Cheese Gouda

Chapter 34
Gouda and Related Cheeses

Eva-Maria Düsterhöft, Wim Engels, Thom Huppertz
NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands
INTRODUCTION 9. Absence of essential surface flora.

10. At least 4 weeks of maturation, and thus having under-
Traditionally, two main types of cheese were made in the gone considerable proteolysis.
Netherlands: Gouda and Edam. Gouda cheese was made
in fairly large loaves of flat cylindrical shape (mostly Consequently, the cheese normally has a semisoft to
4–14 kg), from fresh whole milk, and was matured for vari- semihard consistency and a smooth texture, with a few pea-
able periods (6–60 weeks) under natural conditions; it is sized round holes in the cross-section. The flavor intensity
still made on some farms from raw milk in much the same varies widely. After prolonged natural ripening (under dry-
way (Goudse boerenkaas). Edam, a sphere of 1 or 2 kg, was ing conditions) the consistency will be hard and short. The
made from a mixture of skimmed evening milk and fresh formation of amino acid crystals in matured Gouda cheeses
morning milk, leading to about 40% fat in the dry matter; is common.
the cheese had a somewhat shorter texture than Gouda, and Variation within cheese type and ripening time is con-
was usually matured for 6 months or more. Mimolette, an siderable, that is, with respect to:
intensely colored sphere of 4 kg, is also related to this type. 1. The cheeses are produced in loaf sizes between 0.2 and
Later, a greater range of cheeses, differing in shape, body, 20 kg; the shape may be a sphere (Edam), a flat cylinder
and taste, evolved from these types. Most modern types with bulging sides (Gouda), or a block; the latter typi-
have a somewhat higher pH and moisture content than the cally of 10–15 kg weight.
cheeses used to have; one reason for this change was to ob- 2. Water content in the fat-free cheese ranges from 53% to
tain better sliceability of the matured cheese. 63%.
Gouda cheese and related cheeses are the main repre- 3. Generally, a larger loaf is likely to have a lower wa-
sentatives of ripened, semihard cheeses, produced from ter content (initially) and is matured for a longer time.
washed curd. They are characterized by: Smaller sized cheeses, such as Baby Gouda (0.2–1.0 kg),
1. The use of fresh pasteurized cows’ milk, the milk nor- are manufactured with a higher water content than the
mally being partly skimmed (generally leading to at larger normal Gouda cheese.
least 40% fat in the dry matter of the cheese). 4. Salt content in the cheese moisture ranges from 2% to
2. Milk clotting by means of calf rennet; the use of fer- 7%.
mentation-produced chymosin and some microbial 5. Maturation may take from 2 weeks to more than 1 year
rennets is also practiced in some countries. under drying conditions (natural ripening, with a mois-
3. The use of, preferably, mixed-strain starters consist- ture-permeable plastic coating). Foil-ripening of block-
ing of mesophilic lactococci and usually leuconostocs, shaped cheeses is applied as well in large volumes, al-
both of which generally produce CO2. though only for shorter maturation periods.
4. Fat content in the dry matter from 40% to more than 50%. 6. The pH varies from 4.9 (brittle Edam) to 5.6 (extra ma-
5. Water content in the fat-free cheese below 63% (ratio ture Gouda).
of water to solids-not-fat <1.70). 7. Reduced fat variants (30% fat in dry matter and below)
6. Pressing the cheese to obtain a closed rind. are produced with optimized cheesemaking technology,
7. Acidification mainly in the curd block after separa- starter and adjunct culture choice, to enhance texture
tion of the whey during pressing, holding, and the first and flavor development.
hours of brining. 8. Wide variations in flavor intensity and profiles are
8. Salting after pressing, usually in brine; to moderate salt achieved by the use of adjunct cultures, combined with
contents of 2.5%–3.5% salt in dry matter. appropriate adjustments to cheesemaking and ripening
Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417012-4.00034-X

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 865
866 S ECTION | II Diversity of Cheese
conditions. Likewise, addition of herbs and spices (par- related cheese varieties, as for many other cheese varieties,
ticularly cumin, the seeds of Cuminum cyminum) is is a shift in focus on the different streams in cheese produc-
common. tion. Although whey has long been considered a by-product
or even a waste stream from cheese manufacture, it has now
Modern cheese factories for Gouda-type cheeses have
reached equal, and sometimes even higher, economical im-
an annual production capacity of 30,000–150,000 tonnes
portance as cheese. Hence, production processes are more
of cheese. These plants are highly mechanized, automated,
and more balanced for optimal yield and quality of both
and computerized, producing cheese of the desired quality
cheese and whey.
at relatively low labor costs, but with very costly equipment.
Individual plants are often specialized in the manufacture of
a single cheese variety; processing up to 100,000 L of milk CHEESEMAKING
per hour.
The production volume of Gouda and Edam cheese in The general process for the manufacture of Gouda cheese
the Netherlands in 2012 was 604 × 103 and in Germany it and related variants is outlined in Fig. 34.1, consisting of
was 490 × 103 tonnes, as the two countries with the high- various steps for the pretreatment of cheese milk, followed
est production. Other European countries, such as Poland, by curd making, cutting, whey removal, and molding and
Denmark, Finland, and Lithuania also produce consider- pressing. The pressed cheeses are subsequently brine-salt-
able quantities of Gouda-type and related cheese, but there ed, coated or packaged, and ripened. These steps are de-
are no official numbers. The same accounts for production scribed in further detail later in the chapter.
outside Europe, which takes place in, for example, Austra-
lia, New Zealand, Mexico, Brazil, and the United States. Pretreatment of Cheese Milk
Dutch-type cheese is usually made from pasteurized milk;
only 7.6 × 103 tonnes, mainly Gouda cheese, are farm-made Thermization and Standardization of Cheese
from raw milk in the Netherlands [(Statistical information Milk
derived from websites of German Bundesministerium für On receipt at the factory, the milk is typically first thermi-
Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (www.bmel.de), Dutch for- zed, for example, for 15 s at 65°C. The main aim of this
mer Productschap Zuivel (now www.zuivelnl.org), Italian thermization step is to reduce the bacterial load of the milk
Dairy Economic consulting firm CLAL (www.clal.it)]. to extend the shelf-life during storage prior to further use,
In 2010, naturally ripened Gouda and Edam cheeses without further affecting the milk (Stadhouders, 1982; Van
(48%–50% fat in dry matter), when produced from Dutch den Berg, 1984). Thermization does not fully inactivate all
milk in the Netherlands, received EC recognition as geo- spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. For this purpose, a more
graphical speciality “Protected Geographical Indication” intensive pasteurization step is applied at a later stage. Ther-
(PGI). The volume of these “Gouda Holland” and “Edam mization causes only limited denaturation of whey proteins
Holland” cheeses is estimated to be >50% of the total (Fig. 34.2).
Dutch Gouda and Edam production. A small part of the Following thermization, the next step in the preparation
Dutch Gouda and Edam cheese, Noordhollandse Gouda of Gouda cheese and related varieties is the standardization
and Noordhollandse Edam, have Protected Designation of of the milk. As these cheese varieties are typically classi-
Origin (PDO) status. Next to the aforementioned require- fied on the fat-in-dry-matter content, the fat to protein ratio
ments, this cheese is exclusively made from milk derived of the cheese milk needs to be adjusted. For a 48% fat-in-
from the Dutch province of Noord Holland, where the re- dry-matter content of the cheese, cheese milk is typically
gional conditions and production processes contribute to standardized to a fat:protein ratio of 1.1:1, whereas for 40%
the specific taste and smooth texture. It is good to be aware fat-in-dry-matter, a fat:protein ratio of 0.8:1.0 is required.
of the industrial scale on which production occurs. The To achieve the required fat:protein ratio, fat needs to either
past 45 years, especially, have witnessed drastic changes be removed from the cheese milk, or protein needs to be
in the cheese industry. Refrigeration of the milk at the farm added. The removal of fat is traditionally the easiest and
(∼4°C) and collection of this milk every second or third most applied. To achieve this, separators are used to sepa-
day has become the accepted system in many countries. rate part of the whole milk into cream and skimmed milk,
Rigorous control of the hygienic quality of the milk leads to after which the skimmed milk is mixed with the whole milk
far smaller variation in composition, thus facilitating the in- to the desired fat:protein ratio. A third stream often includ-
troduction of systems for process control. Cheese factories ed in the standardization of the cheese milk consists of the
have been modernized and merged into plants with high ca- whey cream and suspended curd fines. These three streams
pacity. The progress made at these developments was pos- are blended at appropriate ratios to achieve the desired
sible after much research that improved insights into cheese fat:protein ratio. Instead of skimmed milk, a skimmed milk
technology. A further aspect that should be taken into concentrate, prepared using, for example, ultrafiltration
account when considering modern production of Gouda and (UF) or microfiltration (MF), may be added to whole milk.
Gouda and Related Cheeses Chapter | 34 867
FIGURE 34.1 Typical process for preparation of Gouda and related cheese varieties.
FIGURE 34.2 Effect of heating time at 65, 72, or 79°C on the degree of whey protein denaturation in cheese milk.
Using this approach, the protein content of the cheese milk to the heat-induced inactivation of plasmin inhibitors and
is also increased, allowing increased output of the cheese plasminogen activator inhibitors under these conditions,
line. Advantages of the use of membrane filtration are that plasmin activity can even be increased somewhat by HTST
the protein content can be increased without increasing the treatment. Plasmin plays a role in the primary proteolysis of
concentration of lactose and soluble salts, which permeate cheese. In addition to indigenous milk enzymes, lipases and
through MF and UF membranes. In addition, whey proteins proteases produced by psychrotropic bacteria may also be
will also permeate through MF membranes, thereby re- found in milk. These, however, are normally highly heat-
moving these prior to cheesemaking and providing a clean stable and not inactivated under HTST conditions. Heat
additive-free and caseinomacropeptide (CMP)-free whey treatment of cheese milk is thus not an effective means of
source. controlling the activity of bacterial proteases and lipases,
Furthermore, Aaltonen (2013) recently described a as the intensity required would have negative effects on the
method for concentrating milk with membrane filtration and cheesemaking properties of milk. Control of the bacterio-
evaporation to the composition of cheese. This fully concen- logical quality of the milk from farm to factory is the only
trated cheese milk can be standardized for pH and salt con- efficient remedy here.
tent in the various processing steps, and subsequently can be As outlined earlier, heat treatment causes beneficial
converted into semihard cheese. Uptake of this technology changes in cheese milk in terms of controlling the bacte-
for the manufacture of Gouda and related cheese types may riological and enzymatic quality of milk. However, particu-
develop in the future, but requires further work on ripening, larly when the intensity of heat treatment is high, it can also
texture development, and flavor formation. cause undesirable changes in milk, that is, the inactivation
After standardization, cheese milk is cooled down to of beneficial enzymes and the denaturation of whey pro-
∼5°C and stored at this temperature prior to use, typically teins, and subsequent effects on the cheesemaking proper-
for no longer than 48 h. ties of milk. In terms of undesirable inactivation of ben-
eficial enzymes, xanthine oxidase is the most relevant. As
Pasteurization outlined in Section “Nitrate,” xanthine oxidase is required
Prior to cheesemaking, the standardized milk is pasteurized. to slowly convert the added nitrate to nitrite, which inhibits
The main aim of pasteurization is to inactivate undesirable the germination of butyric acid bacteria spores. The heat-in-
pathogenic bacteria, spoilage organisms, and undesirable duced inactivation of xanthine oxidase can thus reduce the
enzymatic activities. This heat treatment is commonly in effectiveness of the added nitrate and increase the risk of
the high temperature-short time (HTST) region, that is, 10– spore germination and the late-blowing effect in the cheese.
20 s at 70–75°C. Of course, it should be noted that it is not Heating for 1 min at 75°C or 30 s at 80°C inactivates >50%
only this particular time–temperature combination, but the of xanthine oxidase in milk.
entire heat-load during processing, also including warming Heat treatment of cheese milk can also result in dena-
up and cooling, that determines the effect of the heat treat- turation of the heat-labile whey proteins (Fig. 34.2). Part
ment on the constituents and properties of milk. For the in- of the denatured whey proteins will associate with the ca-
activation of pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes, sein micelles through sulfhydryl-disulfide interchange re-
heat-load is typically chosen slightly higher than that need- actions with k-casein on the surface of the casein micelles.
ed to create a phosphatase-negative milk. In terms of spoil- Although small amounts of whey proteins entrapped in the
age organisms, spores of Clostridium tyrobutyricum, which cheese can be considered beneficial for increasing cheese
cause the so-called late-blowing defect in Gouda cheese, yield, large amounts of casein-associated whey proteins
survive HTST pasteurization, and control requires different strongly impair the cheesemaking properties of milk, which
measures, for example, nitrate addition and/or bactofuga- becomes noticeable in the form of slow renneting, a weak
tion. Also, certain (thermophilic) streptococci may survive curd, and poor syneresis. These effects can be related to
pasteurization and cause defects under specific conditions. the fact that heat-induced casein–whey protein interactions
However, HTST pasteurization of cheese milk is effective involve the two Cys-residues of k-casein, which are located
in killing Enterobacteriaceae, propionic acid bacteria, and in the N-terminal para-k-casein segment. As a result, the
most lactic acid bacteria found in the cheese milk. whey proteins will remain associated with the casein mi-
In terms of inactivation of undesirable enzymes, lipo- celle after the chymosin-induced hydrolysis of k-casein and
protein lipase, which is indigenous to milk, is probably the the aggregation of para-casein micelles is hindered, lead-
most relevant. If this enzyme remains active in cheese it ing to a slow rennet-induced coagulation, a weak curd, and
can result in an undesirably high degree of lipolysis, which poor syneresis from heated milk. The actual enzymatic hy-
is deemed undesirable in Gouda and related cheeses. How- drolysis of k-casein is not impaired by heat treatment. In
ever, typical HTST treatment is sufficient to inactivate li- addition to impaired rennet coagulation properties, cheese
poprotein lipase. The main indigenous milk proteinase, from intensely heated milk has also been described to be
plasmin, in not inactivated by HTST treatment. In fact, due of poorer quality; that is, particularly the development of
bitterness, probably because proteolysis by bacterial en- bactofuges] and sterilized (e.g., 10 s to 1 min at 130°C) to
zymes is also affected, as well as a sulfurous flavor (Van inactivate the spores. As the bactofugate presents a substan-
den Berg et al., 1996). tial volume in a modern cheese factory and, in addition to
While small amounts of denatured whey protein are spores, also contains milk proteins, the reuse in cheese milk
introduced into cheese milk through the addition of milk after sterilization is beneficial for cheese yield. However,
from bulk starter culture and through the addition of steril- this reuse of the sterilized bactofugate is not accepted in all
ized bactofugate (see Section “Bactofugation”), excessive countries.
denaturation of whey proteins through the pasteurization of
cheese milk should be avoided, not only for cheesemaking Membrane Filtration
and cheese quality, but also for whey quality. Low levels Membrane filtration of cheese milk can be applied for
of protein and high proportions of denatured whey protein various reasons. This section focuses on the use of mem-
in whey are undesirable from the perspective of convert- brane filtration to remove bacteria and spores (for use
ing whey into high-value whey protein concentrates and in milk standardization, see Section “Thermization and
isolates. Standardization of Cheese Milk”). MF of cheese milk has
Bactofugation been proposed as an alternative to bactofugation. How-
ever, although good separation efficiency can be obtained,
In addition to heat pasteurization, which was described in this technology has several drawbacks. First of all, for an
Section “Pasteurization,” a further step often applied to con- efficient MF process, the milk would have to be skimmed
trol the bacteriological quality of cheese milk is bactofuga- prior to MF, which means that the cream phase, constitut-
tion. The main purpose of applying bactofugation of milk ing ∼10% of milk volume, cannot be treated with MF and
in the preparation of Gouda and related cheese types is the would require a high heat treatment to ensure inactiva-
removal of spores of C. tyrobutyricum, which can cause tion of spores. Secondly, the MF retentate will typically
the late-blowing defect through butyric acid fermentation. constitute a considerably large volume than the bactofu-
The addition of nitrate to cheese milk is also effective in gate, again meaning that a large volume would have to
controlling this defect, but not desirable from either a regu- be sterilized. Together, this could mean that a consider-
latory perspective in certain markets or from a whey com- able proportion of sterilized materials would be included
position perspective, as most of the added nitrate ends up in the cheese milk when applying MF for spore removal,
in the whey. The use of a bactofuge, particularly the self- with negative effects on cheesemaking and cheese qual-
desludging type, presents a partial solution to this problem. ity. As a result, application is limited in Gouda cheese
The bactofuge is a type of centrifuge for the removal of so- manufacture.
called heavy sludge, which takes advantage of the higher
density of bacterial spores compared to milk for separating
the spores under a centrifugal force. Although bacteria may Additives
also be removed, the efficiency for spores is considerably Following standardization and pretreatment of cheese milk,
higher because of the higher density. In some bactofuge CaCl2, nitrate, and coloring are added to the cheese milk,
designs, removal of the spore-rich bactofugate occurs con- followed by the addition of starter culture, and finally the
tinuously though nozzles, as well as intermittently through rennet to initiate the coagulation of milk. These additives
discharge of the separator bowl, whereas other designs may be added either in-line during filling of the cheese-vats,
include continuous removal of the bactofugate through a or as batch additions.
separate outlet. In the latter case, the total volume of bac-
tofugate may be lower (<0.5% of total milk, compared Starters
to 2%–4% of total milk volume) but care should be taken
to reach the same spore removal efficiency. In the former The main purpose of fermenting foods is to ensure proper
case, up to >98% of spores can be removed (Van den Berg preservation. In cheese, the rapid conversion of lactose by
et al., 1980, 1988). However, as this is still not sufficient to starter bacteria is paramount for the preservation of cheese
eliminate the risk of butyric acid fermentation, nitrate is still (Engels and Wouters, 2013). By their metabolic action, the
required, albeit at lower levels. Applying a second bactofu- starter bacteria:
gation step can further increase the efficiency. 1. Ferment lactose quickly and almost completely; conse-
Bactofugation is typically carried out in-line, where the quently, the cheese soon lacks available carbohydrates.
milk is preheated to bactofugation temperature in the regen- 2. Produce lactic (and small amounts of acetic) acid and
eration section of the pasteurizer. Following bactofugation reduce the pH of the cheese to 5.1–5.2. At the end of
using a continuously discharging bactofuge, the spore-rich fermentation (after about 10 h), the lactic acid con-
bactofugate, representing ∼2%–4% of milk volume, can be centration in the cheese moisture is about 3%. Part
deaerated [if required, e.g., when using (older) nonhermetic (usually 4%–7%) of the lactic acid is present in an
undissociated (i.e., bacteriostatic) form, the more so if Starter Production

the pH is lower. Cheese manufacturers, especially the larger factories, pre-
3. Reduce the redox potential of the cheese to about −140 fer to use their own bulk starter for low starter costs, for
to −150 mV at approximately pH 5.2. example, in comparison with the use of Direct Vat Inocu-
All these changes aid in inhibiting the growth of unde- lation (DVI) systems (Düsterhöft et al., 2011; Stadhouders
sired microorganisms. Salt uptake by the cheese, the pres- and Leenders, 1984). At the same time, modern large-scale
ence of a protective cheese rind, and the adequate treatment cheese factories require the use of robust starters with con-
of this rind also contribute to preservation. sistent activity. Acid production in cheese must proceed fair-
The starter bacteria for Dutch-type cheese traditionally ly quickly and at a constant rate, the latter being essential for
have been mesophilic lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Such bac- the control of syneresis and the water content of the cheese.
teria grow at temperatures of 10–40°C, with an optimum Therefore, mixed-strain bulk starters for Gouda cheese pro-
around 30°C, and are commonly used in dairy plants in duction are produced under strictly controlled conditions to
Northern Europe, especially in Scandinavia, Germany, and ensure uniform bacterial composition to control the rate of
the Netherlands. The generally used starters consist of com- acidification and to completely protect against phages.
binations of acid-producing Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis The most common procedure for the manufacture of bulk
and cremoris strains and citrate-fermenting (and carbon di- starter involves bulk starter (skimmed) milk pasteurization,
oxide-producing—eye forming) Leuconostoc lactis and/or for example, for 30 min at 95°C, or 1 min at 110°C, fol-
Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. cremoris (l-starters), L. lowed by inoculation with a starter concentrate via an asep-
lactis var. lactis biovar diacetylactis (d-starters), or L. lactis tic procedure. The intensity of the heat treatment is aimed at
diacetylactis and Leuconostoc strains (dl-starters). Fermen- the destruction of thermoresistant phages in the milk. Spe-
tation of citric acid is of particular importance to eye forma- cially designed bulk starter equipment offers an effective
tion in Dutch-type cheese. dl-starters do so more rapidly barrier against airborne phages. Generally, the room above
and produce more CO2 and they are, therefore used if more the milk in these tanks is provided with an overpressure of
extensive eye formation is desired (Hugenholtz, 1993). In phage-free air made up by passing a high efficiency particu-
particular cases when eye formation is not desired, a starter late air (HEPA) filter (Leenders and Stadhouders, 1982).
without citrate-fermenting bacteria is often used (O-starter) To avoid accumulation of disturbing phages in the factory,
(Düsterhöft et al., 2011). Furthermore, different functional which especially could affect the rate of acidification of the
variants of L. lactis can be identified, for example, casei- curd in the vat, additional precautions are taken. These in-
nolytic and noncaseinolytic strains. However, the actual clude the manufacture of bulk starters in separate rooms, use
complexity and diversity of (undefined) Dutch-type cheese of enclosed equipment (cheese vats in particular), frequent
starters that goes beyond subspecies discrimination is cleaning, and disinfection of all installations. The produc-
largely unknown, although recently, advances were made tion of starter concentrates by culture producers for on-site
in studies of the microbial community of undefined cheese bulk starter preparation is under well-controlled conditions,
starters (Smid et al., 2014). and the starters are immediately deep-frozen to preserve the
Industrial cheese starters essentially can be divided functional properties, population composition, and phage
into two groups, undefined and defined starters. Defined resistance (Stadhouders and Leenders, 1984).
starter cultures are usually composed of one or more strains Bulk starter production takes place at 20°C for 16–20 h.
with known characteristics. The individual strains in de- In almost all modern factories, the starter is automatically
fined starters generally are isolated from undefined com- metered and added to the cheese vat. Starters may be kept
plex starters (Smid et al., 2014). In the Netherlands, un- for a limited time (e.g., 48 h) at or below 5°C without loss
defined mixed-strain starters, with complex composition, of activity, so that the activity of the starter can be the same
are mainly used for Gouda- and Edam-type cheese produc- on successive days of manufacture. Activity is usually as-
tion. These were originally selected from artisanal prac- sessed by an IDF-standardized test (Stadhouders and Hass-
tice, based on taste and flavor formation properties, rate of ing, 1980). Any change in activity can be an indication of a
acidification, capability to induce eye formation, and bac- contamination of the starter with disturbing bacteriophages,
teriophage resistance. Complex undefined starters differ reduced activity, for example, due to too long storage at a
from defined starters, especially in the relative insensitiv- low temperature, the presence of antibiotics and/or disin-
ity to phage attack (Stadhouders, 1986). Cultures used in fecting agents in the cheese milk, or variations in the com-
the Netherlands for the production of Gouda-type cheeses, position of the milk.
such as Bos, Ur, Fr8, Fr18, have a long history of use in a
dairy environment and can be considered as domesticated Starter and Adjunct Starter Usage
cultures (De Vos, 1989; Stadhouders and Leenders, 1984; The amount of bulk starter of normal activity used to inocu-
Stadhouders, 1986). late the cheese milk is 0.5%–1.0%. This means inoculation
at a level of 5 × 106–107 starter bacteria/mL of milk. Me- free amino acids. This leads to increased flavor formation
chanical inclusion in the curd leads to 5 × 107–108 cfu/g of for shortened ripening, but also for stimulating flavor for-
curd. During cheesemaking, starter lactic acid bacteria con- mation in, for example, low-fat type cheeses. An example
vert lactose to lactic acid and the numbers can increase to of a successful Gouda-type cheese development is Proosdij
a maximum level of 109 cfu/g. In Gouda and Edam cheese, cheese (nowadays marketed under various brand names).
the pH at that time is approximately 5.7 and the cheese is al- Proosdij cheese is prepared with a mesophilic starter cul-
ready pressed (Northolt and Stadhouders, 1985). The usual ture in combination with a thermophilic undefined (adjunct)
course of the pH during cheesemaking is given in Fig. 34.3. culture and ripens more quickly and develops a typical,
These cell numbers imply that starter bacteria generate (di- so-called thermophilic cheese flavor. The production oth-
vide) only a few times (approx. three generations) in the erwise follows the normal process for Gouda cheesemak-
fresh cheese. After growth, fermentation is far from com- ing (Van den Berg and Exterkate, 1993). This cheese has
plete, and during further conversion of lactose, growth and a flavor profile (and texture) with characteristics between
fermentation are uncoupled. Gouda- and Parmesan-type cheese.
Nowadays, most commercial suppliers market unde- The actual composition of mixed complex starter cul-
fined mixed-strain starters for direct vat inoculation (DVI) tures, governed by growth and lysis, for example, is highly
in addition to frozen starter concentrates (Law, 1999). This dynamic during the process of dairy fermentation and rip-
requires a much higher concentration of microorganisms ening. For instance, during Dutch-type cheesemaking, the
in the deep-frozen concentrate to obtain similar acidifica- most dominant L. lactis genetic lineage in an undefined
tion rates compared with bulk starters. The technology of cheese starter culture was found to have the lowest rela-
DVI eliminates unnecessary subculturing within the fac- tive abundance after 6 weeks of cheese ripening (Erkus
tory and reduces many difficulties associated with it (San- et al., 2013). This shows that in complex cultures, many
dine, 1996). DVI defined strain starters, with two or more processes and (microbe–microbe) interactions are opera-
mostly separately produced strains, are frequently used tional (Smid and Lacroix, 2013) and this starter (and ad-
nowadays in Cheddar cheese production (Heap, 1998; Lim- junct-starter) population dynamics largely affect the direc-
sowtin et al., 1996; Smid et al., 2014). Since the risk of tions of flavor formation.
phage attack is greater here than with the use of undefined
mixed-strain cultures, cultures with different phage-sensi- Rennet
tivity profiles are used in rotation. For Gouda-type cheese, Traditionally, calf rennet has been the rennet of choice for
the use of such defined starters is less common, although the the production of Gouda and related cheese varieties. In ad-
use of adjunct starters containing a single or a few strains dition to chymosin, it also contains some pepsin. The ef-
(in combination with a bulk acidifying starter or with a DVI fect of calf rennet on both the rennet coagulation of milk
starter) is, however, becoming increasingly popular. These and on cheese ripening is well-defined. Alternative rennet
adjunct starters are cultured separately from the acidifying sources, for example, microbial rennet (e.g., from Mucor
starter and are highly flexible in generating and tailoring miehei) or fermentation-produced chymosin (FPC) may be
various cheese features, such as eye size and cheese fla- used for particular purposes, because of lack of availability
vor. The use of adjunct attenuated thermophilic cultures (to of calf rennet, for cheese suitable for vegetarians, or simply
inhibit acidifying properties) with Lactobacillus helveticus for cost reasons. In all cases, equal or better performance in
strains, for example, in addition to the normal mesophilic cheesemaking without the risk of off-flavor formation dur-
starter culture, in general, causes strongly enhanced pep- ing ripening are prerequisites for the application of alterna-
tidolysis yielding a strong increase in small peptides and tive rennet preparations.
FIGURE 34.3 Acid production during Gouda cheese manufacture as a function of the time after starter culture addition. Addition of washing
water after ∼45 min, start of pressing after ∼2 h 30 min, and start of brining after ∼5 h 45 min.
FIGURE 34.4 Gelation time as a function of the concentration of added rennet and added CaCl2.
Calcium Chloride norbixin. Although very efficient in giving the cheese the
A second additive to aid the rennet-induced coagulation of desired color, the addition of annatto has a negative side
milk is calcium chloride. The addition of calcium chloride effect that it is not fully retained in the cheese curd, and
to cheese milk indirectly enhances the enzymatic hydrolysis part (up to 20%) of it ends up in the whey. This transfer
of k-casein through reducing milk pH by ∼0.1–0.2 units at into whey is undesirable for many whey processors, driving
concentrations typically added (10–100 g CaCl2 per 100 L trends of reducing annatto addition or applying alternatives.
cheese milk). As a result of this decrease in pH, rennet ac- A suitable alternative may be found in β-carotene, which
tivity is increased. Furthermore, and more importantly, the is naturally present in milk at low levels. β-Carotene en-
addition of calcium chloride greatly enhances the rate of capsulates can be used which are fully retained in the curd,
aggregation of para-casein micelles and hence reduces the with no losses to whey, while matching the cheese color
time until the curd is firm enough for cutting. To control the achieved by annatto addition.
time when the curd is firm enough for cutting, a balanced
combination of rennet concentration and calcium chloride Curd Making
concentrations should be applied (Fig. 34.4). Lowering the
amount of rennet can be compensated by increasing the Renneting
amount of calcium chloride, and vice versa. The first step of curd making is the rennet-induced coagu-
lation of milk, which is initiated by the addition of rennet
Nitrate to the cheese and is typically done at 30–31°C. Rennet-in-
Nitrate has traditionally been added to prevent the germina- duced hydrolysis of k-casein will commence, and once a
tion of C. tyrobutyricum spores in cheese, which, through large proportion (>75%) of k-casein has been hydrolyzed,
butyric acid fermentation can lead to the late-blowing de- calcium-mediated aggregation of the para-casein micelles
fect. Nitrate itself does not affect spore germination, and it begins, leading to the formation of a gel. The gel should be
requires the presence of the enzyme xanthine oxidase. This given sufficient time to become strong enough, otherwise
enzyme can convert nitrate to nitrite and it is the nitrite and/ large losses of curd fines and fat into the whey may occur.
or degradation products that inhibit the germination of the It is important that the renneting process takes place un-
spores. Nitrate is undesirable in whey, particularly for in- disturbed and homogeneously throughout the curd-making
fant nutrition applications, and efforts to reduce the nitrate tank to ensure constant properties throughout the batch.
content in whey are continuously made, that is, by the use
of bactofugation to reduce or eliminate nitrate addition, and Cutting and Washing of the Curd
by the addition of nitrate to the curd–whey after removal of Once the curd is strong enough for cutting, it is cut, usu-
the first whey, rather than to the milk. ally in pieces of ∼8–15 mm in size and of any given form.
The size of the curd particles is a strong determinant of the
Coloring final moisture content of the cheese and thus requires care-
Coloring may be added to cheese milk to provide the cheese ful control and consistency. Cutting of the curd typically
with a distinct and constant level of yellow color. Coloring takes approximately 15 min, and should take no longer than
may be either in the form of annatto or β-carotene. Annatto 20 min. When the required curd particle size is achieved,
is prepared from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the Bixa the mass may be stirred by moving the knives in the op-
orellana tree, with the specific yellow color provided by posite direction. During cutting and stirring, syneresis has
FIGURE 34.5 Effect of the percentage of added washing water on the level of residual lactose in fat-free dry matter.
to be sufficient for a considerable amount of whey to be ex- Draining and Molding

pelled. When cutting and stirring is stopped, the mass is left Once syneresis and washing have proceeded to the desired
to settle for a few minutes, during which time the curd par- degree, the curd is drained. In the past, this was done in
ticles will sediment. Thereafter, ∼40%–45% of the whey is drainage vats with a moving perforated belt where the curd
drained off. This whey is referred to as the first whey. Af- was allowed to settle. This process could be enhanced by
ter removal of this whey, stirring is started again to prevent placing a perforated plate on top of the curd mass. The sec-
clump formation and induce further syneresis. Increasing ond whey (essentially a mixture of whey and washing wa-
the temperature further speeds up the syneresis process. To ter) is removed and a continuous mass of curd is formed.
achieve this, warm washing water is commonly added to Although prepressing vats are still applied in some places,
the curd mixture to raise the temperature of the mixture to a in most large-scale operations drainage is carried out in
maximum of 38°C. Although even higher temperatures can continuous working vertical separation columns. The most
further increase syneresis, the applicable temperature range common type of equipment is the Casomatic, which operates
is limited as this harms the (mesophilic) starter bacteria. with a downward curd stream, but equipment with an up-
Increases in temperature can also be achieved by indirect ward curd stream is also available (Akkerman et al., 1996).
heating, but carrying this out by the addition of water has an The equipment has draining columns where, in the case of
advantage in that it allows for the adjustment of the lactose a downward curd stream, the curd–whey mixture enters the
content of the curd. column at the top, under the liquid. Typically, the system
Washing the curd is crucial in making sure that the pH will contain three perforated drainage sections where the
of the cheese reaches the desired value. The lactose content whey is removed, with the largest proportion of whey being
of the curd after cutting and removal of the first whey is removed in the top section. The height of the column deter-
still high, and simply removing more whey until the desired mines the residence time of the curd block in the column,
moisture content is reached would lead to a curd that con- and hence the compactness of the curd block. Compacting
tains too much lactose. This lactose can be utilized by starter and draining continues further throughout the column. Con-
bacteria, leading to excessive acid production and a too low trol of the outflow of whey through the perforated wall is
pH of the final cheese. To control lactose content, washing an important operating parameter in such equipment. At the
water is added to the curd–whey mixture. As a result, a con- bottom of the column, where the curd is most compacted,
centration gradient between the curd particles and the sur- curd blocks are discharged. They are cut-off into perforated
rounding fluid is created, and diffusion of lactose and other molds and prepressed for ∼30 s by pushing the dosing plate
soluble constituents from the curd particles to the surround- from the Casomatic on top of the curd block.
ing liquid proceeds. Therefore, sufficient lactose removal
can be achieved to control final cheese pH. An example of
the relationship between the amounts of added washing wa- Pressing
ter and residual lactose in cheese is shown in Fig. 34.5. Of The curd blocks are subsequently pressed in the molds.
course, it should be noted that lactose and the amount of The main aims of pressing are to give the typical shape and
acid produced therefrom is not the only contributor to final to achieve a closed rind (Mulder et al., 1966). The latter
cheese pH. The presence of buffering compounds, for ex- is required to avoid further moisture loss until brining, to
ample, phosphates, can counter reductions in pH as a result provide mechanical stability, and to prevent contamination
of acid production. with microorganisms from the brine. The exact pressing
FIGURE 34.6 Effect of brining time and brine strength on the salt-in-dry matter and moisture content of Gouda-type cheese.
program depends upon the type of cheese, as well as on the recent years, efforts have been undertaken to reduce the salt
type of mold being used, but in general, the final pressure content of cheese based on health concerns associated with
on the cheese is often in the order of 0.2–0.3 kg/cm2 and ap- high salt intake. Dutch manufacturers agreed upon a 10%
plication of pressure is achieved in three or four gradually reduction by 2015 (compared to Dutch nutrition data list
increasing steps. In modern factories, pressing time is in the NEVO2011).
order or 1 h, but if a very safe rind is demanded, pressing
time can be extended. Achieving a closed rind is the result Rind Treatment and Packaging for Ripening
of fusion of the outermost layer of curd grains, but press-
ing as currently applied in cheese factories is insufficient to For Gouda and related cheese varieties, development of mi-
achieve complete fusion in the rind. This typically occurs at croorganisms on the cheese surface is undesirable because
a later stage, for example, within 1–3 days. they may negatively affect cheese quality. In particular, the
growth of molds must be prevented since some species may
produce mycotoxins, for example, sterigmatocystin by As-
Brining pergillus versicolor (Veringa et al., 1989). In former days,
In most modern cheese factories, the cheese is put into the cheese was pressed in such a way as to obtain a thick and
brine within 1 h after pressing. However, if a pH of 5.5–5.6 very tough rind; mold development was reduced by regular
has not been achieved yet, a longer time between pressing rubbing of the cheese rind with a dry cloth and nonboiled
and brining may be applied. Brining is primarily done to linseed oil. After hardening, a formed coat also reduced
provide the cheese with the required salt. Moreover, placing water evaporation from the cheese rind, thus permitting it
the cheeses in the brine rapidly cools the cheeses to <15°C, to remain relatively supple and springy. Nowadays, two
as a result of which further syneresis and the growth of un- different systems of storage and ripening are applied for
desirable microorganisms is prevented, or at least slowed Gouda and related cheeses: natural ripening (cheese surface
down. Brining causes a considerable loss of moisture (typi- covered by a moisture- and gas-permeable coating) and foil
cally 2–3 times the amount of salt taken up) and some sol- ripening (in plastic bags with very low moisture and gas
uble matter (<0.2% of the cheese mass). In strong brine, permeability). The latter is used for the majority of Gouda-
moisture losses will typically be higher (Fig. 34.6) (Geurts type cheeses produced outside the Netherlands.
et al., 1980). In addition to salt concentration, other aspects,
particularly the calcium content of the brine, are impor- Natural Ripening
tant for keeping the brine in good condition. Normal brine After leaving the brine bath, excess of brine is removed,
of 16.5% salt should contain at least 0.20% calcium, and generally by an air knife. For natural ripening, polyvinyl-
a brine of 19% salt should contain 0.15% calcium. Very acetate-based aqueous dispersions are applied to the cheese
weak brine with 12% salt should contain at least 0.30% cal- surface, which at that stage should be slightly (nonforcedly)
cium, but such weak brine is not practically used in Gouda dried. The cheeses pass through a coating machine with ro-
cheese manufacture. Lower calcium contents in the brine tating flaps, which spread the dispersion evenly upon the
will result in problems with rind quality as a result of solu- surface and the main part of the sides. Upon drying, a co-
bilization of protein. For Gouda and related cheese types, herent plastic film of hydrophilic nature is formed that of-
brine pH is typically 4.4–4.6. Brining times vary depend- fers a protective coating against mechanical damage and
ing upon the desired salt content of the cheese, the size and reduces moisture evaporation to some extent (Fig. 34.7).
shape of the cheese block, and the strength of the brine. In After a first coating of the top and main part of the sides, the
FIGURE 34.7 Weight loss of naturally ripening Gouda-type cheese during storage for up to 10 days at 85 and 90% relative humidity (RH).
cheeses are conveyed in the same position to the store and reduce the risk of mold development. Examples are nata-
automatically fed to wooden shelves where they are dried mycin (pimaricin), an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces
for about 1–2 days. They are then turned and the bottom natalensis, which is only active against molds and yeasts,
side is treated in the same way. This procedure is repeated or calcium and sodium sorbate. In many countries, such
2–3 times during the first 2 weeks, and with gradually dias the Netherlands, only natamycin is allowed, whereas in
minishing frequency during further ripening. Care has to some other countries, only sorbates are permitted. When
be taken that the cheese surface is sufficiently dry before compared to sorbates, natamycin offers the advantages that
each treatment. The drying of the cheese surface and of the migration into the cheese is generally limited to the outer
shelves is controlled by the climate conditions (tempera- 1 mm of the rind, its effectiveness is tailored better to the
ture, air velocity, humidity) in the curing room, and as a possible microflora on the cheese, and it does not adversely
consequence, the decrease of the moisture content of the affect the appearance, taste, and flavor of the cheese (De
cheese and the weight loss. During the first 10 days, the Ruig and van den Berg, 1985). Moreover, natamycin is
overall moisture content decreases by 1.5%–2%, but the much more effective than sorbates; for comparable protec-
rate decreases steadily with time (Fig. 34.7). In the rind tion from mold growth, the amount of sorbate needed is
zone (e.g., 0.5 cm), the moisture content decreases to about 200 times that of natamycin. With respect to public
<30% within 3 months. Proteolysis practically stops in that health, an acceptable daily intake of 0.3 mg natamycin per
area, as shown in Fig. 34.8. This drying and lack of prote- kg body weight per day has been established. EU cheese
olysis gives the rind of a mature cheese a tough and hard regulations limit the quantity to 1 mg/dm2 of cheese surface
consistency, and a glassy appearance. when the cheese is sold.
Although the coating film, if intact and without fissures Generally, natural ripening takes place at 13–15°C
and cracks, mechanically hinders mold growth, cheese and 85%–88% relative humidity. The conditions must al-
coatings may contain fungicidal components to further low the coating dispersion to dry rather quickly, otherwise
FIGURE 34.8 The course of proteolysis in the interior (core) and rind of Gouda cheese during ripening for up to 12 months. AN, amino nitro-
gen; SN, soluble nitrogen; TN, Total nitrogen.
undesired organisms, such as yeasts, and successively co- Stainless steel shelves, an easier to clean alternative to
ryneform bacteria or molds, may develop and cause off- wooden shelves, have been tested with promising results
flavors, discoloration, and a sticky and dirty surface. If (Allersma et al., 2009). The implementation in industrial
the coating layer dries too quickly, cracks may form in the practice, however, is still low.
plastic film, allowing molds to penetrate into the cheese Alternatives for plastic coatings, based on milk proteins,
rind. Some residual moisture is necessary to keep this film have been introduced. However, use is currently limited to
sufficiently flexible. The cheese inevitably expels a little smaller market segments, such as farm-house (raw milk)
moisture, particularly at the beginning of ripening, caus- and organic cheeses. Cheeses may be treated with paraffin
ing high humidity between the loaf and the wooden shelf (cheese wax) just before being put on the market, gener-
which favors bacterial growth. To prevent this, and to allow ally after treatment with latex. Before waxing, the loaves
the cheese to retain a good shape, the cheeses are turned must continuously have had a clean and dry surface, since
frequently during this period, atmospheric conditions are increased pH by the preceding yeast growth on the cheese
adjusted allowing sufficient evaporation of moisture, and surface and a high humidity between the cheese and the
the temperature is kept reasonably low. Upon prolonged wax layer favor bacterial growth, causing off-flavors and
ripening, turning frequency is reduced. With respect to rip- gas formation. In such a case, washing and drying of the
ening temperature, 17°C is a practical hurdle. Above this cheese before waxing does not prevent these defects. Con-
temperature most milk fat is liquid and cheese exudes fat sequently, wax is applied predominantly to a matured
(sweating), and the consistency of the cheese may become cheese, mainly to control weight during transport. In some
greasy. If higher ripening temperatures are desired to ac- cases, especially for Baby Gouda or Baby Edam, red wax is
celerate ripening, a paper banderole is sometimes wrapped often applied when the cheese has briefly dried after brining
around the cheese. Increased temperatures give a higher (so-called peel-off wax). Wax layers must be closed, and
risk of “late blowing,” and more attention needs to be paid cracks and pinholes must be avoided. Such cheese is stored
to keep the cheese surface clean. under sufficiently cool conditions to maintain cheese shape
The use of wooden shelves in natural cheese ripening is in the cartons on pallets, consequently avoiding cracks due
still common because of the advantage of adsorbing some to bulging.
moisture from the (young) cheese. However, these require
special attention from a hygienic point of view. A strict
maintenance programme of cleaning and drying combined Foil-Ripening
with the treatment of the cheeses may guarantee sufficient A considerable proportion of Gouda and related cheeses
safety. New wooden shelves need more attention because of are made in a rectangular shape which can be vacuum-
the fermentable components still present in the wood. Thor- packed in plastic bags having low permeability of moisture
ough leaching in water, cleaning, disinfection, and drying and gas. The wrapped cheeses are piled in boxes or crates
will be necessary. Also, suitable glues have to be used for (eight high) and usually ripened at lower temperatures (e.g.,
the construction of these shelves. Smaller cheeses, such as <8°C). Maintenance of the cheese as mentioned earlier
baby types and Edam, are sometimes ripened in coarse plas- (Section “Natural Ripening”) is unnecessary. After ripen-
tic nets or in perforated holes of a stainless steel plate and ing, the cheeses can easily be cut into consumer sized pack-
dried on all sides. The relative humidity of the air for such ages, or slices without losses.
sizes will be slightly higher to prevent too much evapora- A starter with low CO2-producing capacity is used to
tion. Since such cheeses are coated on all sides, it is more prevent loosening of the wrapping, and a too open texture.
difficult to avoid the pattern of the net being present on the Foil-ripened Gouda-type cheeses typically have shorter
surface. However, these cheeses will usually be waxed be- ripening periods (1 month), as the moisture content in the
fore delivering. cheeses remains high (e.g., 40%–42%). Due to the usual-
It is obvious that the intensive treatment of the cheeses ly lower ripening temperature, the type of starter cultures
during natural ripening requires strict control and adequate used, and possibly the anaerobic conditions at the cheese
balancing between cheese quality and microbial stability on surface, foil-ripened Gouda cheeses generally have a more
the one hand, and yield loss on the other. Processes have flat flavor compared to naturally ripened counterparts. Pro-
been highly mechanized, for example, transport, coating longed curing at the usual temperature for natural ripening,
and turning of cheese, and cleaning of shelves. Much prog- say 14°C (all other conditions being unchanged), tends to
ress has been made in controlling the temperature, relative produce cheese of poor flavor and consistency (sticky, soft).
humidity, and velocity of air to approximate the ideal situa- However, with the use of adjunct cultures in combination
tion in which each loaf is stored under identical conditions. with shorter periods of ripening at higher temperatures
Good insulation of the curing rooms is very important to (12–14°C), acceleration of ripening and intensification of
prevent condensation of water on the walls at the desired the Gouda-type flavor profile can be created in foil-ripened
high humidity of the air, which can result in mold growth. cheeses. (Knier et al., 2011; Van Arem and Hup, 2003).
TEXTURE OF GOUDA CHEESE higher than in Cheddar-type cheeses, and lower than in Em-
mental cheese. This is a consequence of the rather high pH
Consistency at the stage of whey removal and pressing (Fig. 34.3), and
Young Gouda cheese is semisoft with an elastic, cohesive of the use of calcium chloride during renneting.
consistency. A cylindrical sample (pulled with a trier) of The chemical and physical properties described earlier
young Gouda can be bent to a large extent before it breaks. generally make Gouda a well-sliceable cheese. However,
Upon maturation, smoothness generally increases and the when relatively high moisture contents, smoothness, and/or
cheese becomes shorter. When naturally ripened, the firm- lower pH are combined, as may occur in young Gouda or
ness gradually increases due to moisture evaporation, result- in more matured, but foil-ripened cheeses, the consistency
ing in a hard, short, and even brittle texture after >8 months may turn sticky. Sliced cheese may then need interleaves
ripening. The rind zone increases in thickness during rip- for packaging. Very mature naturally ripened Gouda cheese
ening (3–4 cm after 1 year of ripening); it is tougher and is, due to its brittleness, difficult or impossible to slice.
harder than the interior and becomes somewhat translucent. Calcium lactate crystals can sometimes be formed on the
This is not the case in foil-ripened cheeses. Amino acid (ty- surface of prepacked blocks or slices wrapped in vacuum
rosine) crystals throughout the cheese body are common or modified atmosphere packages. Although the conditions
after prolonged maturation or, if adjunct cultures are used for formation are complex, an enhanced content of lactate
in production, after shorter ripening periods. The sparingly is the main factor for increasing the susceptibility to lactate
soluble amino acid tyrosine is present in Gouda cheese of crystallization. Typical lactate contents in Gouda cheese
3 and 6 months in amounts of 40 and 80 mg/100 g, respec- are between 12 and 15 g/kg cheese, and the l-stereoisomer
tively (Joosten, 1988), concentrations surpassing the solu- prevails when typical mixed-strain starters containing lac-
bility limit in water at the relevant pH, and presumably even tococcus and leuconostoc are used in production. The use
more so in cheese serum. The changes in firmness (stress to of lactobacilli-containing adjunct cultures may increase the
fracture) and shortness (strain to fracture) upon ripening are risk of lactate crystal formation, as some strains produce d-
shown in Fig. 34.9. The main factors affecting the texture of lactate, which is less soluble than the l-stereoisomer.
Gouda cheese are moisture content, degree of proteolysis,
pH, salt, and fat content (Luyten, 1988). During maturation, Eye Formation
the para-caseinate network is degraded; fastest hydrolysis
occurs for αs1-casein, more slowly followed by β-casein. The viscoelastic properties allow eye formation to take
After 6 months, about ∼20% and 40%–50% of the intact place in young Gouda cheese. Fig. 34.10 shows the desired
αs1-casein and β-casein fractions, respectively, remain appearance and eye formation in a cross-section of nor-
(Van den Berg and de Koning, 1990; Visser, 1977). Ripen- mal Gouda cheese. The conditions allowing eye formation
ing causes a slight increase in pH. In the rind zone of natu- in Dutch cheese were studied by Akkerman et al. (1989).
rally ripened Gouda, proteolysis is hindered by the high salt Holes can be formed when the gas pressure exceeds satura-
concentration, and later, inhibited by the low moisture con- tion and when sufficient nuclei are present. The gas pres-
tent. Gouda cheese is generally well-shreddable and melt- sure commonly derives from N2 already present in the milk
able, and the behavior upon melting changes with ripening. (as milk is partially saturated with air at 4°C when arriv-
In terms of mineralization, Gouda cheeses have an inter- ing at the cheese plant, and as any oxygen dissolved in the
mediate position; the calcium and phosphate contents (0.8– cheese milk is consumed by starter organisms) and from
0.9 g/100 g and 1.5–1.6 g/100 g, respectively) are somewhat CO2 formed from citrate fermentation by the starter bacteria
FIGURE 34.9 Typical stress–strain curve for Gouda cheese aged for 2, 6, 13, and 26 weeks.
FIGURE 34.10 Typical cross-section of Gouda cheese.
during the first few weeks of ripening. Typically, the partial RIPENING OF GOUDA-TYPE CHEESE
pressure of nitrogen in the young cheese is approximately
Ripening is the result of numerous changes occurring in the
90 kPa and that of carbon dioxide 40 kPa, together being
cheese. The structure and composition, and consequently
sufficient for eye development in Gouda cheese. Although
the sensory properties of cheese alter greatly during ripen-
these are the prevailing conditions in Gouda cheese, con-
ing. Next to fermentation of lactose and citric acid, prote-
siderable variation may be observed. The supersaturation
olysis, followed by amino acid degradation and, to a lesser
needed for eye formation (by approximately 30 kPa) can
extent, conversion of fat are the main phenomena during
be achieved when the rate of CO2 production is relative-
the maturation of Dutch-type cheese. To a large extent,
ly fast (which depends upon temperature, type and num-
these processes are catalyzed by (residual) milk and rennet
ber of bacteria, and citrate content), the rate of diffusion
enzymes, and by enzymes from (adjunct) starters and pos-
(D ≈ 3 × 10−10 m2 s−1) out of the cheese is slow (mainly
sible NSLAB present. Within 24 h after production, the pH
depending upon loaf size and shape), and if the partial pres-
of the cheese is decreased to 5.1–5.2, thereafter increasing
sure of N2 is sufficient (usually ∼90 kPa). When cheese
during the first 2 weeks by approximately 0.15, and only
milk is extensively deaerated, Gouda cheeses are likely to
slightly during further maturation. The redox potential in
remain “blind,” without any eyes.
the cheese is reduced by the lactic acid fermentation to ap-
A second prerequisite for eye formation is the presence
proximately −140 mV. In the center of Gouda cheese, the
of nuclei. Various irregularities in the structure of a curd
original water content in the fat-free cheese is approximate-
block may serve as nuclei, such as tiny air bubbles or re-
ly 65%, but it decreases gradually by salt diffusion and wa-
maining whey pockets, but also foreign particles with apolar
ter evaporation. Under these conditions, casein is degraded
surface properties. Small air bubbles may already be pres-
by residual chymosin, to a lesser extent by plasmin and by
ent in the renneting milk and become incorporated within
proteinases of LAB, into larger peptides. These are further
the curd particles. Such air bubbles presumably adhere to
degraded, finally yielding free amino acids and amino acid
dirt particles and very small particulate materials, or to par-
degradation products. Peptides, amino acids, and (volatile)
tially coalesced fat globules. They can remain only if the
components, also from fat and citrate conversion, together
milk is (almost) saturated with air. Normal pasteurization
determine the full flavor (taste and aroma) of Gouda cheese
of cold milk necessitates a certain time for deaeration by
(McSweeney, 2004; Smit et al., 2005a; Ziadi et al., 2010).
gentle stirring in the cheese vat before renneting, otherwise
many pinholes will be formed in the cheese. Incomplete fu-
sion of the curd, local inclusion of whey (curd clumps and
Carbohydrate Metabolism
disturbance of the curd block), and inclusion of air at drain-
age may also serve as a nuclei, or may even disturb regular The homofermentative conversion of lactose in milk and
eye formation (“nesty” spots, air rim). curd provides the LAB with energy, and yields lactic acid.
Nucleation predominantly determines the number of This compound has a mild acid taste and is important for
holes. The shape depends upon cheese consistency, and Gouda cheese flavor. During heterofermentative lactose
both characteristics also depend upon the rate of gas pro- conversion, for example, by Leuconostoc subsp., com-
duction. If the latter is not too fast and the cheese consis- pounds, such as acetate, carbon dioxide, and ethanol are also
tency allows for viscous flow of the cheese body, eyes (i.e., produced. The fermentation of citrate, a normal constituent
spherical holes) develop. If the consistency is short, (i.e., the of milk, leads to formation of compounds, such as diacetyl,
fracture strain of the material at slow deformation is low), acetoin, butanediol, and acetaldehyde. Diacetyl especially
slits may develop because the cheese mass fractures in the has a profound impact upon (young) Gouda cheese flavor
vicinity of the holes. Such may be the case when the cheese (Hugenholtz, 1993; Smid and Kleerebezem, 2014). The
has low pH, low calcium phosphate content, and consider- LAB in l- and/or dl-starters for Gouda cheese production
able proteolysis at the time of gas production (Akkerman are able to utilize citrate. These LAB cometabolize citrate
et al., 1989). with lactose and this results in elevated intracellular pools
of pyruvate and subsequently a diverse range of metabolites tionality outside the cell and will continue converting
(Bandell et al., 1998). The uptake of citrate is linked to the substrates in the food matrix, for example, various intracel-
possession of a citrate transporter gene. Uptake is optimal at lular peptidases. Aminopeptidases that cleave amino acids
pH below 5.7 (Garcia-Quintans et al., 1998). from the N-terminus of the peptides, endopeptidases that
act on internal peptide bonds, and specific peptidases, such
as di- and tripeptidases that degrade di- and tripeptides, re-
Conversion of Casein spectively, are active (Christensen et al., 1999; McSwee-
Of the primary biochemical events that occur during cheese ney, 2004). The result is the release of various amino acids
ripening, the degradation of caseins is undoubtedly the most with, in part, impart (basic) Gouda cheese flavor proper-
important for flavor formation in hard-type and semihard- ties, such as savory, umami, bitter, and sweet (Haefeli and
type cheeses (Liu et al., 2010; Smit et al., 2005a). Protein Glaser, 1990; Kawai and Hayakawa, 2005). Bacterial lysis,
breakdown in Gouda-type cheese is mainly due to the re- therefore, is of great importance for final cheese flavor de-
maining action of coagulating enzymes, enzymes of starter velopment (Crow et al., 1995; Guldfeldt et al., 2001; Smid
bacteria, and, to a much lesser extent, milk proteinases. and Kleerebezem, 2014; Wilkinson et al., 1994).
The action of the coagulant enzymes, predominantly
chymosin, is characterized by the rapid degradation of αs1- Conversion of Amino Acids to Flavor
casein at the onset of maturation, about 70%–80% being
Compounds
hydrolyzed within 2 months in standard cheese. β-Casein
is degraded far more slowly, about 40%–50% remaining, The small peptides and amino acids produced during pro-
even after 6 months (Van den Berg and de Koning, 1990). teolysis are, as mentioned, responsible for the important
When using more calf rennet and a lower scalding tempera- desired background flavor in a matured cheese, for exam-
ture, the degradation of αs1-casein is even more rapid (Viss- ple, savory, brothy, sweet and salty, or (undesired) bitter
er, 1977). Rapid breakdown of αs1-casein is particularly (Engels and Visser, 1994; Lemieux and Simard, 1992; Smit
favored by the pH of the cheese being near to the optimum et al., 2005a; Toelstede and Hofmann, 2008). The so-called
(about 5) for rennet action, and a still low NaCl content in long-lasting taste by specific kokumi peptides in Gouda
the cheese moisture of the interior (Noomen, 1978). Calf cheese has been described by Toelstede et al. (2009). Re-
rennet appears to be responsible for the formation of most search by Sgarbi et al. (2013) suggest that LAB, for exam-
of the soluble nitrogen (SN) and the liberation of high and ple, lactobacilli, could be involved in the formation of these
low molecular weight (MW) peptides, but contributes only peptides. However, the more complex cheese flavors are
very little to free amino acid liberation. After the primary most probably formed by amino-acid-converting enzymes
proteolysis of the casein, the casein-derived peptides are (AACEs) and are superimposed on that basic flavor (Engels
hydrolyzed into small peptides and amino acids during sec- and Visser, 1994; Smit et al., 2005a). This further conver-
ondary proteolysis due to the action of the complex proteo- sion of amino acids yields various alcohols, aldehydes, ac-
lytic system of the starter bacteria. The principal proteolytic ids, esters, and sulfur compounds which have been identi-
enzyme of Lactococcus is an extracellular cell-wall bound fied in cheese (Smit et al., 2005a; Yvon and Rijnen, 2001;
serine proteinase (PrtP) which degrades casein into oligo- Ziadi et al., 2010), facilitating specific flavor developments.
peptides (Siezen, 1999; Upadhyay et al., 2004). This en- Such conversions are essential microbial processes for
zyme has a broad specificity and can produce more than 100 matching amino acid requirements, energy generation, and/
different oligopeptides from caseins (Steele et al., 2013). or prolongation of survival (Brandsma et al., 2012; Smid
Two main types of proteinases, PI and PIII, have been ini- and Kleerebezem, 2014). A general overview of protein
tially recognized among lactococci as typically used in and subsequent amino acid conversion pathways relevant
Gouda-type cheese starters (Visser et al., 1986). However, for flavor formation in cheese are shown in Fig. 34.11.
various mixed-type proteinases and, consequently, complex Various enzymes of LAB, such as aminotransferases,
αs1-casein (1–23) and (24–199) breakdown patterns under decarboxylases, dehydrogenases, and lyases, are involved
Gouda cheese ripening conditions have been observed in the pathways shown in Fig. 34.11. Most amino acids at
(Exterkate et al., 1993). first can be converted by aminotransferases to the corre-
During cheese manufacture, the carbon source is deplet- sponding α-keto acids. α-Keto acids are central intermedi-
ed, which deenergizes the microbial starter. ATP-dependent ates, and can be converted to hydroxy acids, aldehydes, and
active uptake of oligopeptides by specific transporters into CoA-esters. The aldehydes formed can generally be dehy-
the cell is, for this reason, reduced. Starvation of the starter drogenated, or hydrogenated to the corresponding alcohols
during cheese ripening and, subsequently, permeabilization or organic acids, which are, in turn, substrates for esterases
of the starter cells (lysis) results in the release of cytoplas- and acyltransferases, which might lead to (thio)esters. In
matic enzymes in the cheese matrix (Smid and Kleerebe- addition, production of carboxylic acids might proceed via
zem, 2014). Many of these released enzymes retain func- a process of oxidative decarboxylation of α-keto acids via
FIGURE 34.11 Overview of general casein conversion pathways relevant for flavor formation.
Acyl-CoA (Liu et al., 2008; Smit et al., 2005a; Yvon and of α-keto acids to, nonflavored, hydroxy acids requires hy-
Rijnen, 2001). Aromatic amino acids, branched-chain ami- droxy acid dehydrogenases (HycDH) that have been shown
no acids, and methionine are the most relevant substrates in LAB (Chambellon et al., 2009).
for cheese flavor development. The reactions described earlier are mostly enzymatic,
In lactococcal strains, a branched-chain aminotransfer- but some chemical conversion steps have also been de-
ase (BcAT) displays an activity toward both the branched- scribed, such as the formation of benzaldehyde from phe-
chain amino acids and methionine (Smit et al., 2009), and nylpyruvic acid (α-keto acid of phenylalanine) (Nierop
also in these strains, aromatic aminotransferase (ArAT) is Groot and de Bont, 1999; Smit et al., 2004). Similarly,
active against aromatic amino acids, leucine, and methio- two analogous chemical reactions, conversion of α-keto-
nine (Rijnen et al., 2003). In cheese, flavor compounds, α-methylthiobutyrate (α-keto acid of methionine) to me-
such as 2-methylbutanote, isobutyric acid, 3-methyl bu- thylthio acetaldehyde and conversion of α-ketoisocaproate
tanal, and 3-methyl butanol are believed to be derived from (α-keto acid of leucine) to 2-methylpropanal have been
the transamination of (iso)leucine and valine by BcAT (Ga- characterized by Smit et al. (2004, 2009) and Bonnarme
nesan and Weimer, 2004). These compounds, and other de- et al. (2004), respectively, (Fig. 34.12).
composition products of especially methionine (Fig. 34.12),
have shown to be of crucial importance for cheese flavor in Metabolism of Fat
both hard-type cheeses, such as Gouda and Cheddar, and
in smear-ripened cheeses (Dias and Weimer, 1998; Smit The most important flavor compounds originating from fat
et al., 2005a). are free fatty acids produced by lipolysis. Generally, Italian,
α-Keto acids resulting from transamination can be fur- Blue, and certain mold- and smear-ripened types undergo
ther converted via decarboxylation via α-keto acid decar- extensive lipolysis (McSweeney, 2004). Swiss-type cheeses
boxylase (KdcA) (Smit et al., 2005b). Potential conversion undergo intermediate levels of lipolysis, and Cheddar- and
Gouda and Related Cheeses Chapter | 34
FIGURE 34.12 Enzymatic and chemical pathways of conversion of methionine, leucine, and phenylalanine.
881
TABLE 34.1 Concentration (mg/kg Cheese) of Free Fatty Acids in Some Cheese Varieties
Fatty Acid Parmesan Cheddar Swiss Edam Gouda Mozzarella Camembert Roquefort Limburger
(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
C4:0 1055 4 345 60 12 54 361 961 1475
C6:0 451 2 21 8 3 7 287 626 688
C8:0 243 2 25 9 2 1 160 707 24
C10:0 440 11 53 14 8 120 225 2280 50
C12:0 439 9 88 47 10 12 298 1295 92
C14:0 1540 27 267 39 27 27 622 3185 602
C16:0 3896 76 930 122 69 76 1442 6230 565
C18:0 1171 2 1197 57 2 66 303 2241 709
C18:1 3471 43 36 1043 6282
C18:2 123 3 5 896
Source: Modified from Smid, E.J., Kleerebezem, M., 2014. Production of aroma compounds in lactic fermentations. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 5, 313–326;
Van Leuven, I., Van Caelenberg, T., Dirinck, P., 2008. Aroma characterisation of Gouda-type cheeses. Int. Dairy J. 18, 790–800.
Dutch-type cheeses undergo relatively low levels of lipoly- hard-type cheeses, considerable concentrations of meth-
sis (McSweeney and Sousa, 2000; O’Mahony et al., 2006). yl ketones, esters, secondary alcohols, and lactones were
The resulting fatty acids have flavor notes ranging from found (Alewijn, 2006; Van Leuven et al., 2008). The forma-
pungent-sharp and soapy-rancid to waxy and sometimes tion of lactones and ketones in Gouda cheese was studied in
even bitter. In Gouda-type varieties, some lipolysis usu- more detail by Alewijn (2006), and he concluded that such
ally occurs and is even desirable, but it should be limited, compounds are also produced during cheese ripening via
otherwise the cheese has a soapy flavor. Table 34.1 shows nonenzymatic and chemical processes. For the formation of
concentrations of free fatty acids in selected cheese variet- lactones and ketones, (chemical) reaction mechanisms that
ies. In cheese, lipolytic enzymes may originate from milk, start from esterified hydroxy- and keto-fatty acids in milk
rennet, starter and adjunct starter cultures, nonstarter LAB, fat were proposed. Although such reactions under cheese-
and exogenous enzyme preparations (McSweeney and ripening conditions only proceed slowly, the relatively long
Sousa, 2000; Wallace and Fox, 1997). The indigenous milk duration of ripening will enable the formation of such fatty
lipase lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is quite active in raw milk, acid-derived compounds in concentrations that are signifi-
however, it is largely inactivated by pasteurization (Wallace cant for flavor.
and Fox, 1997). The lipolytic action of LPL therefore plays In cheese made from milk containing high numbers of
a significant role in flavor development in raw milk cheeses, psychrotrophic bacteria (or their heat-stable lipases), lipoly-
for example, farm-house Gouda cheeses. Lactic acid bac- sis may be increased to undesirable levels. Growth of or-
teria generally possess relatively weak lipolytic activities. ganisms on the cheese surface, for example, molds, coryne-
Esterase activities, rather than lipase activities, appear to be form bacteria, and yeasts, may also contribute to increased
dominant (Collins et al., 2003; Holland et al., 2005; Mc- acidity of the fat. Although growth of such organisms is
Sweeney and Sousa, 2000), although lipolytic activity from usually minimized, it cannot be fully prevented and conse-
LAB (such as lactococci) may persist over the extended rip- quently, the rind portion of the cheese generally acquires a
ening period of Dutch-type cheeses (Fox et al., 2000). somewhat higher fat acidity.
In cheese, free fatty acids are precursors of many im-
portant flavor compounds, such as methyl ketones, lac- Developments in Starter Cultures
tones, esters, aldehydes, and secondary alcohols. These
compounds have musty, fruity, floral, and spicy notes. In Steadily increasing knowledge about flavor formation path-
Fig. 34.13, formation pathways of flavor compounds in ways enables rational design of (adjunct) starters and devel
cheese from fat are shown. Lactic acid bacteria are thought opment of new Gouda-type cheese variants. Selection and
to contribute relatively little to the conversion of fatty acids, application of specific thermophilic adjunct starter bacteria
although conversion of unsaturated fatty acids to precur- has resulted in cheese which ripens more quickly and devel-
sors of γ-lactones by LAB has been described (Wanikawa ops a typical, so-called thermophilic cheese flavor. An ex-
et al., 2000). Despite the expected poor contribution of ample of this is the already mentioned Proosdij-type cheese,
LAB to conversion of fatty acids, in various ripened (semi-) which has been successfully introduced in the Netherlands
FIGURE 34.13 Formation of flavor compounds from fat in cheese.
under various brand names. Targeted selections of starter available starter strains, and using combinations of these
bacteria were made on the basis of proteolytic activity and/ strains makes it possible to develop tailor-made starter (ad-
or lysis sensitivity. Since lysis of cultures/strains during junct) cultures for Gouda and related cheeses. The so-called
cheese production and ripening is an important factor for nonstarter lactic acid bacteria NSLAB (nonstarter lactic
flavor formation, altering lysis by careful application of bac- acid bacteria) strains, for example, mesophilic lactobacilli,
teriocin (e.g., nisin) producing cultures initially designed such as Lactobacillus casei,Lactobacillus fermentum, Lac-
as “protective” cultures for farm-house cheesemaking, has tobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, have
been studied (Meijer et al., 1998). Also other tools, such been tested as adjuncts to affect flavor formation (Gobbetti
as microfluidization, for enhanced release of enzymes in- et al., 2007; Noomen, 1978). NSLAB, “house flora” origi-
volved in flavor formation are currently studied and tested nating from the milk and plant environment, probably al-
in pilot-scale systems (Yarlagadda et al., 2014). ways grow in (matured) Gouda-type cheeses, and therefore,
In addition to proteolytic activities and lysis, the large are a source of enzymes leading to the formation of flavor
diversity of other essential enzyme activities that oc- compounds (Kolakowski et al., 2012).
cur among natural LAB strains, for example, amino acid Application of new bacterial (adjunct) starters has a
converting activities, provide possibilities to develop huge impact on flavor diversification. A combination of
high-performing starter cultures by careful selection and mesophilic starter bacteria with thermophilic lactobacilli as
combination of strains. This means exploring the wide bio- adjuncts is also used, nowadays, for other Dutch-type chees-
diversity among lactic acid bacteria. Recent technological es and low-fat varieties (Smit et al., 2005a). However, the
breakthroughs in the field of automated screening make application of adapted starters for shortening the ripening
extensive screening, linked to rapid analysis, possible. In time of Gouda cheese and increasing the flavor intensity,
such screening programs, fermentations are carried out in while maintaining sensory characteristics exactly the same
a 96-well format using robotics for liquid handling, key- as those of the normally ripened cheese, is still a challenge.
enzyme activity measurement, and analysis of flavor com-
pounds (Bachmann et al., 2009). Examples of strains that
might be applied are so-called “wild lactococci,” originat- POSSIBLE DEFECTS AND CHALLENGES
ing from various natural sources, both dairy and nondairy Various defects may develop in Gouda-type cheeses.
(Ayad et al., 2001). Generally, such strains possess unique Careful process control is necessary to avoid a number
flavor-forming properties when compared to commercially of defects in the cheese. Defects generally result in gas
formation and consequently undesired holes/cracks/slits. Thermoresistant Streptococci

Off-flavor formation may also occur. Measures taken to
Certain strains of Streptococcus thermophilus, in particu-
prevent the most important defects are listed in this sec-
lar those producing urease, may be responsible for exces-
tion. In addition, the challenge of salt reduction in cheese
sive carbon dioxide production and off-flavor formation in
is addressed.
1–2 month old cheese due to conversion of urea originat-
ing from the milk. Since S. thermophilus can grow on the
Butyric Acid Fermentation surface of the plates in the regeneration section of pasteur-
Late blowing (large eyes and/or cracks with a sweet and izers, relatively high levels of this thermophile may occa-
butyric off-flavor) is caused by the growth of the anaerobic sionally occur in pasteurized milk (Düsterhöft and van den
bacterium, C. tyrobutyricum, originating from spores in the Berg, 2007). Counts of this organism in the cheese milk
milk, in 1–5 months old cheese. The use of nitrate and bac- have to be controlled, especially by regular cleaning of the
tofugation of milk is used to prevent this defect (Van den plate heat exchangers.
Berg et al., 1980). Silage feed represents the main source
of contamination of the milk with clostridial spores, which Coliform Bacteria
survive the passage through the GI tract of the cow and
These microorganisms are very much a hygiene-related
are present in the dung. The degree of contamination of
threat. They grow as long as lactose, or citrate, is pres-
the milk with spores strongly depends upon hygiene during
ent and cause so-called early blowing (gas formation). In
milking (Stadhouders, 1990a; Stadhouders et al., 1983a).
general, there is no issue, nowadays, in large-scale Gouda
Gouda-type cheeses, with salt added by brining, are rela-
cheese production from pasteurized milk.
tively vulnerable to butyric acid fermentation since there
is only slow diffusion of salt into the cheese matrix. Be-
fore the inhibitory action of salt can take place, nitrate, Yeast and Coryneform Bacteria
converted to nitrite in cheese, serves as an agent for ef-
fective prevention of butyric acid fermentation (Stadhoud- Abundant growth of these microorganisms on the cheese
ers et al., 1983a). Other measures to counteract outgrowth surface may cause a slimy rind and discoloration (Düster-
of C. tyrobutyricum in low salt Gouda cheese include the höft and van den Berg, 2007). Gas production under the
application of nisin-producing cultures, and lysozyme coating layer of the cheese may also occur. Growth on the
(Stadhouders, 1990b). surface of the cheese should be avoided by good acidifi-
cation during cheesemaking and by optimal curing condi-
tions, for example, drying of the rind after brining. A slimy
Mesophilic Lactobacilli rind without bacterial growth may occur when the calcium
Various strains of heterofermentative Lb. plantarum, Lb. content of the brine is too low.
casei, Lb. fermentum, or Lb. brevis are able to grow in
cheese, and may produce off-flavors, such as gassy, pu-
trid, and fruity, after metabolizing amino acids. In addition,
Mold Growth
decarboxylation of amino acids, causing cracks by carbon Mold growth on the surface of the cheese must be avoided
dioxide formation and biogenic amines, may occur from by applying the right curing conditions and with proper turn-
such lactobacilli in the mature cheese (Joosten and Nor- ing, coating, and air hygiene in the curing room. Growth of
tholt, 1987). These nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) molds causes discoloration and a musty flavor. Under nor-
are generally present in the raw milk and the cheese pro- mal conditions, the use of natamycin in the coating inhibits
duction environment. Some of the bacteria are salt-tolerant mold growth.
and may contaminate the cheese during brining, so the rind
has to be closed during pressing and the bacterial counts
Bitterness
of the brine have to be controlled. Though contamination
and growth during cheese making must be avoided as much This is a ripening defect that can be caused by using too
as possible, the importance of NSLAB for (desired) cheese much rennet, or a low pH before pressing. The latter leads
flavor has been recognized (Crow et al., 2001). A number to increased rennet retention in the cheese. The main cause,
of lactobacilli, for example, Lb. fermentum and Lb. brevis, however, is using a starter with insufficient peptidase ac-
may cause racemization of l(+)lactate to a l(+) and d(−) tivity to degrade bitter peptides that are initially produced
lactate mixture resulting in (undesired) formation of crys- in cheese (Exterkate and Stadhouders, 1971; Stadhouders
tals in the cheese. et al., 1983b).
Texture Defects ple replacement of (part of the) NaCl by KCl is applied,

but may result in bitterness, depending upon the exchange
Besides the formation of cracks or holes, that are too large,
ratio. Since cheeses are fermented foods with a wide diver-
by microbial action, process-related defects, such as mul-
sity in (microbial) composition, flavor, and texture, NaCl
tiple small eyes or even pinholes, also occur in Gouda
reduction strategies have to be tailored carefully. Among
cheese. To avoid these defects, air inclusion in the cheese
others, the growth and lysis of desired starter and non-
milk and during drainage of the curd should be avoided.
starter lactic acid bacteria, and (flavor forming) enzymes
Curd clumps that do not lose whey properly during drainage
and reactions, are controlled by the NaCl concentration in
cause nesty holes.
cheese. Lowering the NaCl concentration may hence re-
sult in unbalanced flavor formation. In addition, sodium
Propionic Acid Bacteria chloride has a highly appreciated direct taste itself and is
Serious effects of these bacteria in Gouda cheese may oc- also an important enhancer of other taste or aroma active
cur after prolonged ripening, since propionic acid bacteria compounds.
(PAB) only grow slowly at common (low) ripening tem- In Gouda-type cheeses, with salt added by brining and
peratures and salt contents. The defects that occur are a subsequent slow diffusion of salt into the cheese matrix, the
sweet taste and an open texture, the latter due to excessive direct effect of lowering salt on the mesophilic starter will
CO2 formation. PAB on the surface of cheese may appear be limited. Lactose conversion and resulting acidification
as red spots. Nitrate hinders the growth of PAB, and in milk will be hardly affected. The outgrowth of NSLAB in later
they are killed by normal pasteurization. In factories also stages of ripening, however, might be enhanced by NaCl
producing Maasdam-type cheese, cross-contamination may reduction, and consequently, specific enzymic processes
occur (Düsterhöft and van den Berg, 2007). related to flavor formation may also be enhanced. In Gouda
cheeses, the effect of lowering NaCl on the outgrowth of
Salt Reduction undesired microorganisms, such as the spore-forming bac-
terium C. tyrobutyricum, has been recognized. This micro-
In Gouda cheese, as for many foods, sodium chloride (NaCl) organism causes severe gas and off-flavor formation by
is an essential constituent of flavor. In addition, NaCl con- conversion of lactate in the cheese, and the use of nitrate
tributes to texture formation and preservation of the cheese. is a traditional method to prevent its growth (Stadhoud-
Since NaCl is also present in significant amounts in bread, ers, 1990c). Measures to counteract the outgrowth of C. ty-
soup, and sausages, for example, sodium intake by con- robutyricum in low salt Gouda cheese include the applica-
sumers exceeds the nutritional recommendations in many tion of nisin-producing cultures, and lysozyme.
industrialized countries. On average, the consumption of A feasible approach to counteract the loss or alteration
NaCl in western countries ranges from about 10 to 12 g/ of flavor due to lowered salt, and/or fat, levels is by adapt-
day, whereas the daily recommended intake is around 6 g ing and tailoring the formation of key compounds to such
(Lauverjat et al., 2009). Salt contents of cheeses vary from an extent that restoration and/or compensation of flavor is
0.7% in Swiss cheese to up to 5% in Feta-type cheese. In reached. Examples of (nonvolatile) compounds that may
Cheddar- and Gouda-type, typical contents of 1.8%–2% are impact upon salty flavor perception are certain amino acids,
applied by dry curd salting and brining, respectively. peptides, and succinic acid that generally exert congruent
Lowering the NaCl concentration in food products, flavors and/or flavor enhancement (Table 34.2). Also vola-
such as cheese, without changing consumer acceptability tile flavor compounds have been shown to affect salty flavor
has become a major challenge for the food industry. Sim- perception in Gouda-type cheeses (Knoop, 2011).
TABLE 34.2 Examples of Compounds With Salt-Like Flavor Properties

Compound Flavor Effect References
Glutamic acid Umami/salty flavor Drake et al. (2007), Toelstede and Hofmann
Flavor enhancement (2009)
Arginine Salty taste contribution Toelstede and Hofmann (2009)
Succinic acid Salty taste, flavor enhancement Drake et al. (2007)
γ-Glutamyl peptides Savory, kokumi flavor Toelstede and Hofmann (2009)
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Chapter 34

Gouda and Related Cheeses

INTRODUCTION 9. Absence of essential surface flora.

Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417012-4.00034-X

undissociated (i.e., bacteriostatic) form, the more so if Starter Production

to be sufficient for a considerable amount of whey to be ex- Draining and Molding

FIGURE 34.10 Typical cross-section of Gouda cheese.

FIGURE 34.13 Formation of flavor compounds from fat in cheese.

formation and consequently undesired holes/cracks/slits. Thermoresistant Streptococci

Texture Defects ple replacement of (part of the) NaCl by KCl is applied,

TABLE 34.2 Examples of Compounds With Salt-Like Flavor Properties

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