THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

NOTES

Frederic Sorrieu and his dream of world made up of ‘democracy and

social Republic:

He was a French artist who in 1848, prepared a series of four prints (‘The
Dream of Worldwide democratic and Social Republics--- The Pact between
Nations) visualising his dream of ‘democratic and social republics’ as he
called them.
 He had utopian vision of the world.
 Of world made up of democracy and social republics.
 His first print showed peoples of America and Europe offering homage to
the statue of liberty.
 The statue of liberty is a female figure, holding torch of liberty in one hand
and Charter of Rights of Man on the other.
 In the foreground the shattered remains of absolutist institutions are
scattered.
 People of world are grouped together in distinct nations, having flags and
national costume.
 The USA is leading the procession followed by Switzerland and France.
 France is prominent with its tricolored flag.
 From the heavens angels are gazing down upon the scene as a symbol of
fraternity among the nations.

1. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The political and constitutional changes in France due to the French

Revolution:
 There was clear expression of nationalism for the first time.
 Transfer of sovereignty from absolute monarchy to the French citizens.
 The Revolution indicated that the people would constitute the nation and
decide its destiny.
 The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French
Revolution in 1789/The French Revolutionaries introduced various
measures and practices that created a sense of collective identity
amongst the French people. Explain.

 Nation of a united community: The idea of a fatherland (La patrie) and

citizens (le citizen) meant love for one’s land and all enjoying equal rights.
 A new flag: Former royal flag was replaced with a tricoloured flag.
 National Assembly: Instead of Estates –General of the Old Order, elected
National Assembly was set up.
 Use of national sentiment: In the name of nation hymns were composed,
oath of loyalty to the nation was taken, and martyrs remembered.
 Centralised administration: Uniform laws for all, internal custom duties
abolished, uniform units for weights and measures, set up common system
in the country.
 Common language: French became the common language for the nation.
 Declared mission to help establish nation-states: The Revolutionaries
declared that they would remove despotic rule from Europe and help other
people of Europe to become nations. Influenced by France, many cities of
Europe began to set up Jacobin Club.
 End of Absolute monarch: Transfer of sovereignty from absolute monarchy
to the French citizens.
 People’s rule: The Revolution indicated that the people would constitute the
nation and decide its destiny.

Through the return of monarchy Napoleon had destroyed democracy in

France, but in administrative field had introduced reforms in order to
make whole system more rational and efficient. An analysis.

Napoleon seized power and re-established monarchy in France. In this way

he had destroyed the republic. But in administration he showed
revolutionary principles.
 The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) put an end to all privileges based
on birth, established equality before the law, secured right to property. This
code was applied in places under French control.
 In Dutch Republic of Switzerland, Germany and Italy, Napoleon abolished
feudalism, freed the peasants from feudal dues and serfdom.
 In towns, guild control over business was removed. Peasants, new
businessmen, workers and artisans enjoyed this freedom.
  Transport and communication were improved.
 Centralised administration was set up. Uniform laws, standardised weights
and measurements and a common currency simplified business transactions.

People of conquered territories were hostile to Napoleon:

 Initially many conquered countries admired his principles of liberty and

equality in administration.
 Later it became clear that he was not ready to give political freedom.
 He had increased taxes, censorship, and conscription to be able to conquer
more of Europe.

Impact of French Revolution on Europe:

 Activities of the Jacobins: they inspired the French to form the revolutionary
army and defeat the Coalition army of the European kings.
 Spread of new ideas: the French army spread the liberal ideas of equality
liberty and nationalism in the countries they went to fight.
 The mission of the revolutionaries: to liberate the people of Europe from
despots and form nation states where people will rule.

2. The Making of Nationalism in Europe

Absence of nationalism and the idea of nation states in mid-18th century

Europe/Political features of mid-18th century Europe:

 Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms.

 Eastern and Central Europe had diverse population and the rulers autocratic.
Most of the Europe did not have collective identity of common culture.
Hapsburg dynasty of Austria-Hungary for example was a patchwork of
many regions. It included Alpine region, Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland,
Bohemia --- where powerful aristocrats spoke German. Lombardy and
Venetia, Italian-speaking places were also part of Austria-Hungary.
 Given such differences, there was no sense of political unity and no question
of nationalism. The only reason they lived together was for common loyalty
for the kings.

Aristocrats were socially and politically dominant class in Europe (18th -

19th century):

 Powerful and landowners: Socially and politically they were very

influential. They were less in number in the society yet the owners of most
of the land in the country.
 Common way of life: The aristocrats, of all over Europe had a lavish life-
style. They had estates in the countryside and expensive houses in the towns.
 French, language of aristocracy: French was used in high society and
diplomacy.
 Marriages connected important families.
 Feudal control: they controlled the lives of the peasantry, who were the
majority of the population. They worked on the vast farms of the aristocrats
as tenants or serfs.

Conditions that led to the growth of middle class in Europe/ how did
idea of nationalism and nation-state emerge in the 19th century?

 Growth of industries: Industries and trade gave rise to towns and urban life.
There was at the same time a rise of commercial class who were engaged in
industrial production and trade.
 Middle class: There were many who began to work in industries and
became ‘workers’. Industrialists, traders, and professionals became the
middle-class. They were educated, liberal and pretty much aware of the
necessity of change in the social and political set up in Europe.
 They were wary of aristocrats: They did not like the social and political
control by the aristocrats and struggled for the end of aristocratic privileges.
They were united as a class in this struggle.
 In this way nationalism and the idea of nation-state emerged.
 What did liberalism stand for? / Ideas of national unity in the 19th
century Europe was closely allied to the ideology of liberalism:

The term liberalism comes from the Latin word ‘liber’ meaning free.
Liberalism meant different things to different people.
 For middle-class: For them it meant freedom and equality for all before the
law.
 Political liberalism: Implied a form of government by consent. The aim of
the French Revolution was to put an end to autocracy, privileges by birth, a
new constitution which would give basic rights to all and a representative
government through Parliament.
Limited political rights: However, equality did not provide universal
suffrage. Political rights were given to property-owning men (active
citizens). Men without property and women (passive citizens) were not
allowed political rights. National Convention under Jacobins gave political
rights to all men. Napoleon later took away such rights from the poor and
women any way never had any political rights.
 Economic liberalism: It meant freedom of markets and abolition of state –
imposed restrictions on movements of goods and capital. This was the long-
term demand of the middle-class who were educated, wealthy and
commercial class.
 Zollverein: A unified economic territory was eventually created in 1834, a
customs union or zollverein at the initiative of Prussian government. It was
joined by all German states of Napoleons’ Confederation of 39 states. The
union abolished tariff for all and reduced the number of currency from over
30 to 02. A network of railways created for better movement of goods and
people which in turn led to national unity.
 Napoleon’s Code, 1804: the genesis of liberalism and economic nationalism
was initiated by Napoleon. His Code introduced uniform laws, currency,
removed several custom duties, standardised weights and measures. People
welcomed such unifying measures and felt like belonging to one nation.

How economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist

sentiments/nationalism:

The term liberalism comes from the Latin word ‘liber’ meaning free.
 Economic liberalism: It meant freedom of markets and abolition of state –
imposed restrictions on movements of goods and capital. This was the long-
term demand of the middle-class who were educated, wealthy and commercial
class.
 Zollverein: A unified economic territory was eventually created in 1834, a
customs union or zollverein at the initiative of Prussian government. It was
joined by all German states of Napoleons’ Confederation of 39 states. The
union abolished tariff for all and reduced the number of currency from over
30 to 02. A network of railways created for better movement of goods and
people which in turn led to national unity.
 Napoleon’s Code, 1804: The genesis of liberalism and economic
nationalism was initiated by Napoleon. His Code introduced uniform laws,
currency, removed several custom duties, standardised weights and
measures. People welcomed such unifying measures and felt like belonging
to one nation.

Features of conservative regime set up in Europe after the defeat of

Napoleon in 1815/ Beliefs of conservatives in Europe:

The absolute monarchies who were conservatives such as Russia, Austria

and Prussia believed that:
 Traditional institutions should be protected. This implied that monarchy,
church, social hierarchy, landed property and family should be preserved.
 They were autocratic and did not tolerate any criticism.
 They imposed censorship to control what was said in newspapers, books,
plays and songs. They were against the ideas liberty and equality.
 However, they did not want to go back to the conditions of pre-revolutionary
times. They learnt from Napoleon the value and need for modernisation to
be loved by people of the country.. It can make monarchy more effective
and strong. For example a modern army, efficient officials, developing
economy and ending by feudalism autocratic monarchy can enjoy people’s
support.
 The Congress of Vienna, the capital of Austria (1815):
What was it?
First ever meet of many rulers and important ministers to work out a
comprehensive peace settlement after the end of Napoleonic War.

Who attended the meeting?

The key figures were
 The Austrian Chancellor, Metternich. It was Metternich who hosted it.
 British Foreign Secretary.
 Tsar of Russia.
 French Foreign Minister.

Aims of the Congress:

After the defeat of Napoleon they met to:
 Secure lasting peace in Europe.
 To ensure no power would be able to dominate Europe as Napoleon had
done.
 To prevent revolutions as in France in 1789 and create new conservative
rule in Europe.
 To undo all territorial changes that had come about in Europe by Napoleonic
invasions and restore kings overthrown by Napoleon.
 The major territorial changes of the Vienna Congress were to be made to
prevent any future revolution.

Territorial changes made in 1815/ Treaty of Vienna was a setback the

process of nationalism:
 The Treaty disregarded the national sentiment of other territories. To
prevent revolutions as in France in 1789 and create new conservative rule
in Europe. All the conservative regimes were autocratic.
 Many states were created on the boundaries of France to stop French
expansion.
 Thus the kingdoms of Netherlands which included Belgium was set up in
the north. Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
  Prussia received important territories on the west. It was given a portion
of Saxony.
 Austria was given northern Italy.
 The German confederation of 39 state set up by Napoleon was not
touched.
 Russia was given a part of Poland.

“When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold” Metternich had
once remarked. Justify.

 Metternich had seen the French Revolution and the Napoleonic rule.
When Metternich used this metaphor he was referring to both the events.
 Series of liberal reforms that came after French Revolution and
Napoleon’s rule prompted many revolutionaries to fight against absolute
monarchies in their countries.
 Metternich was conservative who defended absolute monarchy, used the
metaphor ‘germ’ for the revolutions. Most of the later revolutions began
in France and then spread in other parts of Europe. Eg the July
Revolution of 1830.

Ideas and activities of the early revolutionaries to counter conservatism of

1815/ the aims of the revolutionaries during the years following 1815:

 They criticised the new conservative order and wanted freedom of press.
 Opposed monarchy that had been formed at Vienna.
 Fight for freedom and liberty and create nation-states.
 Many secret societies were formed because government repression forced
the revolutionaries to go underground. These societies trained the
revolutionaries and spread their ideas.

Mazzini, the Italian revolutionary:

 Became the member of the secret society of Carbonari.
 Attempted a revolution and was exiled.
 He founded two secret societies-Young Italy (Marseilles) and Young
Europe (Berne).
 He believed that God had intended nations as natural units for mankind.
Therefore Italy should be a united under a democratic republic instead of
monarchy.
  His ideas of democracy and a republic frightened the conservatives and
Metternich referred to him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social
order.’

3. The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848/ Why is the period from 1830 to 1848
known as the age of revolution?

Revolutions Popular Reasons Results

demands
In France (July Democracy 1) Economic 1) Charles X was
1830). The hardships in removed and
first revolution Europe. (pg. 15) Louise Philippe
took place in 2) Growth of of Bourbon
France. revolutionary dynasty became
nationalism. the king.
3) The incumbent 2) Promised to
king Charles X of follow the
Bourbon dynasty constitution.
was conservative. Constitutional
He did not allow monarchy set up.
freedom of speech.
In Belgium Freedom from 1) Growth of 1) Became
the Dutch rule. revolutionary independent
nationalism. nation under
2) Alleged Dutch Belgian king
misgovernment of (Leopold I).
the minority 2) Belgium was
Belgians. the first nation to
3) Absence of break away from
religious tolerance Congress of
and discrimination. Vienna
arrangements.
3) Promised to
remain neutral
country
thereafter.
In Greece (war Freedom from 1) To be free from 1) Treaty of
of Ottoman Ottoman rule. Constantinople
Independence - Empire. 2) Received 1832.
1821-32) support from 2) Greece became
Greeks in exile, independent
 England and nation under
France to save the Prince Otto of
ancient classical Bavaria.
culture from
Islamic rule.

In France A Republic 1) Acute economic 1) King Louis

(1848) crises. Philippe had to
2) Food shortages flee France (to
and widespread England).
unemployment. 2) The National
3) Aggrieved Assembly
people came out proclaimed a
on the streets. Republic.
3) Granted
universal male
suffrage to males
over 21.
4) Promised right
to work for all.
5) National
_____________ _____________ workshops were
__ ___
_______________ set up to provide
1) Middle-class ___ jobs.
In Germany
(1848) liberals ______________
1) On 18th May, in ___
demanded
German regions,
constitution
many middle-class 1) The parliament
which the
came in Frankfurt. which was
government
2) There they dominated by the
would follow,
voted for National liberal middle-
freedom of press
Assembly, drafted class did not
and a parliament.
a constitution. work.
2) They also
3) They offered 2) But Old Order
wished for
Friedrich Wilhelm did change their
national
IV, the King of attitude.
unification.
Prussia, to become 3) Conservative
the constitutional kings understood
monarch, subject that the
to the Parliament. revolutions will
4) But the king end only if
rejected the offer concessions were
and the Assembly granted to the
 was dismissed by liberals.
the troops. 4) Thereafter
serfdom, bonded
labour were
abolished by the
Hapsburgs of
Austria and
Russian Tsars.
5) Now
nationalist
sentiments were
used by powerful
conservative
kings for
increasing state
power.
Unification of
Germany and
Italy under kings
are examples of
such change.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation/

Development of nationalism did not only come about through wars and
territorial expansion:
 Romanticism is a cultural movement which developed a form of
nationalist sentiment. Romantic poets and artists generally criticise
glorification of science and reason. They gave more importance to human
emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
 They try to create a shared collective heritage and common cultural past
as a basis to a nation.
 German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder said true culture can be
found among the common people—das volk. The folk dance and song,
poetry show the spirit of the nation (volkgeist) could be expressed.
Collecting and preserving folk culture was important for nation-building.
 Importance was given to vernacular language. This was to carry new ideas to
the people who could not read or write.
 Even When Polish people lost their freedom to Russia, national feeling was kept
alive through songs and language. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national
struggle through his opera and music. Folk dances like polonaise and
mazurka turned into national symbol.
 Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiment.
The Russians had forced the polish language out of school and imposed Russian
language everywhere. The members of Polish church began to use polish
language in church gatherings to show their resistance against Russian rule in
Poland. They refused to preach in Russian language. The use of polish became a
symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
 Allegory of Germania in Germany, Marianne in France developed national
feeling in Europe.

The 1830’s were a years of great economic hardship in Europe:

 Unemployment: there was an enormous increase of population. Rural people
came to the cities and lived in slums. There were not enough jobs for everyone.
 Small producers suffered: Cheap machine-made goods from England gave stiff
competition to the small scale producers.
 Feudal dominance: Aristocracy enjoyed power and wealth while the poor
suffered under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
 Pauperism: rise of food prices and or bad harvest led to pauperism in towns and
villages.

Condition of France in 1848:

 Food shortages and unemployment.
 In Paris people protested against their hardship.
 The king Louise had to go (escaped to England) away.
 The National Assembly declared France a Republic, gave right to work, adult
suffrage for all men over 21 years of age. National workshops were formed to
give work to the people.

The role of women in the nationalist struggle of Europe:

 Women had formed their own political associations.
 They founded newspapers and took part in political meetings and
demonstrations.
 Despite this, they were denied political rights. They were not allowed to vote in
the German National Assembly. When the Frankfurt Parliament met, women
stood in the visitor’s gallery.

4 Making of Germany and Italy and Britain

 Unification of Germany:
 Unification of Germany was possible due to well-planned effort of Prussian
Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck.
 The 1848 revolution of the middle class, (Frankfurt parliament) had failed to
unite Germany into a nation-state under a constitutional monarch, Friedrich
Wilhelm IV.
 Thereafter, the nationalist sentiments were used by powerful conservative kings
for increasing state power. This nationalist sentiment prompted Bismarck to
begin the movement for unification.
 He planned to unite the German states (ruled by Austria, France and Demark)
under a strong monarchy and with the help of king’s army.
 With the help of Prussian army he waged three wars in seven years---with
Denmark, Austria and France and defeated them all. In 1871, unification was
completed (following a battle of Sedan where Napoleon III was defeated) under
the Prussian king Wilhelm I. He was declared as the emperor of Germany at
Versailles.
 The new state modernised currency, legal and judicial systems in Germany.
 The national unification which the common man had wanted in 1848 was
eventually realised by the conservatives who believed in strong monarchy.

Unification of Italy (1861):

 Italy was politically divided into seven states. Each state was under foreign rule
except Sardinia-Piedmont which was ruled by Italian prince.
 North was under Austrian Hapsburgs, centre was ruled by the Pope and
southern states were under French Bourbon king of Spain. Even Italian
language did not have one common form.
 Unification was the effort of three Italian leaders-Giuseppe Mazzini, Chief
Minister Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
 Mazzini formed a secret society called Young Italy. He organised two uprisings
against the foreign rule in 1831 and 1848. Both the uprisings failed.
 Cavour wanted to unite Italy under the king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor
Emmanuel II. He tactfully allied with France and could defeat the Austrians.
 Garibaldi was inspired by Mazzini. He organised armed volunteers (The Red
Shirts) and marched into South Italy and the kingdoms of two Sicilies. He won
the support of the local peasants and drove away the Spanish ruler.
 In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy.
 The Papal States in Rome was still under the control of the French. The Red
Shirts could defeat the French and the Papal armies. In 1870, the French left
Italy and Papal States were joined to Italy. Italian unification was complete.

_Formation of nation-state in Britain/ the formation of nation-state in Britain

was a long drawn process/ the history of nationalism in Britain was unlike other
nations:
There was no sudden revolution in Britain. It was a slow process.
 The people of British Isles belonged to different ethnic groups with
distinct culture and political tradition-such as English, Welsh, Scots and
Irish. As English nation grew in wealth and power, it extended its control
over the island nations.
 In 1688 (after the Glorious Revolution), the English parliament took
away power from the monarchy. Thereafter a nation-state of England was
formed. The British parliament was dominated by English members.
 The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland formed the
United Kingdom of Great Britain. The Act empowered England to
dominate Scotland. They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language
or wear national dress, many were forced out of their homeland. The
Scottish suffered great repression whenever they tried to be free of British
control.
 In Ireland, English helped the Protestants to dominate the Catholics.
After the failed revolt by Irish revolutionary Wolfe Tone and his United
Irishmen against British domination, Ireland was forcibly incorporated
into United Kingdom in 1801.
 A British nation was formed with dominant English culture. National
symbols (British flag and national anthem God Save Our Noble King)
were widely used to promote nationhood.

5. Visualising the Nation

In Europe, artists in the 18th and 19th centuries found out a way of personifying a
nation:
 The artists represented nations as if it were a person.
 Nations were portrayed as female figures.
 The figure did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
 It was a way to give the abstract idea of nation a concrete form. That is,
the female figure became an allegory of the nation.
 Allegory of Germany was Germania, of France was Marianne, of Britain
Britannia and for India Bharat Mata.
(Refer to page 23)

6. Nationalism and Imperialism

The Balkan countries:

The Balkans Nations comprise Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia. They were
under the rule of Ottoman Empire. They were broadly known as the Slavs.

By the last quarter of the 19th century nationalism no longer retained its
idealistic liberal democratic sentiment…but became a narrow creed with limited
ends:

 Nationalist groups had become very intolerant and ready to go to war in

the name of love for the country. The old fraternity among the nations
were gone.
 The major European powers instead of diffusing the problems,
manipulated the nationalist sentiments of for their own gain.
 For example, the Balkan was under the control of Ottoman Empire. As
Ottoman Empire weakened and ideas of nationalism spread in this region,
European nationalities tried to break away from Ottoman control.
 The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and tried to expand
at the cost of others.
 At the same time there was intense rivalry among powerful European
countries over trade and colonies. These countries were Russia, Germany,
England and Austria-Hungary. They too wanted to have territorial gains
 in the Balkans. This led to series of wars in this region and finally the
First World War.

The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area
called the Balkans/As different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their
identity and independence, the Balkan area became the area of intense conflict:

 Balkan region has people with various ethnicity. Much of this region was
under was under Ottoman Empire.
 As ideas of nationalism spread and Ottoman Empire declined, the Balkan
states emerged independent separately and they all claimed further
territory that they considered as theirs by ethnic or historic rights.
 . What grew instead was imperialism. The Balkan states were fiercely
jealous of each other and tried to expand at the cost of others.
 At the same time there was intense rivalry among powerful European
countries over trade and colonies. These countries were Russia, Germany,
England and Austria-Hungary. The major European powers instead of
diffusing the problems, manipulated the nationalist sentiments of for their
own gain.
 They too competed for territorial gains in the Balkans.
 Nationalism gave way to intense imperialism and this led to series of
wars in this region and finally the First World War.