bargaining. E.g.
barricaded criminals, or other organized crime groups. Expressive kind of behavior on the other hand refers to various
forms of perpetrator’s and negotiator’s behavior that serves to communicate the power or significance of the individual
and his/her emotional state. Simply, it involves the behavior of the perpetrator (Hammer and Rogan). This is
characterized by the hostage taker’s attempt to display power. Those who engage in this kind are mostly emotionally
disturbed individuals. e.g. mentally insane, etc. Over the years there are approaches used by negotiators and are
devised to suit to these kinds of behavior or acts.

Bargaining Negotiation Approach - Earlier discussed were the two types of acts. Bargaining negotiation
approach is the model that negotiator employ whenever instrumental issues come along way. In this approach,
negotiation is viewed in terms of an exchange or distribution of resources. This approach is derived to the social
exchange theory of Roloff, (1981), which accordingly has two premises:

1. Conflicts involve people who are interdependent which means that each party can not accomplish each
own goals without agreement from each party, and
2. Such conflicts involve rewards and costs from each other

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This Social Exchange Theory is obviously focused in the exchange of objects during the negotiation. In
order that the negotiation be successful, some authors of crisis management books claimed that the communication
approach involve the exchange of one set of resources for others or known as bargaining.

Bargaining is a powerful tool to resolve a conflict provided that the hostage takers focus on instrumental
concerns or issues that are negotiable. They are more likely to engage with the hostage negotiator in order to bargain
and resolve the crisis.

Van Zandt, Rogan and Hammer reviewed and made critique on this approach and notes: “the type of
situation law enforcement usually encounter, often fall in several ways to match the requirements of instrumental
negotiation approach.”

First, crisis negotiation situation is not typically like others, more common forms of instrumental dominated
bargaining where the assumption is that, the parties come with well thought out proposals and are willing to a
bargaining process. Crisis [hostage] situations involve high levels of anxiety and uncertainty. They are characterized by
a pronounced level of emotional excitation precipitated by the hostage takers motives and enhanced police response.
Majority of hostage crisis occurs as a result of the mental and emotional inability of the hostage takers to cope with life
stressors. This produces a situation where normative rational actor bargaining is generally absent and its place exist an
explosive dangerous and volatile set of interaction dynamics where emotional excitation and relationship issues (e.g.
control, power, trust, liking and face) play a critical role.

Over all, the particular features of crisis situation discussed above suggest that negotiators often face
interaction dynamics that may not fully explained by the instrumentality focused bargaining approach.

Expressive Negotiation Approach - This approach is mainly focused on the emotional state of the hostage
taker as a powerful tool to resolving of crisis situation. Expressive negotiation approach came to existence with the use
of psychology, human relatons theory and research. Both assume that the nature and quality of interpersonal
relationships play a large role in resolving a conflict. The three (3) assumptions of the expressive negotiation model are:

1. Hostage has no instrumental value. This explains that the hostage is a tool or device used in gathering
audiences or attracting attention (attention-seeking behavior) to the hostage taker. The hostage taker
may initiate a crisis to demonstrate his ability to control others.
2. Both interactants have the interest to prevent the escalation of the situation into violence or death. The
hostage taker has some minimal level of awareness that when he kill his hostages, he will later suffer the
consequences.
3. Hostage taker and negotiators are confronted with high level of emotional excitation. Increased emotional
arousal prepares the perpetrator from reacting with fight or flight response rather than a problem-solving
mode.
 In this approach, negotiators must be knowledgeable on ‘crisis intervention therapy’; listening skills as it
contributes a lot in decreasing anxiety and a problem solving can emerge later during the negotiation process.
(Schlossberg, 1979, Van Zandt, Rogan and Hammer, 1998). In addition, relationship development and confidence
building strategies are viewed as critical to resolution of crisis [hostage] incidents. The negotiator must have enough
training in listening, paraphrasing, and self-disclosure, open ended questioning to reduce perpetrator’s anxiety.

Under intense stress, the Stockholm syndrome may likely to occur. This phenomenon has been carefully
studied and recorded by psychologists. The impact of the incident stress on negotiator’s psychological well-being. More
so on unsuccessful negotiations. Negotiators should also deserve attention like professional help. Explications of
emotional and personality disorders and their impact on crisis negotiation. Most of the hostage situations are committed
by paranoids, depressed, antisocial and inadequate personality typologies. Hostage negotiations depends on the
psychological characteristics of the hostage taker and the identification of the effective communication strategies when
negotiating with perpetrators who exhibit behavioral patterns consistent with specific mental and emotional disorders.
This model of negotiation is used to lessen the perpetrator’s emotional tension to give way for a rational
problem-solving atmosphere. (Hammer and Rogan)

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Communication-based negotiation approach - This approach is founded on an interactive assessment if
the crisis [hostage] situation as it unfolds and is created through the interaction of the negotiator and the perpetrator.
Therefore, communication based approach is an interactive process wherein negotiators and hostage takers react to
each message behavior.

In fundamental communications theory, communications is composed of content and relational dimensions.

Content dimension of communication represents the instrumental focus of person’s message, while the latter conveys
the expressive features (as trust, power, and respect). There are three (3) interaction concerns relative to the
communication-based negotiation approach, which may tend to escalate or deescalate the conflict. (Hammer and
Rogan)

1. Instrumental concerns; Hammer and Rogan notes: “Instrumental message behavior arises in crisis
negotiation as the hostage takers and the negotiators bargain with one another regarding with the
incompatibility of their objective concerns.” In this concern, there are two broad types of issues involved,
the substantive issues and non-substantive issues or the situationally related and the situationally
unrelated respectively
2. Relational concerns - Relational message behavior denotes when an individual’s concern is more on the
nature of the relationship to other individual. There are thre-e (3) core elements that represents relational
message behavior.
• Power- this concerns the degree of agreement between the two interactants along a
dominance-submission dimension.
• Trust- revolve around the degree to which each party is willing to accept the premise that no one
shall be hurt or no act shall be detrimental to self.
• Affiliation- refers to belongingness and acceptance between the perpetrator and the negotiator
(respect, liking and caring for the well being).

3. Identity concerns - Identity concerns refers to an individual’s concern for self-presentation, reputation or
face. These are then important to both parties.

According to Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory as discussed by Hammer and Rogan, personal and social
identities are the two dimensions of a person’s self image and are best to be known by the negotiator when dealing with
conflict situation, noted as:

‘Personal identity is based on an individual’s unique perception of his or her own attributes’ (The person
perceives himself either weak, strong, or intelligent).Hammer and Rogan also suggested that a suicidal’s
emphasis is on personal identity concerns, and
‘…social identity consists of those characteristics and their emotional significance that is attached to one’s
 membership in social groups...’ (nationality, gender, ethnicity, social group/cult).

Rogan and Hammer further discussed that face message behavior varies along three (3) dimensions and the
first denotes the locus of a communicator’s interest (is the face message directed to ones’s self or to other?); Face
valence is the second dimension, a behavior either to attack or honor face. Finally, ‘face-honoring entails a dimension
which relates to whether the message behavior functions to proactively protect against potential future threats to face or
to retroactively restore perceived loss of face’.

When these three (3) dimensions are combined together, there are six (6) types of face message behavior
being produced:

1. Defend Self’s Face - This behavior is self-honoring and self directed messages. More often, the hostage taker
uses this when he is asked about the condition of the hostages and replied… (“ I don’t know but I think they’re
all OK! “)

2. Attack Self’s Face - Is a behavior that tends to attack or is directed to one’s self. The statement, (“ I know this is
all my fault…” ) fits to this behavior. The perpetrator directs criticism or attacks to himself when he fell
remorse of his act and this usually occur during the accommodation stage.

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3. Restore Self’s Face - This is used to restore one’s face/reputation. (“ I’m not as crazy as you think…”) A hostage
taker with psychological maladies uses this face message behavior to restore his reputation.

4. Restore Other’s Face - A face message behavior that is directed towards the other party. (“ You’re such an
intelligent guy…”) or (” You’ve got a lot of people who cares about you…”)The negotiator tries to restore the
perpetrator’s face by attempting to gain cooperation and lessen the latter’s psychological burden.

5. Defend Other’s Face - Known as the traditional message behavior utilized to protect other’s face from future
attack or loss. (“ I know you can overcome these odds in your life…”). The negotiator should defend the
perpetrator and not the hostages to increase sense of worth of the perpetrator.

6. Attack Other’s Face - This represents the traditional, more limited view of face attack behaviors. (“ These people
causes me to do this…”) When a negotiator shifts the blame to others, it does not really mean that hostages
are not prime importance. It is more likely that the hostage taker fell sense of understanding and
belongingness. However, if the hostage taker is the one who uses this, he is trying to imply that the main
cause of the situation are the people involved [hostages].

THE STOCKHOLM SYNDROME

In the event of hostage crisis, the Stockholm syndrome will likely to occur. This phenomenon is referred to
as the process of transference in which the hostages begin to identify their captors and the following may occur:

1. Positive feelings from the hostages to the captors

2. Negative feelings toward the authorities by both hostages and captors
3. Positive feelings returned by the captors to the hostages

This phenomenon got its name after one of the hostages in an aborted bank robbery in Sweden fell in love
with the perpetrator (Strentz, 1994). In some instances, hostages may even help the perpetrator consummate the crime
either by providing cover fire during the escape process or actually joining the heist or become an instant member of
the group.

Stockholm syndrome with operates when there is an extended period of time, not being isolated from one’s
captor and the positive contact between the hostages and the hostage taker (Fuselier, 1981).

Variety of issues may possibly cause the occurrence of this phenomenon such as:
 1. Pity- In the case of mentally disturbed individuals, hostages may pity them, as they believe these individuals
need professional help. The hostages may offer advises (i.e. not advisable) or even instruct the police not to
launch a tactical assault against the defenseless and sick hostage taker.
2. Personal feelings- the hostage may feel affection towards the hostage more when the hostage is female, with
pleasing personality and cooperative.
3. Indoctrination- barricaded political terrorists tend to indoctrinate their hostages to force them agree and believe
with their stand or political ideology. It is not so surprising that a son of a slain scout ranger sergeant in
Mindanao joined his Abu Sayyaf captors during the siege in 2000.
4. Poor inaction of the authorities- the hostages in the alarm and crisis stages of hostage taking want to be
speedily rescued before they will be killed or harmed.

In a crisis [hostage] situation, negotiators consider staling of time the number one rule in dealing with hostage
crisis. On scene negotiators stale time to decrease tension among themselves and the hostage taker. This might be
misinterpreted by the hostages as they feel neglected. They will end up sympathizing with their captors and
uncooperative to their rescuers.

It should be corrected that providing assistance to the hostage taker not a conclusion that Stockholm
syndrome has occurred. Hostages may carry the moneybag or the clerk opens the vault due to continue threat of the
hostage taker.

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As Stockholm syndrome continue to develop among the hostages and their captors, the latter will make
increase awareness of the safety of the hostages for fear of losing a shield. The negotiators and the hostages however
may benefit from this phenomenon since the safety of the hostages is increased. This happens during the
accommodation period as hostages may tend to obey every command of their captors and the latter will decrease or
lessen the degree of security, control and the introduction of physical harm among the hostages.

REACTIVE MEASURES IN HOSTAGE TAKING INCIDENTS

OPERATIONAL PREMISES OR AREA

Principal Participants: First responding officers, Field supervisors, Threat Management Force Commander, Tactical
Unit Commander

Duties and Functions

a. First Responding Officers:

• proceed to the scene discreetly
• do not return fire except:
• when loss of life is imminent
• when hostage-taker is visible, armed, identifiable and no
• third party will be caught in the crossfire.
• contain the suspect-condor or isolate the area
• request assistance
• evacuate-care of critically injured persons if any
• retain witnesses- gather information
• attempt to communicate there telephone, megaphone or other means
• deploy responding officers
• Develop required police information-initial report of situation
• keep headquarters/station informed-periodic assessment
• of situation relayed from time to time

b. Field officers
 • assumes command upon reaching scene
• evaluate situation
• prescribed containment procedures until the TMF arrives

c. TMF Commanders
• establishment command post
• coordinate/direct Commander of Tactical Unit Team
• plans/promulgate aggressive operational activities if required.

d. Tactical Unit Commander

• ensure that suspect is under constant surveillance
• maintain well-planned assault operation, upon order

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

1. Stabilization and Containment

• Establish Rapport: get to know the suspect
• Operational Activities -clear area/scene of pedestrians, required innocent persons to evacuate-this can be
done, throughout non-verbal language, gather information about the suspect
• submit initial report
• request for additional resources, if needed

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2. Consolidation and negotiation

Negotiation and qualities

• civilian volunteer preferred depending upon the call of incident
• demonstrate sympathy without being emotionally involved
• ability o accept tension between conflicting views
• maintaining self-control
• possess moral courage and integrity
• patient and good listener
• should not be a decision maker
• possess certain language skills or background which will lend
• insight into the psycho of the hostage taker
• knowledge in psychology of aggressive human behavior
• ability to give minor rewards
• ability to withhold rewards

Steps in Negotiation
• On Initial contact - avoid hostile or antagonistic approach, introduce yourself-don’t use title or rank, sell
yourself-sincere and honest, instill trust and confidence, minimize tension soonest
• Development - drawing a psycho profile or hostage taker, reinforce relationship establishment at initial
contact
• Alternative steps
• Climax stage
• Termination

RULES AND PROCEDURES ON NEGOTIATION

1. Stabilize and contain the situation

2. Select the right time to make contact with the hostage-taker
3. Take time when negotiating, allow hostage-taker to speak
 4. Don’t offer the hostage-taker anything. What he will ask for will be part of the negotiation 5.
Avoid directing frequent attention to the victim when talking to the hostage-taker
6. Do not call them hostages. Be as honest as possible; avoid tricks; be sincere
7. Never dismiss any request from the hostage-taker as trivial or unimportant
8. Never say “No”, soften the demands
9. Never set a deadline; try not to accept a deadline
10. Do not make alternate suggestion not agreed upon in the negotiation
11. Do not introduce outsiders (non-law enforcement officers) into the negotiation process, unless their presence is
extremely necessary in the solution of the crisis; provide that they shall be properly advised on the do’s and
don’ts of hostage negotiation
12. Do not allow any exchange of hostage, unless extremely necessary; in particular, do not exchange a
negotiator for a hostage
13. Avoid negotiating face-to-face if possible
14. Law enforcement officers without proper training shall not be allowed to participate in hostage negotiations;
and
15. Never introduce ranks/possessions.

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KIDNAPPING FOR RANSOM

KIDNAP FOR RANSOM is a criminal act, particularly described as the unlawful taking and carrying away a
person by force or fraud and against his will, or in any manner depriving him of his liberty for the purpose of extorting
ransom as payment for the release. KIDNAP FOR RANSOM is a common term used describes a specific criminal act
under ART. 267 of the RPC entitled “Kidnapping and serious illegal detention.”

KIDNAPPING, in general, posses a serious threat to the peace and order condition of the country. Focus of concern,
however, falls on so-called kidnap for ransom case, because they exist a heavy tall not only on their victims and the
victim’s families, but also on society as a whole. This is so because kidnap for ransom is by nature a syndicated crime
perpetrated by professional criminals groups capable of planning their nefarious trade that even a single gruesome act
of kidnapping expertly pulled by them could prove very alarming to the public.

COMMON MODUS OPERANDI USED IN KFR

1. A kidnap group initially scouts or a potential victim through an informer or spotter.

2. An informer or spotter could be a gang member or outsider whose participation is to locate targets for the group.
3. After the would-be victim has been spotted, the kidnap group conducts a through study on his background and
his daily routine movements/activities.
4. Customary route taken by the would-be victim is particularly observed.
5. After careful surveillance and planning, they would kidnap the victim at an opportune time. 6. The victim is them
brought in a pre-designated area, usually outside urban places where the victim is held in captivity ransom for his
release is being negotiated.

HOW DOES KIDNAPPERS ABDUCT THEIR VICTIMS?

How facilitate the kidnapping for the victim, a gang member is sometimes made to seek employment with would-be
victim’s family, either as a diver or as household help. In coordinate with an inside man, the group snatches the victim at
on opportune from the public. Although the manner of accosting the victim varies from one kidnap group to another, the
most common method of approach used by kidnap groups is by blocking the kidnap victim’s car by using a military or
police-like vehicles, sometimes with siren. At least one of the kidnappers is in complete military or police uniform and
armed with a long automatic weapon. The victim is intercepted and accosted with alleged traffic violations.

HOW ARE RANSOM NEGOTIATIONS UNDERTAKEN?

1. Ransom negotiations are later affected through various means of communications. The most common is
through telephone.
2. The kidnappers will call up the relatives of the victim and demands for a ransom for the release of the victim. 3.
An almost hysterical victim is sometimes made to speak over the telephone and appealed to his bewildered
relatives whose tendency to cooperate blindly with the kidnappers.
4. The kidnappers then indicate the amount, normally in cash payable on a date and a place specified set by
them.
5. Threats on the life of the victim are also relayed to the one contacted in case term of the ransom one not met
which include, among others, non-disclosure of the case to police authorities.

WHAT ARE THE BASIC OBJECTIVES OF THE SPECIAL UNITS OF THE

PNP IN DEALING WITH KIDNAP-FOR-RANSOM?

By priority, the basic objectives of the PNP Special Unit handling kidnap-for-ransom cases are the following:

1. To insure safety of the hostage or victim is a paramount consideration that takes precedence over all others.
Utmost care is therefore exercised in the conduct of rescue operations.
2. To understand and minimize the mental anguish and agony of the victim’s family and friends. 3.
To achieve the early liberation/salvation of the hostage/victim.
4. To insure successful cases against suspected kidnappers.

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5. To ensure successful case building and prosecution of cases against suspected kidnappers. 6. To prepare for
any similar eventually that may ultimately endanger the preservation of internal peace and order.

MOST IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE CITIZENS IN THE FIGHT AGAINST

KIDNAP-FOR-RANSOM.

The role of the citizens especially the families and relatives of kidnap Victims is to report immediately any
kidnapping incident to police authorities. Aside from this, they should extend their outmost cooperation to the police not
only in the rescue of the victim but also in the effective prosecution of the suspect as well as in the efforts to locate,
identify and arrest kidnap gang members who remain at large.

TIPS TO BE UNDERT AKEN TO PREVENT

ANY KIDNAPPING OR ABDUCTION

If you believe that you or members of your family are potential targets of kidnap-for-ransom groups, the most
logical thing to do is to be SECURITY CONSCIOUS always in your person and in your day to day activities.

The following preventive measures are hereby suggested:

1. Develop a security system in your residence and in your place of work

2. Be very selective in hiring your employees or your household help. It is suggested that you let a trusted person
secure the necessary police clearances for them and check their background.
3. Watch out and report to the police questionable presence of persons loitering near your home or office. 4. While
on board your car, be very observant. If you notice you are being followed or observed by doubtful characters,
taken note of the vehicle’s description, especially the plate number. If you have seen the faces/appearances of the
persons failing you, try to remember their descriptions.
5. In your daily trips from home to office or school and back, try not to develop a pattern. Do not establish definite
schedules and routes in addition, avoid routes that are deserted.
6. If you are accosted or intercepted along the roadway for alleged traffic violation and asked to pull over by
questionable persons, stop only in a place where there is a policeman or there are other persons around.
BEST THING TO DO WHEN YOU RECEIVE A KIDNAP NOTICE/CALL

If you receive a kidnap note:

Be calm, don’t panic,
Make written record of the delivery person’s description
Take note of other circumstances of the delivery (time, manner,etc.)
Preserve the note for submission to the police.

During the call:

Try to signal someone else to listen on an extension.
Keep caller on line as long as possible.
Do not antagonize the kidnappers.
Give kidnappers a code word for whatever identification.
Ask for Victim’s name, Where and when seized, Victim’s code name

After the call:

Make a written record of the Caller’s age/sex, Mental state (your assessment), Peculiarity of speech (lips, accent),
Exact words used
Try to take note of background noises and the audibility to telephone reception, which may reveal the place where
kidnappers is calling.

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ASSASSINATION

It is the murder of prominent citizens particularly a head of a state or high official in government or the killing
an important person by violent means, usually from political or religious motives.

What are the basic causes of assassination?

1. Revolutionary Causes – Groups and individuals who become fanatic in their desires to change an existing
government or to establish a new government often resort to violence by means of assassination. 2. Economic
Causes – In some cases assassination are motivated by beliefs that the victim is responsible for bad economic
financial conditions affecting the nation, a particular group of people, the assassin or his family.
3. Ideological Causes- Some assassination are motivated by beliefs that the intending victim is impairing the
principle of the assassin and his associates.
4. Psychological Causes – Mental derangement, fanaticism, or emotional instability are motivated factors in
most, if not all, assassination. One or more of these conditions are usually present in addition to of the other
basic causes of assassination.
5. Personal Causes - Revenge, jealousy, hate, and rage or strictly personal drives have motivated personal
Causes of assassination.
6. Mercenary Causes – Some assassinations have been committed for a monetary reward. There is frequently a
distinct difference between the basic causes of an assassination and the motives given by the assassins.

Objectives of VIP Protection

1. To protect the lives of personalities, important citizens and their country.

2. To protect those personalities from illegal pressure being put upon them, such as terrorism, threats and
blackmail.
3. To prevent insult on their honor-embarrassment to protected persons, his government / country.
Basic Concepts of Protection

Protection is a buffer set-up thrown around a dignitary who will either prevent an attack or absorb the shock to
such an extent that the results will not be tragic. It must strive to protect the dignitary wherever he is located but must
always be able to move him to a safer area if the need should arise. Absolute protection is seldom possible. Therefore,
the protective forces should always try to operate in such a manner that any attempted attack will have the smallest
possible chance to succeed. Every element of protection must be thoroughly planed in advance and every act of
movement of the dignitary and the protective detail must be scrutinized to make sure it is not playing into the hands of
some attackers. Protection must be surprised proof and flexible enough to instantly respond to any emergency.

There are usually advance clues of a planned attack and the protective system must secure this intelligence
from all possible sources resources and recognize the signs of danger.

METHODS OF ACTION USED BY THE ADVERSARY

1. Physical Assault – The inflicting of physical injury, with the aim of disabling the object of the attack, such as
murder wounding and trashing.

2. Threats – The objectives of threats is to frighten the person and bring about a change of policy. The adversary
may use anonymous letters; radio broadcast and in the adversary happens to be from a foreign country, he
will have additional means at his disposal, such as the local press, international forum or assemblies.

3. Insult and Humiliation – The adversary tries to ridicule the VIP in the eyes of the people, and will use different
means in order to achieve these objectives.

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INITIAL ASSESSMENT FOR DIGNITARY PROTECTION

Plan for protective operations to include a complete evaluation of the dignitary’s level of threat exposure of
possible attackers and the vulnerabilities of the protected. Develop Intelligence profiling, likely scenarios and the
protectee’s environment and routes of travel and security measures already in place. Finally, the identification,
selection, and implication of protective countermeasures shall be undertaken.

PROTECTION OF VERY IMPORTANT PERSONS (V.I.P.) IS BASED ON SEVEN DIFFERENT METHODS

1. Physical Protection – This refers to the protection of the VIP and the installation he uses through the physical
presence of his guards.
2. Secrecy – Information about the VIP, which might be important to the adversary, will be kept from him. 3.
Deception – The publishing of deceptive information concerning the actions of the VIP. 4. Control – Control over the
persons coming into the contact with the VIP over the object sent to him. 5. Intelligence – The gathering of the
adversary’s intentions as to as assault upon the VIP. 6. Instruction – The VIP and his Colleagues have to coach as
to the necessary precautionary measures. 7. Neutralization of Suspects – Neutralization of people who are
suspected of trying to liquidate the VIP. A good
system of protection will use all of the above mentioned methods. It is not always necessary to use them at
the same time, but generally, it will be necessary to employ most of them in order to ensure and efficient
protection.

PROTECTION PROCEDURES AND PRINCIPLES

As recognized by most police agencies, absolute and complete protection against assassination of a dignitary
is seldom possible. The goal is to minimize the chances of success of any contemplated attack. The privacy of the
dignitary must be considered, and under no circumstances should he be embarrassed. Despite this, protection must be
provided against hazards caused by personal designs, accidents or negligence. Procedures are unknown to the public.
Every phase of security must be carefully planned in advance. Pertinent factors considered in this planning include;
importance of the protected persons, political attitude of the local population, distances involved, means of
transportation, and duration of the security mission.

Physical protection consist of a series of protective cordons, each compelled in itself. These defensive rings
maybe composed of security personnel, physical barriers, or a combination of both. An example of this type of security
is the protection established around a house from the third echelon of protection. The depth of the protective forces and
the degree of security established will be governed by the factors considered in the planning stage.

Security planning should be flexible. Weather conditions and mechanical failures (including failure if lighting)
are two ever-present potential hazards. The unexpected arrival of a large number of visitors is another situation
frequently encountered. Last minute changes in the schedule of events occur on occasion. The security must be
sufficient trained to cover these and many more eventualities.

Central direction and unity of effort are of special importance because of the nature of this assignment. The
officer-in-charge should be designated with full responsibility for all phases of the security mission. Close coordination
must be established with all local military, police and civilian authority. The security’s responsibility for each phase must
be clearly defined. Arrangements should be made for the local civilian police to control local inhabitants. All available
intelligence channels should be utilized for information of potential danger areas.

USE OF SECURITY PLAN

An excellent format for preparation of a protective plan is the standard operation plan used by the police. The
requirements of the plan which are coordination or liaison, the itinerary defense area, personnel and equipment
requirements post designation, cooperation, communication, public relations, and miscellaneous emergency
information, can all be logically included in the normal five paragraphs of the operational plan.

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The plan should be on writing and procedures in sufficient copies, so that it can be staffed with those officers
with whom coordination is necessary. Only key personnel needed to provide a complete protection are given an
orientation on the events of the plan and should be familiar with the whole operation. Each participant commits the
requirement of his specific mission to memory. For this reason, the plan contains detailed instruction for each post and
mission. The instruction should be simple to understand and easy to execute. The length of the plan will depend upon
the size of the mission to be performed. The itinerary consists of one or more men stationed or in fixed post. Police
should know the identity in the party of protected official. The attitude of the protected official must be estimated by the
police officer. In most instances the presence of security personnel, is unpleasant to the dignitary. This is
understandable in view of lack of privacy. The security personnel must be aware of this natural reaction, actually
anticipate it, and they observe adherence to strict policies of non-irritating conduct.

In the initial planning stages, all potential embarrassments should be avoided. It is normally a good policy to
avoid direct contact with the dignitary on details of arrangements. The Officer-in-Charge should coordinate with the
member of the official party who is designated for this purpose. When a important person ignores the measure which
have been taken for his protection, security officers continue to perform their duties as directed. When appropriate, they
offer suggestion tactfully. The chief of the escort acts exercises enforcement power over the security of an important
person only when necessary with caution and diplomacy. Any violation of the security measures for important persons is
brought to the attention of the chief of the escort or guard. The security police officer insures that the guards comply
with every detail of their instructions. Restriction on the circulation of individuals should be strictly enforced. Before any
person is allowed to approach the important person of his effects, he is checked. The security detail should not enter
into conversation between the dignitary and other individuals. Information should be given only when solicited. In all
dealings with the protected person and his associates never volunteer for uncalled for personal favors. Deliberate
attempts to ingratiate themselves only serve to degrade the security mission and result in an undesirable relationship if
the official or members of his party is bothered. Security personnel should react accordingly. The protected person
should set the standards of the relationship. In the absence of such standard actions of the security detail should be
formal.

THE USE OF WEAPONS

There is always the danger of undue alarm due to accidental discharges, and the injury of innocent persons,
when weapons are carried. All personnel should carry a holstered sidearm of at least .38 or 9mm caliber. Automatic
pistol should contain a fully loaded magazine with a round in the chamber and the safe on. In certain areas, when
attackers are made in force by armed mobs, the appropriate weapon or machine gun can be used. The machine gun is
also used when attacks are made from vehicles, and when the attackers are behind shields or barricades. Riot or
shotguns should be available when the attack is made in a congested area where there is danger of injuring innocent
people if long-range weapons are used. They are also effective against mobs using “Banzai” type of attacks. The use of
police nightsticks and tear gas will break up and confuse the crowd, making their movement by the protective force
easier.

CROWD CONTROL

The protective personnel should understand the principles of crowd control. They should not show prejudice,
sympathy, or become involved in the grievances of the crowd. When force is necessary, the protective force should
move with speed and surprise. At the first sign of disorder all leaders should be apprehended. The real troublemakers
are usually to the rear of the crowd. Protective forces should not be fooled or deterred by mob leaders who arouse and
use women and children in front ranks to shield themselves from aggressive action by the protective personnel. The
crowd’s retreat should never be hindered, it should be moved in the direction where there is no space to disperse.

AREAS AND BUILDING SURVEY

All areas to be occupied or visited by the protected person should be surveyed in advance. The procedure to
be prescribed for building inspection is complete and thorough. In many instances, the dignitary is a state visitor of the
visitor of the nation; on other occasions he may be the houseguest of other high-ranking government officials. At times,
he may stay in hotel occupied by numerous other guests. Certainly, all the inspection listed in this section is feasible.
The Officer-in Charge and his advance party use common sense of sound judgment in establishing the best security
possible under existing circumstances. In some instances, the advance party can facilitate security measures by

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arranging for a separate floor or wing of a hotel as a billet for the party. Normally, billeting arrangements are included in
the itinerary prior to the start of the security detail. Proper building inspection entails a thorough examination from roof
to basement. Blueprints of the building should be obtained. Rooms and hallways are measured visually and compared
with the dimensions indicated in the building plan to locate any hidden passage or alcoves. Each room is examined
systematically. Walls, ceilings, are mentally divided in to three-foot squares and each square minutely examined for
cracks, evidence of recent repairs, or any unnatural appearance. Suspicious areas should be examined satisfactory by
reliance on operating or maintenance personnel. All furniture are carefully examined, all doors opened and drawers are
removed as check for concealed compartments. All wires leading into or leaving the various rooms are traced and all
devices connected with them identified. Heating radiators, plumbing, pipes and similar equipment are carefully
examined for dummy installations. All locks and locking mechanisms are inspected. After the inspection is completed,
the room or building is secured until used.

PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES

PROTECTION WHILE RIDING IN VEHICLES – The selection of security trained driver and the type of
vehicles to be used should be given thought, then a closed car provided with greater concealment and therefore better
protection for the dignitary recommended. Route survey should be conducted in advance before actual travel and
protective details should be equipped with radio communication processing encoding-decoding “scrambling”
capabilities. All auto motive equipment should be excellent mechanical condition and should be regularly inspected for
signs of tampering and bullet proof if possible. The driver should be well trained and reliable. Vehicles must be secured
at all times during security missions. Escort vehicles should precede the protected vehicle. The security vehicle should
follow the protected vehicle as closely as possible consistent with driving safety. An advance car should precede the
convoy by approximately one-half kilometer to observe hazards and reports on unusual conditions. A reserve vehicle
should follow the convoy as a short distance from the rear for use in emergency. The escort follow-up and all security
vehicles should maintain radio contact. Whenever possible, a member of the security detail is placed in the protected
person’s vehicle. In extreme conditions, when greater security is necessary, one or two dummy vehicles, carrying
individuals who are similar in appearance to the protected person, may be included in the convoy. Fixed post and
bridges, underpass, and traffic stops must be secured when deemed necessary. An alternate route should be arranged
for emergency requirements. Unless indicated by competent security the convoy will confirm with the local traffic
regulations. Evaluation of such situation is made to determine the degree of security, which is practical and necessary.

TRAVEL BY TRAIN – Generally, the greatest potential security hazard exists at the points where the
escorted person boards or leaves the train. Usually this is a congested area with numerous individuals carrying all sorts
of bags, packages, and containers. In the study of assassination techniques, the large number of attempts in this
location is not worthy. When possible the area should be closed to the public or the dignitary’s party, it should be
attached to the rear of the train where feasible. The members of the security detail should be in control of all entrances
of the car. When the train is stopped, they assume position covering all avenues of approach to the car. If the protected
person leaves the train for a temporary period constant security should be maintained on the train until the protected
person returns and the train departs. Prior coordination should be made with railway officials for exact scheduling of
stop enroute. Railroad security and local police at scheduled stops can be contracted for standby assistance. When
deemed necessary advance and rear guard train may be placed on the other cars of the train, seated among
passengers, as an additional safeguard.

TRAVEL BY AIR – Normally, a special plane is placed for transporting the dignitary and his official party. The
technical safety factors, such as clearance of operating personnel and control of flight, are responsibilities of the
operating agency when performed by military forces. The most dangerous periods, as in train, movements are boarding
and departure times. All structures offering observation of the boarding shall be adequately secured either by closing of
when not used or by strategic placement of security detail. When a large crowd is expected for take off ceremonies,
barricades and uniformed military or police force in sufficient numbers should be included in the planning. The plane
designated for the important person should be kept away from contact with the plane. When the designation is another
base, advance arrangements should be made with the Air Force Office for additional security and transportation is
normally scheduled for the important person and his party. It should not be forgotten however, that arrangements must
be made for the accompanying security personnel.

TRAVEL BY SMALL WATERCRAFT – When planning for a cruise, the boats selected should be of types
and sizes capable of withstanding weather and surf conditions that may be encountered. A thorough inspection of the

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boat designated for the protected person should be made in conjunction with responsible ship personnel. The
inspection is primarily for unauthorized persons stowing away for any suspicious objects or packages. An additional
check should be made for adequate life saving and emergency facilities. Security personnel should be alert for either
crafts approaching the dignitaries boat. When feasible, arrangements should be made for a boat to follow the protected
person’s boat.

PROTECTION WHILE WALKING – One of the best protective measures is varying the selection of walking
times and routes. The security detail accompanying the dignitary should be positioned to cover all avenue of access,
additional security personnel should cruise in the immediate vicinity. Local police agencies can be of special value in
adding background security in these instances.

PROTECTION AT PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES – A careful search and inspection of the area should be made at
the time protection is established. A physical defense zone should be set up immediately around the dignitary, and
additional concentric defense area should be added to the greatest possible extent. Protection in the defense zone is
provided by protective personnel, permanent or temporary type barricades, and a combination of the above techniques.
Screening points to admit passage of authorized persons and materials should be established. Observant and
inconspicuous personnel should be patrolled among the crowd. Maximum use should be made of security aid such as
flood and spot lights, communications, emergency equipment, special weapons, locks, barricaded areas, and helmet
proof equipment, and materials.

PROTECTION WHILE IN A RESIDENCE – The protective detail should occupy at least one protective ring.
At least two additional areas should be established in the outer perimeter. There must be a pass system for the staff
and frequent visitors. Food suppliers should be checked and food selection and handling should be controlled, Mail and
packages should be fluoroscope. Periodic inspection should be done on premises for safety hazards, lethal devices
such as bombs, traps and sufficiency of security equipment. Adequate communication should be maintained, and all
possible emergency situations should be considered.

PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The nature of the Assassin - The assassin is a discontented individual who decides to kill the person whom
he thinks is responsible for his difficulties. He attempts to gain advantage by the use of surprise. A well-trained
protective force that he is likely to be caught does not discourage him. Assassins do not have distinct features. They
are not concerned about death. Many of them suffer from mental disorders. A mentally unbalanced person is not
necessarily stupid and as a matter of fact they can be ingenious.

Assassination of VIP normally feature the following:

1. The location of victim at a given time will be known in advance by the assassin.
2. The assassin with his weapon will choose a position giving him access to his victim.
3. The protection detail will be attracted by some diversionary interest or otherwise inattentive.

Break down of planning

BEFORE: Plan must be extensive and thorough as follows: Plan should be in writing. Plan should be
specific-complete for each post and for each person involved. Plan should be simple to understand and easy to
execute. Plan should be carefully read and committed to memory. Coordination among the different agencies must be
laid out. Details and schedule of activity contemplated should be in advance. Define and establish the defense area.
Number of personnel should be determined. The accessory equipment should be itemized and the distribution shown.
Means of communication

DURING: Protective force should function as a team. The aim should be that nothing occurs that might
jeopardize the safety of the VIP.

AFTER: Summarize things that happened in the operations. Evaluate individual performance; bring out the
weak points and suggestions for improvements. Encourage individual members to discuss their particular assignments.
Encourage group discussions. Central summarization with outlook on succeeding operations.

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BOMBING
(Incident Awareness)

IS BOMBING A SERIOUUS SOCIAL PROBLEM? Bombing is a very serious social problem as when a
bomb explodes, casualties and destruction of property is very essential. When bomb incidents occur, people are
affected directly and indirectly. Work stoppage (evacuation), tension, fear or panic is felt by the people within the area.
Even if a person is not directly affected, just hearing or reading the news about such incidents can make him
apprehensive. Also, some people could take the chance, as leverage to scare or threaten would be victims for some
reasons like extortion or just for pranks. Bomb incidents include bomb threats and actual bombings. It can happen
anywhere and anytime. With the recent advancement of science and modern day technology, bombs becomes more
sophisticated, smaller in sizes, easy to handle, easy to plant, easier to transport but with more devastating effect.

The tactics common to terror groups is bombing. Of all terrorists incidents recorded. 70% were attributed to
terrorists bomb. The bomb is a popular weapon because it is cheap to produce, easy to make, has variable uses and is
difficult to detect and trace after the event. Investigations have revealed that the targets for “terrorists bombing” are not
selected at random. The modus operandi for selecting the target and planting the explosives appears to follow this
pattern: The target is selected because of political or personal gain to the terrorists. It is then kept under surveillance to
determine the entrances and exits most used.

Reconnaissance of the building is made to locate an area where a bomb can be concealed, do the most
damage and here the bomber is least likely to be observed. A test or dry run of the plan is often made. After the dry run
and at a pre-determined time, the building is infiltrated by the bomber to deliver the explosive or incendiary device. The
device maybe partially pre-set prior to planting. If it is fully set and charged, it is simple matter for one or two of the
group to plant the device in a pre-selected concealed area. This can be accomplished in a minimum of time. If the
device is not fully set and charged, one member may act as lookout while others arm and place the device. Most
devices used for the destruction of property are usually of the time delay type. These devices can be set for detonation
to allow sufficient time for the bomber to be at a considerable distance away before the bomb threat call is made or the
device is detonated.

HOW TO PREPARE (against Bombing)

The terrorists have developed their plan of attack and the following procedures are suggested to business
and industry for coping with the bomb threats and actual bombings. Contact the police, fire department and other local
government agencies to determine whether any has a bomb disposal unit. Under what condition is the bomb disposal
unit available. What is their telephone numbers. How can you obtain the services of the bomb disposal unit in the event
of a bomb threat. Will the said unit assist in the physical search of the building or ill they only disarm or remove the
explosive device. Establish strict procedures for control and inspection on packages and material entering critical areas.
Develop positive means of identifying and controlling personnel who are authorized to access to critical areas. Arrange
if possible, to have police, fire representatives with members of your staff, inspect the building for areas where
explosives are likely to be concealed. This may be accomplished by reviewing the floor plan of the building. During
inspection, you should keep particular attention to rest rooms, storage, crawl areas, trash bins, main switches, etc. It
can give you an idea where a time delayed explosive device or incendiary device may be concealed. All security and
maintenance personnel should be alert to suspicious looking or unfamiliar persons or objects. Instruct security and
maintenance personnel t make periodic checks of all rest rooms, stairways and other areas of the building to assure
that unauthorized personnel are not hiding or conducting surveillance of the area. You should assure adequate
protection for classified documents, proprietary information and other records essential to the operation of your
business. A well planted, properly charged device could, upon detonation, destroy those records needed in day to day
operation. Instruct all personnel especially those at the telephone switchboard in what to do if a bomb threat call is
received.

As a minimum, every telephone operator or receptionist should be trained to respond calmly to a bomb threat
call. To assist these individuals, a bomb threat checklist should be kept nearby. In addition, it is always desirable that
more than one person listen in on the call. To do this, have a covert signaling system to a second reception room. A
clam response to the bomb threat could result in getting additional information. This is specially true if the caller wishes
to avoid injuries or deaths. If told that the building is occupied and can not be evacuated in time, the bomber may be
willing to give more specific information on the bomb location. Organize and train an evacuation unit consisting of key

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management personnel. The organization and training of this unit must be coordinated with other tenants of the
building.

COUNTER BOMB INCIDENTS

PHYSICAL SECURITY PLAN - Physical security measures taken for the protection of property, personnel,
material, facilities and installation against unauthorized entry, trespass, damage, sabotage or other illegal or criminal
act. It deals with the prevention and is designed to protect against not only bombing incidents, but a full range of
possible attacks. Particular attention must be given to the third pre-requisite because this is the one area which a law
enforcing organization has the greatest opportunity to deter a bomb incident. If adequate preventive measures and
physical security precautions are established; the opportunity to obtain explosive and emplace bombs will be reduced.
In addition, an effective bomb threat plan and a well rehearsed procedures for handling bomb threats and incidents will
reduce the chances f a bomb being successfully detonated.

COUNTER MEASURES AGAINST SABOTAGE BY EXPLOSIVE/ INCENDIARY ARE;

1. PHYSICAL SECURITY EDUCATION

2. USE OF EFFICIENT SECURITY FORCE
3. IDENTIFICATION AND MOVEMENT CONTROL
4. USE OF PHYSICAL SECURITY AIDS
5. DESIGNATION OR RESTRICTED AREAS
6. SEARCHES OF INCOMING VEHICLES
7. EMERGENCY PLANNING
8. GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

BOMB INCIDENT PLAN- A plan providing detailed procedures to be implemented when a bombing attack is
executed or threatened. Elements of this plan are;

AUTHORITY AND CONTROL

1. WHO WIL BE INCHARGED OF THE INCIDENT?

2. WHERE WILL CONTROL CENTER BE LOCATED?
3. HOW WILL CRITICAL DECISIONS BE MADE?
4. WHO WILL MAN THE CONTROL CENTER?
5. WHAT PRIMARY AND ALTERNATE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM WILL BE DURING THE INCIDENT?

THREAT EVALUATION

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREATENER SUCH AS AGE, ETHNIC GROUPING, AND PHYSICAL AND
MENTAL CONDITION
2. BACKGROUND NOISES (TELEPHONE THREAT) THAT GIVE INDICATIONS OF CALLER LOCATION. 3.
TARGET IDENTIFICATION, DID THE THREAT INDICATE A VALID TARGET?
4. TECHNOLOGY; IS THE DEVICE DESCRIBED TECHNICALLY LOGICAL AND POSSIBLE? 5. ANALYSIS OF
RECENT LOCAL BOMBING ACTIVITY. IF THE EVELUATION OF THE THREAT INDICATES THAT THE THREAT
IS VALID, ACTION IS REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN SAFETY OF PERSONNEL. SECONDARY CONSIDERATION IS
GIVEN TO DAMAGE REDUCTION.

EVACUATION

A number of factors may influence the decision whether or not to evacuate. Threat assessment is the primary
consideration. Also, the most likely place for a device to be located is on the exterior of the building. Evacuation to the
outside of the building may increase the danger to personnel. The second most likely places to conceal a device are
those areas of accessibility to the public, i. e., hallways, lobbies, and restrooms. Evacuation of personnel through public
areas may increase the hazard. Secondary assembly points should be established in the event the device is located
at/near the primary assembly point.

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An alternative to total evacuation is partial evacuation, which is effective when the threat indicates the specific location
of the device. Partial evacuation requires a high degree of planning. Should a device be located, the area around the
item as well as the floors above and below the suspected item should be evacuated immediately.

SEARCH PROCEDURES

1. WHAT WILL BE SEARCHED?

2. WHAT SEARCH TECHNIQUES WILL BE EMPLOYED?
3. WHO WILL SEARCH?
 The search must be thorough, systematic, and quick. The bomb threat plan should include floor diagrams and
room search cards. These expedite search, prevent duplication of effort, and prevent areas from being overlooked. The
building search should start simultaneously at four places; the exterior search, public search area, the detailed room
search, and the garage search. The search starts at the lowest part of the building, i.e. basement, garage, or bottom
floor. As the exterior search and public area search teams complete their tasks, they will supplement the detailed room
search teams in progress. Two-person teams have proven most effective in searching must areas. Exceptions would be
for search or very large areas such as parking garages and auditoriums.

Except for the most unusual circumstances for VIP and or presidential technical security measures,
eod/bomb squad and military/police will not be used to search for reported explosive device in community areas,
building and offices. Rather, such searches must be conducted by designated individuals familiar to the area and its
contents. If an unusual item is found, eod is to neutralize and evacuate the device for disposal. Law enforcement
personnel are to be employed around the threatened area to control traffic and provide other regulatory service.

DAMAGE REDUCTION

Damage control techniques include standby of fire and medical services; disconnection of gas, fuel, and electrical
power; evacuation of personnel; and venting by opening doors and windows to minimize blast damage, and use of blast
attenuation techniques.

REMOVAL

Removal of an improvised explosive device or a suspect item is an eod function. Under certain conditions where
evacuation is impossible or bomb disposal personnel are not available, it may be necessary for someone to take steps
to remove the ied to an exterior holding area or to neutralize the device. It must be understood that these procedures
should be used ONLY AS A LAST RESORT AND ONLY ON THE APPROVAL OF THE SENIOR OFFICIALS IN
CHARGE.

DETONATION

If a detonation occurs, it may be necessary to organize rescue teams, first-aid personnel, and the site
security personnel. Likewise course of action taken must be done such as:

1. secure and control access to the compound/and or building

2. control and extinguish fires
3. search area for secondary explosive device
4. supply immediate first-aid, remove dead and injured from the area
5. secure entire blast scene, including area suspected or known to be the point of detonation 6. minimize
disruption of the blast scene pending investigation. Do not move or remove any evidence debris, bomb
components.
7. Photograph area including known or suspected point of destruction
8. If building is safe to enter, shake down area to ensure all classified materials

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BOMB THREAT

It is a message delivered by any means, warning or claiming the presence of one or more bombs. A bomb
threat may or may not specify the location of a bomb. It may or may not include the time of detonation/ignition. It may or
may not contain an ultimatum related to the detonation/ignition or concealment of the bomb. Reasonable explanations
for receiving a bomb threat:
 1. The caller has definitive knowledge or belief that an explosive or incendiary device has been r will be placed in
an area and wants to minimize personal injury or property damage.
2. The caller wants to create an atmosphere of anxiety and panic which will in turn, possibly result in a disruption
of normal activities at the target area.
3. The caller wants to bring about or amplify a lack of confidence in the existing leadership or programs. 4. Each
threat received through any means of communication, should be treated as real and must be thoroughly evaluated
to safeguard life and property. The following procedures apply to recipients of the threat;

Telephone calls
1. A checklist of guidelines should be readily accessible (telephone bomb threat report form) 2. Keep the caller on
line as long as possible. Ask him to repeat the message. Record every word spoken by the person.
3. If the caller does not indicate the location of the bomb or the time of the possible detonation, you should ask him
for this information.
4. Inform the caller that the building is occupied and the detonation of a bomb could result in death or serious
injury to many innocent people.
5. Pay particular attention to peculiar background noises such as motors running, background music and any
other noises which may give clue as to the location of the caller.
6. Listen closely to voice (male/female), voice quality (calm/excited), accents and speech impediments,
immediately after the caller hangs up, you should report to the person designated by management to receive
such information. Since the law enforcement personnel will want to talk first hand with the person who
received the call, he/she must remain available until they arrive.
7. Report the information immediately to the police/fire/bomb squad and other appropriate agencies or counter
action.

Handwritten/ typed notes

Save all materials, including any envelope or container. Once the message is recognized as a bomb threat,
further unnecessary handling must be avoided. Every possible effort must be made to retain evidence, such as
fingerprints, handwriting r type writing, paper and postal marks which are essential to tracing the threat and identifying
the writer. While written messages are usually associated with generalized threats and extortion attempts, a written
warning of a specific device may occasionally be received. It should never be ignored. With the growing use of voice
print identification techniques to identify and convict telephone callers, there will be an increase in the use of written
warnings and calls t third parties.

Person to Person (Indirect)

Notify your supervisor immediately. Keep the person making the threat or indicating knowledge of a threat
under surveillance until relieved by your supervisor. Take note of the age, height, weight, sex color of eyes, hair, skin,
clothing, and unusual characteristics such as lameness, twitching or any peculiarities of the person under surveillance.
Observe for other personal defects. If the person leaves the scene, take note of the transportation used, such as bus,
taxi or car, note the make, model, color, plate number and marking of the vehicles used. Pinpointing the exact location
of the bomb must be the primary concern. The following procedures apply when the location of the bomb is known:

1. Inform immediately your supervisor or officer

2. Coordinate with the nearest police4 unit on how t avail the services of the bomb squad 3.
Alert fire station and medics
4. Cordon the area.

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BOMB IDENTIFICATION AND DETECTION

Usually, bombs that are used for terroristic purposes are disguised and are contained in any of the following:

GIFT WRAPPED PACKAGES, BISCUIT CANS, FRUIT COCKTAIL BASKETS, ATTACHE CASE/SUIT CASE,
 LUNCH BOXES, LAUNDRY BAGS, SHOPPING BAGS, ENVELOPE, BOOKS, CLUTCH BAGS, LETTERS,
TRASH BOXES, GARBAGE CANS, LADIES BAGS, CAR/BOXES, CARTONS,

HOW TO DETERMINE IF BOMB EXISTS

1. By using visual inspection without the use of any instrument or apparatus or touching the suspected object. 2.
visualize the suspected object at a distance t see if there is any relation or connection to its surroundings. If none,
take a closer look to see if there is or there are protruding wires or gadgets;
3. check without touching if the suspected object emits smell of gas or commonly smelled chemicals; 4.
check if the presence of the suspected object in the area is unusual or strange;
5. be quiet and listen if there is a tic-tac sound of a clock

LOCATION OF BOMBS

1. The location of the bomb at the target site is usually determined by three criteria:
2. The location must be accessible to entrances.
3. The location must be accessible to exits, but isolated enough for the bomber to conduct his mission. 4.
The location would also be as place where the most structural damage to the building would occur.

WHAT TO DO IF THE SUSPECTED BOMB IS LOCATED

Discovery of what appears to be suspicious material as a result of telephoned information or accidental

discovery, calls for action on the part o the individual only to a limited extent. Evacuate the personnel to at least 300 feet
away from the building/bomb. Turn off the electrical and gas units. N attempts should be made to move, alter, open or
examine the article. Above all “Don’t panic”. Once it has been determined that explosive items on inspected package
exist and while awaiting for the arrival of eod/bomb squad personnel, start the protective works by utilizing minimum
number of person for reason of safety such as VENTING – which is the opening of doors and windows to minimize the
blast effect; BUTTRESSING – which is sandbagging adjacent walls to prevent blast and shock damage to adjacent
rooms and BAFFLING – which is the placing of sandbags around the bomb to minimize blast fragment damage.

METHODS OF DELIVERY - Mail, Planted (booby trapped), Thrown, Projected, Delivered by agents

WHAT TO DO WHEN BOMB EXPLODED - Alert personnel for possible additional bombs, secure bombing scene and
evacuate the injured, leave obviously dead personnel, when fire occurs after explosion, assist in putting off the fire and
collect and preserve evidence.

DON’T’S IN HANDLING SUSPECTED BOMB PACKAGE

1. Do not attempt to open the package.

2. Do not submerge in water due to conductivity f electric circuit and the possibility of violent reaction of chemical.
3. Do not indiscriminately shake or jar suspected package due to the possibility of disturbing the trigger
mechanism.
4. Do not puncture or cut the box with metallic object as the possibility of an electronic probe may be employed. 5.
Do not cut string or unwrap package due to the possibility of pressure release type devices 6. Do not accept
identification markings on any suspected packages as legitimate
7. Do not allow radio transmission near the vicinity f suspected package, explosion may occur due to static
electricity by transmitter.
8. Do not pass metallic tools or things over or near the vicinity of suspected package until identification f contents
are made due to magnetic device present

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9. Do not switch on lights or any electrical switches just to light up the area
10. Do not use siren of police, fire or ambulance in the area.
11. Do not use photoflash in the immediate area
12. Do not underestimate the size of the package like a pack of cigarette or a lighter; it could be a powerful
 explosive. Above all, do not panic.

THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF A BOMBER

ON PSYCHOLOGY
• Several forms of bombings are attractive to the radical mind.
• Bombing historically is linked to anarchy and classical revolution
• Bombing is a symbol of extreme frustration
• Satisfying feeling of conspiracy, danger, action, drama and finally group excitement
• Disassociation psychologically from any resulting death or injury

AS TO TECHNOLOGY
• Commercial explosive materials are not necessary to construct effective bombs.
• Underground literatures and legitimate publications are available
• Contrary to popular beliefs, college of high school students taking up chemistry subjects have the capability
of making bombs.

AS TO SECURITY
• Successful bombings destroy the kind of evidence that can lead to conviction of bombers. •
Fingerprints, bloodstains and tool marks offer no threat to the careful bombers.
• Eyewitnesses and incriminating evidence are frequently not available in bombing scene.

BOMBER SKILL LEVEL MOTIVATING FACTORS OF A BOMBER

Amateur Vandalism
Semi-professional Ideological perception
Professional Emotional release
Experimentation Profit

SPECIAL WEAPONS AND TACTICS (SWAT): Tactical Crisis Management

Tactical Crisis Management

SWAT Teams

SWAT teams are highly trained police units. A unit is a small group within a larger group. SWAT stands for
Special Weapons and Tactics. Tactics are actions aimed at solving problems. SWAT team members are weapons and
tactics specialists. A specialist is a person trained for a particular job. SWAT team members use their special weapons,
tactics, and training to protect the public. They handle police emergencies. An emergency is a sudden and risky
situation. Police send SWAT teams to any kinds of police emergencies. The emergencies often involve one or more
heavenly armed suspects. A suspect is a person believed to have committed a crime. SWAT teams work on hostage
situations. A hostage is a person held against his or her will. SWAT teams perform many jobs. They come to robberies
that are in progress. They help guard government officials. They help stop terrorists. A terrorist is a person who tries to
get what he or she wants by threatening or harming others. SWAT teams also patrol high-crime areas.

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SWAT Team Names
 SWAT teams can be part of city, county or state law enforcement agencies. A law enforcement agency is an
office or department that makes sure people obey laws. Police department and sheriffs departments are examples of
law enforcement agencies. Law enforcement agencies use different names for their SWAT teams. The names include
Emergency Service Unit and Emergency Response Team. They also include Mobile emergency Response Group and
Equipment (MERGE) and Tactical Response Team.

SWAT Team Beginnings

The New York Police Department (NYPD) had one of the earliest specially trained police units. In the mid
1880s, the NYPD set up small units of police officers. The department called these units strong-arm squads. The
squads fought criminal gangs. Police clubs were their only weapons. By the 1920s, criminal gangs had grown in size
and power. The gangs bought handguns, rifles and submachine guns. A submachine gun is a light gun that fires rapidly.
The criminal gangs fought one another on New York City streets. Many innocent people died. In 1925, the NYPD
formed the Emergency Service Unit (ESU). The department also formed the Gunman’s Squad as part of the unit. The
squad included 60 heavily armed police officers. The officers had handguns, rifles and submachine guns. They worked
on cases involving criminal gangs. They patrolled the city in green trucks. Other large police departments formed early
SWAT team units. These units also worked to stop criminal gangs.

Growth and Change

The Gunman’s Squad is a good example of how the early SWAT teams grew and changed. This squad
became the Mobile Security Unit (MSU) in the late 1940s the new unit larger than the old unit. It continued to fight
criminal gang activity. The MSU changed in the late 1960s. More people lived in New York City. The number of murders
and robberies increased. The MSU formed the Stakeout Squad to fight the increase in crime. The NYPD’s best police
officers joined the Stakeout Squad. Each member was a skilled police officer and marksman. A marksman is a person
skilled and aiming and shooting guns. The Stakeout Squad work on difficult cases. It helped the NYPD lower the
number of murders in the city. In the 1970s, Stakeout Squad officers learned new skills. They learned anti terrorist
tactics and special weapons skills. Officers also learned how to rescue hostages. The skills helped them fight terrorists.
In the 1980s, the squad was taken over by the Emergency Service Unit. Today, this unit controls all NYPD SWAT
operations.

The LAPD SWAT TEAM

The Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) changed law enforcement around the country in the 1960s. Los
Angeles police officers found themselves outgunned by criminals. The criminals had powerful weapons. So the LAPD
formed a specially trained and armed police unit to protect people. The LAPD named the unit the Special Weapons and
Tactics (SWAT) team. Team members received special weapons training. They also learned how to handle police
emergencies. The team was very successful. Other police and sheriffs departments saw the success of the Los
Angeles Police Department’s SWAT team. Many departments formed their own SWAT teams. Today, special training
centers in the United States train and organize many SWAT teams. The centers teach SWAT team members tactics
and weapons skills.

SWAT Team Officers

There are more than 17,000 police departments in the United States. Many have either full-time or part-time
SWAT teams. Many SWAT team officers work more than 40 hours each week. Most officers are on call 24 hours a day.
On call means ready to work at anytime. SWAT team officers perform hard and risky work. They risk their lives each
time they go out on a police emergency. Police officers are not ordered to join SWAT teams. Instead, they volunteer.
Volunteer means to offer to do a job.

Training

SWAT team officers receive special training. Large police departments usually conduct their own training.
Officers in small units receive SWAT training from large units and from training centers. The federal government also
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trains large and small SWAT teams. The FBI operates an advanced training school at Quantico, Virginia. The U.S.
Army and U.S. Marine Corps also conduct training classes. During training, officers learn through classes and field
work. Officers learn about different weapons and practice using them. Officers also receive other training. Many officers
learn advanced first aid. First aid is early medical help. Some officers learn to be sharpshooters. A sharpshooter is a
marksman skilled at hitting small or distant targets. Some officers learn to handle and use tear gas. Tear gas is a gas
that causes a painful burning feeling in the eyes and lungs. Tear gas disable suspects. Other officers learn
communication skills. Communication is the sharing of information. Communication allows officers to calm suspects by
talking to them.

Special Teams

Most SWAT teams include three kinds of smaller specialized teams. They include negotiator teams,
containment teams, and entry teams. Each team performs a different kind of job. Sometimes only one specialized team
works on an emergency. Other times, all three teams work together.

Negotiator Teams

Negotiators are communication experts. They listen and talk to suspects during police emergencies.
Negotiators use words to reason with suspects and solve problems. They often work on hostage situations. They try to
convince suspects to free their hostages and surrender. Surrender means to give up peacefully. Negotiators have to be
calm. They must think carefully about each word they say. They do not want to upset a suspect. This could cause a
suspect to harm hostages. Negotiators may spend hours talking with suspects. Sometimes they use phones and talk
from a safe distance. Other times they talk with suspects in person. In these cases, suspects will often talk only if
negotiators do not have weapons.

Containment Teams

Containment teams control and contain crime scenes. Contain means to hold in. they make sure innocent
people do not become involved in situation. They also make sure that suspects do not escape. Containment officers
make observations and report what they see to their leaders. Sometimes they have to shoot at suspects. Containment
officers take different positions at a crime scene. They choose locations that help them see what is happening. Some
may crouch on rooftops. Some may stand in doorways. Others may take positions behind cars. Containment officers
are patient. They control their emotions while under pressure. Containment officers also think carefully before they
shoot. Careless shots could not hurt innocent people or lead to deadly shoot-outs.

Entry Teams

Entry teams enter and search buildings. Their job is of find and captures suspects in the buildings. They also try to
locate and rescue hostages. Sometimes entry team officers must secure crime scenes. This means they prevent
suspects from harming others or killing themselves. Entry team officers also prevent suspects from escaping or
destroying evidence. Evidence is facts or objects that help prove guilt. Entry team officers can break through locked or
barricaded entrances quickly. Barricaded means blocked. The officers use tools to break windows and push through
doors. Quick entries allow officers to catch suspects off guard. This makes entry operations safer.

SWAT TEAMS OPERATIONS

All swat teams try to resolve police emergencies as quickly and safely as possible. They want to capture
suspects without harming the public, hostages, or the suspects. SWAT teams work carefully during their operations to
reduce chances of harm or death. SWAT teams use different tactics to reach these goals. They try peaceful tactics first.

Peaceful Tactics
 Waiting is one peaceful tactics SWAT teams use. SWAT teams sometimes wait for hours before they take
more forceful action. Waiting gives suspects a chance to think about what they are doing. SWAT teams try to resolve

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police emergencies with peaceful tactics. It also suspects time to think about what may happen to them. Sometimes
suspects surrender after they have time to think. Persuasion and negotiation are other tactics SWAT teams use.
Persuasion is trying to change a person’s mind. Negotiation is talking to reach an agreement. The goal of these tactics
is to talk suspects into surrendering without harming others. Many times, SWAT teams use other tactics in combination
with persuasion and negotiation. For example, teams may cut the heat or air. They may constantly ring doorbells or call
suspects on the phone. These tactics make the suspects nervous. Sometimes they make criminals more willing to
surrender.

Forceful Tactics

SWAT teams change their tactics if more force is needed. They use forceful tactics when negotiation and
persuasion tactics fail. They also use forceful tactics if the lives of hostages and officers are in danger. Forceful tactics
include the use of tear gas. Forceful tactics include using tear gas, storming buildings, and attacking with
sharpshooters. Tear gas is the least forceful of these tactics.

Tear Gas

SWAT team officers often use tear gas as their first forceful tactic. Officers shoot cans of tear gas through
windows and doorways with tear gas guns. The tear gas makes suspects’ eyes burn and swell. The suspects have a
hard time breathing in rooms filled with the tear gas. Tear gas often disables suspects. This allows officers to arrest
suspects safely. Other times, tear gas forces suspects to surrender.

Entering a Building

Sometimes officers must enter buildings to try to capture suspects. Entry teams meet at a staging are before
entering a building. A staging area is a safe area near a building that officers plant to enter. Entry team members check
their equipment and weapons at staging areas. They also go over their plans for entry. Next, the entry teams enter
buildings. They must often break through barricaded doors and windows. Once inside, officers search rooms and
hallways. They search until they locate suspects and hostages. Entry team officers try to capture and disarm suspects.
Disarm means to take away a person’s weapons. Many times suspects surrender when they see entry teams.
Sometimes suspects shoot at the officers. The officers shoot back. Entry team officers often turn captured suspects
over to arrest teams. Arrest teams arrest captured suspects. They make sure nothing goes wrong during arrest. They
may also help hostages out of buildings.

Sharp shooting Teams

Sharpshooters may have to shoot suspects. This may become necessary if suspects try to harm hostages,
officers, or innocent bystanders. Sharpshooters may receive orders to shoot suspects in these situations. Many SWAT
units have sharp shooting teams. Each team includes two officers. One officer works as an observer. The other works a
sharpshooter.

Sharp shooting Team Operations

Sharp shooting teams choose locations that give them clear views of suspects. Both members examine crime
scenes from their location. Observers provide information about suspects to sharpshooters and SWAT team leader. The
information includes descriptions of suspects, their weapons, and their positions in buildings. Observers’ information
helps sharpshooters make sure they do not shoot at innocent people. Sharpshooters stay calm and keep their weapons
aimed at suspects. Orders to shoot a suspect can come at any time during an operation.

Special Weapons
 SWAT team officers use special weapons. Many of the weapons are powerful guns. At crime scenes, the
weapons help the officers protect themselves and capture suspects. But SWAT team members do not use their
weapons unless peaceful tactics fail. Different weapons are useful in different situations. Some weapons are useful in
short-range situations. Other weapons are useful in long-ranger situations.

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Stun Guns and Rubber Bullets

Sometime SWAT team officers use impact weapons. Impact weapons disable suspects. SWAT team officer
use powerful weapons. Sometimes SWAT team officers use submachine guns. Without killing them. These weapons
fire rubber or plastic bullets. Using impact weapons reduces the risk of harm to hostages and the public. Sometimes
officers use stun guns. A stun gun is a device that delivers an electric shock. The shock stuns suspects.

Semi – automatic Handguns

Most SWAT team officers carry semi – automatic handguns. A semi – automatic handgun is a powerful gun
that fires bullets quickly. These handguns are short –range weapons. They work best for targets within 25 yards (23
meters). Semi – automatic handguns hold 14 to 17 rounds in each magazine. A round is a bullet. A magazine is a metal
or plastic case that fits inside a gun. Magazines allow officers to reload their handgun quickly.

Shotguns

Sometime SWAT team officers use shotguns. A shotgun is a powerful gun wit a long barrel. Shotguns are
mainly short-range weapons. They may be single-shot or semi-automatic weapons. Shotguns fire large bullets called
shells. SWAT teams often use the Benelli M3 Super 90 shotgun. This shotgun is a semi-automatic. It holds up to seven
shells stored in a magazine.

Submachine Guns

SWAT teams use submachine guns during shootouts with heavily armed suspects. Submachine guns fire
rapidly but are not easy to aim. SWAT team submachine guns can fire single or multiple rounds. They fire multiple
rounds in short and long bursts. A short burst is a quick series of two or three rounds. A long burst is a quick series of
four to eight rounds. Many SWAT teams use the Heckler and Koch MP-5 submachine gun. Most MP-5 can fire 30 shots
in just two seconds.

Standard Rifle

SWAT teams use different rifles in different situations. Rifle gives officers dependable aim, firepower, and
range. The M-16 is the standard SWAT team rifle. The M-16 is light. This makes it easy to carry and use. The M-16 has
a dependable range of 50 to 200 yards (46 to 183 meters). Each magazine for the M-16 holds up to 30 rounds. These
features make the rifle useful in many situations.

High-Powered Rifles

SWAT team officers use high-powered rifles for long-distance shooting. Containment officers and
sharpshooters use high – powered rifles to improve their shots. High-powered rifles fire high-powered rounds. They are
large rifles with long barrels. They have telescopes on them. A telescope is an instrument that makes distant objects
seem larger and closer. Telescopes help sharpshooters aim their rifles. High-powered rifles have ranges up to several
hundred yards. Fifty-caliber rifles are the largest high-powered rifles SWAT teams use. These rifles weigh up to 40
pounds (18 kilograms) and are at least five feet (1.5 meters) long. The rifles shoot rounds powerful enough to punch
through metal and concrete. Officers use these rifles to shoot at suspects inside buildings.

Equipment and Dogs

 SWAT team officers use different kinds of equipment. The equipment ranges from clothing to helicopters.
Officers also work with police dogs. The dogs and equipment help make SWAT team operations easier and safer.

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Uniforms

Many SWAT team officers wear black or dark blue uniforms. During operations, the uniforms help SWAT team
officers identify each other. Sometimes SWAT team officers wear camouflage uniforms. Camouflage uniforms have
coloring that makes officers blend in with their surroundings. Many camouflage uniforms are green and brown. These
uniforms help officers stay hidden from suspects.

Armored Vests and Shields

All SWAT team officers wear armored vest. Armor is a protective covering. Armored vests can protect officers
from gunshots. Officers wear two kinds of armored vests. One kind fits over uniforms. The other kind fits over uniforms.
The other kind fits under uniforms. Entry team officers often use armored shields in addition to their armored vests. The
shields are made of lightweight armor. They provide added protection against gunshots and small explosions.

Goggles and Gas Masks

Many SWAT team officers wear goggles. Goggles are protective glasses that fit tightly around the upper face
and eyes. They protect officers’ eyes from dirt, dust, and smoke. Some SWAT teams use night vision goggles. Night
vision goggles let SWAT team officers see in the dark. The goggles are useful during night operations or inside dark
buildings. SWAT team officers wear gas masks when they use tear gas. A gas mask keeps a person from breathing
gas. Gas masks help entry teams work in areas where tear gas is present.

Entry Tools

Entry team officers often need tools to get into barricaded buildings. Basic tools include ropes and ladders.
Tools can also include battering rams, sledgehammers, and axes. A battering ram is a heavy metal tube. Officers use
battering rams to force open doors. Entry teams recently started using small amounts of explosives. The explosives can
blow holes in doors and walls. But the explosives present little danger to SWAT team members and suspects.

Helicopters

Some SWAT teams use helicopter. Helicopters carry SWAT teams to emergencies located in hard to reach
places like rooftops. Helicopters also let officers examine crime scenes from the air. This helps them plan their
operations.

Walkie Talkies and Telephone

Communications is important to SWAT team officers. Officers often use walkie talkies. Walkie talkies are
small two-way radios. Officers use walkie talkies to tell each other what is happening during operations. Sometimes
SWAT teams use telephones to talk with suspects. Telephones also let team member speak to other people during
operations.

Swat Team Dogs

Many large SWAT teams use police dogs. Police dogs work with some SWAT officer as K-9 teams. K-9 is
short for canine. Canine means dog. Most police dogs are German shepherds. Police dogs help officers find suspects.
The dogs follow suspects’ scents to the suspects’ hiding places. Police dogs also chase and stop escaping suspects.
They often stop suspects by biting the suspects’ arms and legs.

Facing the Risks

SWAT team duty is challenging and risky work. Officers risk death each time they work on a police
emergency. Many officers volunteer for SWAT team duty because they like challenge and excitement. But most SWAT
team officers volunteer because they want to protect the public.

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JUVENILE DELINQUENCY & CRIME PREVENTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ABANDONMENT - The most common legal grounds for termination of parental rights, also a form of child
abuse in most states. Sporadic visits, a few phone calls, or birthday cards are not sufficient to maintain parental rights.
Fathers who manifest indifference toward a pregnant mother are also viewed as abandoning the child when it is born.

ABUSE - Term for acts or omissions by a legal caretaker. Encompasses a broad range of acts, and usually
requires proof of intent.

ADJUDICATION - The phase of a delinquency hearing similar to a "trial" in adult criminal court, except that
juveniles have no right to a jury trial, a public trial, or bail.

ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURE - Any of the processes involving enforcement of care, custody, or support
orders by an executive agency rather than by courts or judges.

ADOPTION - A legal relationship between two people not biologically related, usually terminating the rights of
biological parents, and usually with a trial "live-in" period. Once an adoption is finalized, the records are sealed and only
the most compelling interests will enable disclosure of documents.

BEST INTERESTS OF THE CHILD RULE - Legal doctrine establishing court as determiner of best
environment for raising child. An alternative to the Parens Patriae Doctrine.

BREED v. JONES (1975) - Case allowing second prosecution in adult court for conviction in juvenile court,
based on idea that first conviction was a "civil" matter.

CASE LAW - Law established by the history of judicial decisions in cases decided by judges, as opposed to
common law which is developed from the history of judicial decisions and social customs.

CHILD PROTECTION ACTION - The filing of legal papers by a child welfare agency when its investigation
has turned up evidence of child abuse. This is a civil, rather than criminal, charge designed to take preventive action
(like appointment of a Guardian ad litem) for at-risk children before abuse occurs.

CHILD SUPPORT – the act of being responsible for enforcing child support obligations.

CHILD VICTIMS' AND CHILD WITNESS' RIGHTS - A 1990 federal law allowing courts to take extraordinary
steps in protecting the emotional health of any child called to testify in a courtroom.

CHINS (CHild In Need of Supervision) - A term applied to status offenders adjudicated in juvenile court.

CIVIL PROTECTION ORDER - A form of protective custody in which a child welfare or police agency order
an adult suspected of abuse to leave the home.
 CUSTODIAL CONFINEMENT - Court order for placement in a secure facility, separate from adults, for the
rehabilitation of a juvenile delinquent.

DELINQUENCY PROCEEDING - Court action to officially declare someone a juvenile delinquent. A

"delinquent" is defined as under the age of majority who has been convicted in juvenile court of something that would
be classified as a crime in adult court.

DEPENDENT - Anyone under the care of someone else. A child ceases to be a dependent when they reach
the age of emancipation.

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DeSHANEY v. WINNEBAGO COUNTY (1989) - Case limiting extent by which government exercises parens
patriae power.

DISPOSITION - Phase of delinquency proceeding similar to "sentencing" phase of adult trial. The judge must
consider alternative, innovative, and individualized sentences rather than imposing standard sentences.

DIVERSION - An alternative to trial decided upon at intake to refer the child to counseling or other social
services.

EMANCIPATION - Independence of a minor from his or her parents before reaching age of majority.

EQUAL PROTECTION – A clause requiring government to treat similarly situated people the same or have
good reason for treating them differently. Compelling reasons are considered to exist for treating children differently.

FAMILY IMMUNITY DOCTRINE - Legal doctrine preventing unemancipated children from suing their parents.

FAMILY PURPOSE DOCTRINE - Legal doctrine holding parents liable for injuries caused by a child's
negligent driving or other actions.

FOSTER CARE - Temporary care funded via Federal-State pass-through and arranged by a child welfare
agency in order to allow receipt of adequate food, clothing, shelter, education, and medical treatment for anyone raising
a child that is not their own.

GUARDIAN AD LITEM - Phrase meaning "For the Proceeding" referring to adults who look after the welfare
of a child and represent their legal interests.

GUARDIANSHIP - Court order giving an individual or organization legal authority over a child. A guardian of
the person is usually an individual and the child is called a ward. A guardian of the estate is usually an organization, like
a bank, which manages the property and assets of a child's inheritance. Guardians are usually compensated for their
services.

ILLEGITIMACY - Being born to unmarried parents. The law assumes legitimacy via a married mother's
husband, whether or not this is the true father. Illegitimacy status limits inheritance rights.

IN LOCO PARENTIS - Teachers, administrators, and babysitters who are viewed as having some temporary
parental rights & obligations.

IN RE GAULT (1967) – (US) - Case that determined the Constitution requires a separate juvenile justice
system with certain standard procedures and protections, but still not as many as in adult systems.

INTAKE - Procedure prior to preliminary hearing in which a group of people (intake officer, police, probation,
social worker, parent and child) talk and decide whether to handle the case formally or informally.

JUDGMENT - Any official decision or finding of a judge or administrative agency hearing officer upon the
respective rights and claims of parties to an action; also known as a decree or order.

KENT v. U.S. (1966) - Case requiring a special hearing before any transfers to adult court. MATERNAL

PREFERENCE RULE - Legal doctrine granting mothers custodial preference after a divorce.

NEGLECT - Parental failure to provide a child with basic necessities when able to do so. Encompasses a
variety of forms of abuse that do not require the element of intent.

PARENS PATRIAE - Legal doctrine establishing "parental" role of state over welfare of its citizens, especially
its children. A 19th century idea first articulated in Prince v. Massachusetts (1944).

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PAROLE - Release of a juvenile delinquent from custodial confinement prior to expiration of sentence;
sometimes called aftercare.

PATERNITY - Result of lawsuit forcing a reluctant man to assume obligations of fatherhood. Blood and DNA
tests showing a 98 or 99 percent likelihood are the standard. Laws vary widely in terms of statutes of limitations and
when paternity actions will not be allowed (estoppel).

PLEADING - In juvenile court, a plea of "not guilty" will move the case to adjudication, and a plea of "guilty" or
"nolo contendere" will result in waiver of the right to trial. State procedures vary widely in how intelligent and voluntary
pleas are accepted.

PRELIMINARY HEARING - The bringing of a juvenile before a magistrate or judge in which charges are
formally presented. Similar to an arraignment in adult court, and also called "advisory hearings" or "initial appearances"
in some state juvenile justice systems.

PREVENTIVE DETENTION - Keeping a juvenile in custody or under a different living arrangement until the
time when an adjudication can take place. Upheld in Schall v. Martin (1984), but the right to speedy trial requires the
dropping of charges if an unreasonable amount of time is spent in preventive detention.

PROTECTIVE CUSTODY - Emergency, temporary custody by a child welfare agency, police agency, or
hospital for reasons of immanent danger to the child. A hearing must be held for the benefit of the parents within a few
days.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PARENT DOCTRINE - Legal doctrine granting custody to the parent whom the child
feels the greatest emotional attachment to.

RESTITUTION - A disposition requiring a defendant to pay damages to a victim. The law prohibits making
restitution a condition of receiving probation. Poor families cannot be deprived of probation simply because they are too
poor to afford restitution. Some states do not allow families to pay restitution.

RULE OF SIXTEEN – (US) - Federal and state laws that prohibit anyone under age 16 from employment.

STANFORD v. KENTUCKY (1989) - Case in which it was determined constitutional to execute juveniles
between the ages of 16-18, but unconstitutional if they committed crimes while under age 16. Won by a narrow majority,
as in the 1988 case of Thompson v. Oklahoma which relied upon "standards of decency".

STATUS OFFENSE - An activity illegal when engaged in by a minor, but not when done by an adult.
Examples include truancy, curfew, running away, or habitually disobeying parents.
 STEPPARENT - A spouse of a biological parent who has no legal rights or duties to the child other than
those which have been voluntarily accepted.

SURROGATE PARENT - A parent who provided an egg, sperm, or uterus with an intent of giving the child up
for adoption to specific parties.

TENDER YEARS DOCTRINE - Legal doctrine that unless the mother is "unfit", very young children should be
placed in custody with their mother following a divorce.

TERMINATION HEARINGS - Process for legally severing the parent-child relationship. Initiated by the filing
of a petition in family court, and almost always brought forth by a child welfare agency. Requires a finding of "unfitness"
and a determination of the best interests of the child.

UNFIT PARENT - A temporary or permanent termination of parental rights in the best interest of the child
usually for reasons of abandonment, abuse, or neglect, but also including mental illness, addiction, or criminal record.
Poverty alone and character flaws are prohibited by law from being indicators of "unfitness".

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO DELINQUENCY

Families, peers, schools, and socioeconomic status are all social factors that are examined in many of the
causal theories. Demographics and the relationships one has in society are also examined in some of the explanatory
theories. Families are important to consider when we explain juvenile delinquency. The family unit is crucial to a child's
development and healthy upbringing. In addition, much of what a child learns is through their family or guardians. A
criminal parent can teach their child adverse lessons about life when their child views or witnesses their parent's
delinquent behavior. Peers can also teach an adolescent or child criminal behavior just as the family member can.
Family members and peers can also cause delinquent patterns of behavior by labeling their child as delinquent. This is
somewhat of the "if the shoe fits, wear it" saying. If a child feels as though they are viewed as delinquent, then they will
act as such and find a sense of self-esteem by doing so.

Even though the family and peers (as well as the school) can influence a juvenile to participate in crime, the
decision still rests on their shoulders. Some theorists argue that participation in crime is a rational choice and that the
rewards and consequences are carefully calculated out by the individual. The choice to commit a crime can by
influenced by many factors, including the ones that I outlined here. However, if a juvenile has many ties or bonds to
members in society, they are less likely to make the choice to commit a crime for fear of ridicule, embarrassment, or
scorn from those they associate with. The demographic characteristics of a person's living environment can also be a
contributing factor to criminal patterns of behavior. Adverse living conditions and a crime-prone neighborhood can lead
to criminal activity. There are also various structural theories that can put juvenile delinquency in a context of better
understanding.

In order to simplify the environmental sources of delinquency, the following are considered:

FAMILY BACKGROUND

The Home - The family or the home is one of the most influential environmental factors that would lead a
person to either a law abiding or a criminal. It is said that the home is considered as the “cradle of human personality”
for in it the child forms fundamental attitudes and habits that endure through out his life.

The kind of conscience the child develops depends largely upon the kind of parents he has. The parents are
the most influential persons in the family when they give love, attention, guidance, security, standards and all other
things that the child needs, the children are the mirror of the home for they reflect what the home look like. Thus, a child
who was provided with love, attention, guidance, security, standards and all other things he needs comes to regard
people as friendly, understanding, dependable, loyal, and worthy of his respect and admiration. On the other hand, if he
experienced cold, despairing, rejecting, neglectful, and cruel environment in the home, most likely he will learn to
distrust, disobey, dislike and even to hate people (Tradio, 1983).

Given a home, the child tends to become law abiding if the following conditions are met:

1. The Child is loved and wanted and knows it.

2. He was helped to grow up by not having too much or too little done for him.
3. He is part of the family; he has fun with the family he belongs.
4. His early mistakes and badness are understood as a normal part of growing and he is corrected without being
hurt, shamed or confused.
5. His growing skills are enjoyed and respected.
6. He feels his parents care as much about as they do to his sisters and brothers.
7. The family sticks together with understanding and cooperation.
8. He is moderately and consistency disciplined.

The family is the primary institution that molds a child to either a law-abiding person or a delinquent. The
effects of pathological social relations in the home are to a great extent influence anti- social behaviors. This means that
the home can be a potent force of either good or evil.

(See Discussion of the Pathogenic Family structures)

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THE BROADER SOCIAL PROCESS

Bad Neighborhood - refers to areas or places in which dwelling or housing conditions are dilapidated,
unsanitary, and unhealthy which are detrimental to the moral, health, and safety of the populace. It is commonly
characterized by overcrowding with disintegrated and unorganized inhabitants and other close relatives. Most
inhabitants in a bad neighborhood are experiencing economic difficulties, alcoholism, substance abuse, gambling and
many other problems in life. This connotes that bad neighborhood is the habitat of bad elements of society by reason of
anonymity because the situation is so conducive for the commission of crimes. Bad elements prefer to dwell in such
community not only because of the sense of anonymity among its members but also because they are not welcome in
decent places.

The School - Part of a broader social process for behavior influence is the school. It is said that the school is
an extension of the home having the strategic position to control crime and delinquency. It exercises authority over
every child as a constituent. The teachers are considered second parents having the responsibility to mold the child to
become productive members of the community by devoting energies to study the child behavior using all available
scientific means and devices in an attempt to provide each the kind and amount of education they need. The school
takes the responsibility of preventing the feeling of insecurity and rejection of the child, which can contribute directly to
maladjustment and to criminality by setting up objectives of developing the child into a well-integrated and useful law
abiding citizen. The school has also the role of working closely with the parents and neighborhood, and other
community agencies and organizations to direct the child in the most effective and constructive way.

However, the school could be an influence to delinquency and criminality when teachers are being disliked
for they are too cross, crabby, grouchy, never smile, naggers, sarcastic, temperamental, unreasonable, intolerant, ill
mannered, too strict, and unfair. Conditions like these makes the students experience frustration, inadequacy,
insecurity, and confusion, which are most of the time the “kindergarten of crime”. In short, next to parents the teachers
stand as foremost in their influence to human behavior.

The Church - Religion is a positive force for good in the community and an influence against crime and
delinquency. The church influences people’s behavior with the emphasis on morals and life’s highest spiritual values,
the worth and dignity of the individual, and respect for person’s lives and properties, and generate the full power to
oppose crime and delinquency. Just like the family and the school, the church is also responsible to cooperate with
institutions and the community in dealing with problems of children, delinquents and criminals as regardless to the
treatment and correction of criminal behaviors.
 The Police - is one of the most powerful occupation groups in the modern society. The prime mover of the
criminal justice system and the number one institution in the community with the broad goals maintaining peace and
order, the protection of life and property, and the enforcement of the laws. The police is the authority having a better
position to draw up special programs against crime because it is the very reason why the police exist. That is to protect
the society against lawless elements since they are the best equipped to detect and identify criminals. The police is the
agency most interested about crime and criminals and having the most clearly defined legal power authority to take
action against them.

Government and Other Components of the CJS - The government and the other components of the
criminal justice system are the organized authority that enforces the laws of the land and the most powerful in the
control of people. Respect for the government is influenced by the respect of the people running the government. When
the people see that public officers and employees are the first ones to violate the laws, people will refuse to obey them,
they set the first ones to follow and create an atmosphere conductive to crime and disrespect for the law. In this regard,
the government itself indirectly abets the commission of crimes.

Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) - The group of concerned individuals responsible for helping the
government in the pursuit of community development being partners of providing the common good and welfare of the
people, these non-government organizations are good helpers in providing the required services, thus preventing
criminality and maintain order.

The Mass Media - The media is the best institution for information dissemination thereby giving the public
necessary need to know, and do help shape everyday views about crime and its control.

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CONCEPTS OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

Delinquency in General

Delinquency refers to any action; course or conduct that deviates from acts approved by the majority of
people. It is a description of those acts that do not conform to the accepted rules, norms and mores of the society
(sociological definition) Delinquency, therefore, is a general term for any misconduct or misbehavior that is tantamount
to felony or offense. It is, however distinct from crime in the sense that the former may be in the form of violation of law,
ordinance or rule but it is punishable only by a small fine or short-term imprisonment or both. Legally speaking,
delinquency means the failure to perform an act required by law, or the non-performance of a duty or obligation that is
mandated by existing law or rule.

Juvenile Crime

Juvenile Crime, in law, term denoting various offences committed by children or youths under the age of
18. Such acts are sometimes referred to as juvenile delinquency. Children's offences typically include delinquent
acts, which would be considered crimes if committed by adults, and status offences, which are less serious
misbehavioral problems such as truancy and parental disobedience. Both are within the jurisdiction of the juvenile
court; more serious offences committed by minors may be tried in criminal court and be subject to prison sentences.
In law, a crime is an illegal act committed by a person who has criminal intent. A long-standing presumption held that,
although a person of almost any age can commit a criminal act, children under 14 years old were unlikely to have
criminal intent. Many juvenile courts have now discarded this so-called infancy defense and have found that
delinquent acts can be committed by children of any age.

Juvenile Delinquency

The term juvenile delinquency is used to describe a large number of disapproved behaviors of children or
youths. In this sense, almost anything that the youth does which others do not like is called juvenile delinquency.
However, criminologist suggested the following factors of juvenile delinquency:
 1. Juvenile delinquency includes the behavior specifically defined as delinquent according to the various
existing laws and ordinances concerning children or youth.
2. The definition of juvenile delinquency must take into account the social reality that reflected through the
media. Books, movies and television help people to define a particular reality for them. If the media
systematically portrays particular behavior as delinquent, they often come to be accepted as real.
3. While almost all children engage in behavior that is in violation of juvenile codes and laws, we believe that
ultimately, juvenile delinquents refers to youths who have been successfully defined as delinquents.

In a more specific view, acts of juvenile delinquency include violation of laws such as those defined by
juvenile codes and laws.

The Delinquent Person

A delinquent person is one who repeatedly commits an act that is against the norms or mores observed by
the society. When a person habitually commits an act that is not in accordance with the rules or policies of a community
where he belongs, he is considered a delinquent.

The Juvenile Delinquent

Juveniles are young people who are regarded as immature or one whose mental as well as emotional
faculties are not fully developed thus making them incapable of taking full responsibility of their actions. In legal points,
the term juvenile is a person subject to juvenile court proceedings because of a statutorily defined event or condition
caused by or affecting that person and was alleged to have occurred while his or her age was below the specified age
limit.

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Brief History of Juvenile Delinquency
The harsh beginning - Children were viewed as non-persons until the 1700's. They did not receive special
treatment or recognition. Discipline then is what we now call abuse.

There were some major assumptions about life before the 1700's. The first assumption is that life was hard,
and you had to be hard to survive. The people of that time in history did not have the conveniences that we take for
granted. For example, the medical practices of that day were primitive in comparison to present-day medicine.
Marriages were more for convenience, rather than for child-bearing or romance. The second assumption was that infant
and child mortality were high. It did not make sense to the parents in those days to create an emotional bond with
children. There was a strong chance that the children would not survive until adulthood.

At the end of the 18th century, "The Enlightenment" appeared as a new cultural transition. This period of
history is sometimes known as the beginning of reason and humanism. People began to see children as flowers, which
needed nurturing in order to bloom. It was the invention of childhood, love and nurturing instead of beatings to stay in
line. Children had finally begun to emerge as a distinct group. It started with the upper-class, who were allowed to
attend colleges and universities.

Since ancient times, enlightened legal systems have distinguished between juvenile delinquents and adult
criminals. Generally, the immature were not considered morally responsible for their behavior. Under the Code
Napoléon in France, for example, limited responsibility was ascribed to children under the age of 16. Despite the
apparent humanity of some early statutes, however, the punishment of juvenile offenders was often severe until the
19th century.
Prior to the 20th century, juvenile offenders were often treated as adults. The first development contrary to
this in the United Kingdom was the establishment of Borstal training center in place of normal imprisonment, which
was intended to build up the offender's character. They were unsuccessful, and since the 1960s, policy has been
directed away from the detention of young offenders towards treatment in the community, beginning with avoiding
court altogether. The police are encouraged to caution juveniles who admit an offence, unless they are persistent
offenders.
When juvenile offenders are dealt with more formally, they are tried by a dedicated juvenile court, having as
little contact with the mainstream system as possible. There is considerable emphasis on parental responsibility, and
the parents may be ordered to pay the juvenile's fine, or be liable to pay a sum of money if the child is in trouble
again.
If the courts need to punish juveniles, they can utilize community sentences. Attendance centers orders, for
example, require juveniles to attend during their leisure hours at centers where they will be given a program of
constructive activities. Supervision orders put juveniles under the supervision of a social services department, and
may include compulsory activities. Those aged 15 and over may also be sentenced to probation orders (supervision),
community service orders (compulsory work under supervision), or a combination of both.
If juveniles are to be detained, those aged 15 or over may be held in a young offender institution for between
2 and 12 months. Younger offenders can only be detained in the most serious of cases, and there are national units to
deal with them. All Offenders aged 10 to 13 can be detained only if convicted of manslaughter or murder.

Perceived Causes of Delinquency

Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile crime focus either on the individual or on society as the
major contributing influence. Theories focusing on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior
because they were not sufficiently penalized for previous delinquent acts or that they have learned criminal behavior
through interaction with others. A person who becomes socially alienated may be more inclined to commit a criminal
act. Theories focusing on the role of society in juvenile delinquency suggest that children commit crimes in response
to their failure to rise above their socio-economic status, or as a repudiation of middle-class values.
Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, ignoring the
fact that children from affluent homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes because of the lack of

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adequate parental control, delays in achieving adult status, or simply because they get enjoyment from it. All
theories, however, are tentative and are subject to criticism.
The family unit has also experienced changes within the past two or three decades. More families consist
of one-parent households or two working parents; consequently, children are likely to have less supervision at home
than was common in the traditional family structure. This lack of parental supervision is thought to have an influence
on juvenile crime rates. Other identifiable causes of delinquent acts include frustration or failure in school, the
increased availability of drugs and alcohol, and the growing incidence of child abuse and child neglect. All these
conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, although a direct causal relationship
has not been established.

Juvenile Delinquency Prevention

"...I urge you to consider this: As you demand tougher penalties for those who choose violence, let us also remember
how we came to this sad point." "...We have seen a stunning and simultaneous breakdown of community, family, and
work. This has created a vast vacuum which has been filled by violence and drugs and gangs. So I ask you to
remember that even as we say no to crime, we must give people, especially our young people something to say yes
to." - President Clinton, State of the Union Address, January 25, 1994.

The Urgent Need

Public safety is paramount - government has a duty to protect the public from kids who can kill. But it is
becoming ever more apparent that increasing police, prosecution, and prisons alone is neither sufficient nor adequately
effective in stemming the tide of youth violence and crime.
 A study done in the Philippines on children who sexually abused other children reached the same conclusion.
It found that 80.9% of the respondents experienced some form of abuse, with 43% experiencing physical abuse from
their caregivers. Aside from the respondents themselves, other members of the family like their mothers experienced
abuse that the respondents witnessed. 36% of the respondents came from families that have a history of either conflict
or abuse or partner or siblings.

Related Factors

There are other factors that are linked to youth offending. There is the gender factor, particularly in patriarchal
societies. Violence is overwhelmingly a male problem. The roots for this appear to be primarily social rather than
biological, highlighting the inadequacies of current socialization of male children, and the promotion of insensitive and
overbearing male behavioral models and attitudes in many societies. It was also reported that the inadequate
monitoring and supervision of children by parents and other adults could be crucial in realizing a potential for violence.
Studies show that poor parental supervision or monitoring, erratic or harsh parental discipline, parental disharmony,
parental rejection of the child, and low parental involvement in the child’s activities are all-important predictors of
offending.

List of Predictors

The list below is particularly useful in identifying the components of the strategies of prevention and early
intervention. But the list is not a universal one that applies to all countries. In any particular country or society, methods
of preventing or treating antisocial behavior should be based on empirically validated theories about causes.

Individual factors:

✓ Pregnancy and delivery complications

✓ Low resting heart rate
✓ Internalizing disorders
✓ Hyperactivity, concentration problems, restlessness, and risk taking
✓ Aggressiveness
✓ Beliefs and attitudes favorable to deviant or antisocial behavior

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Family factors

✓ Parental criminality
✓ Child maltreatment Poor family management practices
✓ Low levels of parental involvement
✓ Poor family bonding and family conflict
✓ Parental attitudes favorable to substance abuse and violence
✓ Parent-child separation

School factors

✓ Academic failure
✓ Low bonding to school
✓ Truancy and dropping out of school
✓ Frequent school transitions

Peer-related factors
✓ Delinquent siblings
✓ Delinquent peers
✓ Gang membership

Community and neighborhood factors

 ✓ Poverty
✓ Community disorganization
✓ Availability of drugs and firearms
✓ Neighborhood adults involved in crime
✓ Exposure to violence and racial prejudice

Delinquency Prevention Measures

In order to prevent the development of delinquent behavior in children, the factors that increase the risk of the
growth of such behavior need to be identified. Once these factors are identified, then strategies to address them,
including enhancing the protective factors for children to resist the effect of the risk factors, can be planned and
implemented.

The body of research on delinquency and crime has identified a number of factors which are linked with
development of delinquent behavior. These factors can be grouped in the following broad categories: the family, the
community, the school, the individual and the peer group.

Within each of these categories, specific risk factors can be identified, such as child abuse and family
disintegration, economic and social deprivation,
low neighborhood attachment, parental attitudes condoning law violating behavior, academic failure, truancy, school
drop-out, lack of bonding with society, fighting with peers, and early initiation of problem behaviors. The more these risk
factors a child is exposed to, the more likely delinquent and violent behavior may develop. Hence, prevention strategy
is designed to reduce identified risk factors while strengthening protective factors.

Prevention Strategies - These include healthy beliefs and clear standards for productive, law-abiding
behavior, and bonding with adults who adhere to these beliefs and standards.

Key principles for preventing and reducing at-risk behavior and delinquency include:

✓ Strengthen families in their role of providing guidance and discipline and instilling sound values as their
children's first and primary teachers.

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✓ Support core social institutions, including schools, churches, and other community-based organizations, to
alleviate risk factors and help children develop to their maximum potential.

✓ Promote prevention strategies that reduce the impact of risk factors and enhance the influence of protective
factors in the lives of youth at greatest risk of delinquency.

✓ Intervene with youth immediately when delinquent behavior first occurs.

✓ Establish a broad spectrum of graduated sanctions that provides accountability and a continuum of services to
respond appropriately to the needs of each juvenile offender.

✓ Identify and control the small segment of serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders.

Of course, the implementation of these key principles require all sectors of the community to take part in
determining local needs and in planning and implementing programs to meet those needs.

Intervention Strategies

The intervention component comprises a range of options that include immediate interventions (for first
time offenders involved in misdemeanors and nonviolent felonies) and intermediate sanctions (for offenders who are
first time serious or violent offenders, or repeat offenders who fail to respond to immediate intervention).
 Community policing shows considerable promise as a means of early intervention. The juvenile court plays
an important role in the provision of treatment and sanctions, with probation being the court's principal vehicle for the
delivery of treatment services and community supervision. Continuous case management is crucial to ensuring timely
treatment.

A continuum of community-based care should be provided to meet the multiple service needs of each
juvenile offender. The intervention component calls for extensive use of non-residential community-based programs,
including referral to prevention programs for most first time offenders. Intermediate sanctions use both nonresidential
and residential placements, including intensive supervision programs for more serious and violent offenders.

Law Relative to Juvenile Delinquency In the Philippines

Enforcement of the laws related to juvenile delinquency is an important aspect of the entire prevention
measures or strategies. In the Philippines, the following discussions are related to laws on juvenile delinquency.

Presidential Decree No. 603 - is the Child and Youth Welfare Code of the Philippines which took effect six
months after its approval in December 10, 1974 (June 10, 1975) applies to persons below eighteen (18) years of age
(RA 6809 lowered the age of minority from 21 to 18 years of age), and such persons are referred to as child, or minor
or youth.

Who is a Youth Offender under PD 603? A youthful offender is a child, minor or youth, including one who is
emancipated in accordance with law, who is over nine years but less than eighteen years of age at the time of the
commission of the offense. A child nine years of age or under at the time of the offense shall be exempt from the
criminal liability and shall be committed to the care of his father or mother, or nearest relative or family friend in the
discretion of the court and subject to its supervision. The same shall be done for a child over nine years and under
fifteen years of age at the time of the commission of the offense, unless he acted with discernment, in which case he
shall be proceeded against in accordance with Article 192. The provisions of Article 80 of the Revised Penal Code are
repealed by the provisions of this chapter (as amended by PD 1179, August 15, 1977).

Related Provisions of Act 3815 (Revised Penal Code) - The provision of Article 189 on the exemption of
liability is the same as Article 12, par.2 and 3 of the Revised Penal Code: “ The following are exempt from criminal
liability: xxx … person under 9 years of age; person over 9 years of age and under 15 unless he acted with

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