History

1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Introduction:
You may know about world history that is full of battles, revolutions, struggle and demands. It is so vast and
complex that you cannot recall the entire past at once. So, to make this lengthy and confusing past easy,
History of some important events has been divided into different chapters. You must have learnt about some
of the events of Indian history, France and Russia in previous classes. Similarly, this year you have the first
chapter based on European history. Since many events and revolutions brought changes in the world’s
political and social order, it becomes important for you to know why change was made. Basically, we will be
reading about the building of a nation-state in this chapter.
The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics :
In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints.
In these prints, he visualized his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and Social Republics’.
The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train.
They are offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
A Female figure is carrying the torch of Enlightenment in one hand. And the charter of the Rights of Man in the
other.
On the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.
In Sorrieu’s utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and
national costume.
The procession was led by the US and Switzerland.
Followed by France, Germany, Austria, the kingdom of the two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England,
Ireland, Hungary and Russia respectively.
From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene (Symbol of fraternity).
This chapter deals with many of the issues visualized by Fredric Sorrieu in his print. Like the sense of common identity,
building of nation-state, nationalism which emerged in the nineteenth century in Europe.
Nationalism:
Nationalism is an idea and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation,
especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining sovereignty over its homeland. Each nation should govern
itself without any interference from outside.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation:
In the previous year, you must have read about the French Revolution that gave inspiring ideas to the entire
world. So this year, you will know the impact of the French Revolution in the different parts of Europe and the
feeling of one nation state among people belonging to the European continent.
Major changes in France :
In 1789, the people of France began protesting against the autocratic rule of the Monarch.
They demanded for the transfer of power from the king to the common people.
The members of the third Estate wanted parliamentary democracy.
French Revolutionaries attempted to create a sense of collective identity among the French people.
Steps Taken by Revolutionaries:
The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community
enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
The Estates General was renamed as ‘The National Assembly’ and elected by the body of active citizens.
New hymns (national songs) were composed.
They took oaths and recalled martyrs. They did all these things in the name of the nation
Revolutionaries formulated uniform laws for all citizens under a centralized administrative system.
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted.
French became the common (national) language of the nation.
French armies took the idea of Nationalism abroad.
Napoleonic Era: (1799-1815)
Re-establishment of Monarchy by Napoleon Bonaparte destroyed democracy in France.
However, He incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. First,
he brought changes in France and then regions under French control.
Napoleon introduced the civil code of 1804 also known as Napoleonic Code.
He put an end to all the privileges based on birth.
Established equality before the law.
Secured the right to property.
Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
He also removed Guild restrictions from towns.
and also improved the transportation and communication systems.
He brought out uniform laws, introduced standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency.
Drawbacks of Napoleon Rule:
Increased taxation.
Censorship (suppression of ideas, speech, images that are offensive).
and also forced conscription into the French Armies.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe:
In the mid of eighteenth-century (1750-1815)
There were no ‘nation states’.
The rulers of Germany, Italy and Switzerland had autonomous territories. And they were divided into kingdoms, duchies
and cantons.
People had diversity in language, tradition, history. For example: Habsburg Empire.
Only common thing in these diverse groups was loyalty to the emperor.
They had nothing to share with each other in common except the allegiance to the King. So How did
nationalism and the idea of the nation state emerge.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class:
We will discuss about Social, Political and economic life of three groups in Europe. These are Aristocracy,
Peasantry and Middle Class.
Aristocracy:
Aristocracy was powerful, the dominant and the land owing class.
It spoke in French for the purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
Their families were often connected by the ties of marriage.
United by the common ways of life.
However, the group of Aristocrats was very small.
Peasantry:
Peasants’ population was in majority.
They used to look after the land of aristocrats.
Middle Class:
With the growth of industrial production and trade, new towns and commercial classes emerged.
The middle class comprised of Industrialists, businessmen, professionals (teacher, doctor).
Two Ideas of Educated Middle Class:-
The Idea of National unity.
And Idea of Liberal Nationalism evolved in the minds of middle class.
Liberal Nationalism:
The term Liberalism derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
The Idea of liberal nationalism for new middle class was:-
In Political sphere:
Freedom of Individual.
Equality before law.
Government with people’s consent.
End of Autocracy and clerical privileges.
Constitution and representative government through Parliament.
In Economic sphere:
Freedom of markets.
Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Since they wanted to get solution for these two problems:-
Firstly, Only propertied men were allowed to vote and women had no such right.
Secondly, State to state trade restrictions. (For example:- currency, weights and measures, custom barriers)
Zollverein:
In 1834, a custom union formed.
Prussia took the initiative.
Later, Most of the German States joined it.
It gave positive outcome:-
The union abolished tariff barriers.
Also removed number of currencies from over thirty to two.
Improved or promote Railway networks that stimulated mobility.
A New Conservatism after 1815:
Napoleonic Era ended when Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively fought war against Napoleon and
defeat him in the Battle of Waterloo (Battle in Belgium).
Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society should be preserved.
For example: The monarchy
The Church
Social hierarchies
Property and the family.
However, one thing they (conservatives) realized that Napoleon’s measures were somehow better and need to make
some changes in old system in order to strengthen traditional institutions.
After a great victory in the battle of Waterloo, Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria signed the treaty of Vienna (Capital of
Austria) in 1815.
Treaty of Vienna:
An Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich hosted the congress which was held at Vienna. He was the
architect of The Treaty Of Vienna.
Conservatives Restored Bourbon dynasty in France. Thus, Louis Phillip became Monarch.
States were set up on the Boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
Prussia got some important territories on its western frontiers.
Austria got control over North Italy.
Russia got Poland.
Confederation of 39 states which had been set up by Napoleon, was left untouched.
Problem in conservative regimes:-
These conservative regimes were autocratic.
They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.
They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
Most of them imposed censorship laws.
Freedom of Press became one of the main reasons for liberal-nationalists to criticize the
new conservative order. As a result, Revolutionaries came forward.
The Revolutionaries:
The fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
They began to form secret societies, train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
They would become revolutionaries with the Aim
to spread the idea of Nationalism and oppose Monarchy.
They wanted freedom and end of Autocratic rule.
Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
One of the most important Revolutionaries:-
Giuseppe Mazzini:
He was an Italian Revolutionary.
Born in Genoa in 1807.
Since he attempted a revolution in Liguria, he was sent into exile in 1831.
Also, he was a member of secret society Carbonari
He formed two secret societies.
Young Italy in Marseilles.
Young Europe in Berne.
Mazzini believed that the God intended nations to be a natural units of mankind. In simple words, he believed in the
unification of Italy.
Influenced by his model, Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland also formed secret societies.
He made conservatives feel fear by his vision of democratic republics.
Metternich describes him as ‘ The most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
The ideas (Liberalism and Nationalism) got spread among different parts of Europe.
Educated middle class (Liberal-Nationalist) led these two ideas.
Regions were Italian, German States, Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.
27 July 1830 : French Revolution
The First upheaval took place in France.
Liberal Revolutionaries overthrew Conservatives (Bourbon kings) from the position.
And appointed Louis Philippe as the head under constitutional monarchy.
The revolution in France led to other revolutions such as Belgium and Greek Revolution.
25 August 1830 : Belgian Revolution
Belgian Revolution began on 25th August 1830.
The difference in religion led to separation of Belgium (Catholics) from United Kingdom of Netherlands (Protestants).
Finally, Belgium got Independence on 4 October 1830.
1821-1832; Greek War Of Independence : Greek Revolution
There was Ottoman Empire in Greece.
However, Greeks wanted the revival of the Byzantine Empire
Also, Constantinople as its capital.
At last, Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as a sovereign nation in 1832.
They got help from western countries (the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and Russia).
Poets and Artists referred Greece as ‘The Cradle of European Civilization‘.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Nationalism developed through Culture also. Since, It created the idea of the nation. But the question is,
how? Here, you need to know the term Romanticism to understand this better.
Romanticism: It is a cultural Movement to develop a particular form of Nationalist sentiment.
The Romantic Artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science.
Instead, They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
They intended to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common past as the basis of a nation.
Romanticists :
Germany: Culture became the reason for promoting nationalism.
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): He was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic.
He was also known as the father of ‘Cultural Nationalism‘.
He suggested two ideas; Das Volk and Volkgeist.
Das Volk: It is a German word that means common people of the country.
Volkgeist: It is also a German word that mean spirit of Nationalism.
By these phrases, he meant that the common people are the real source of true German Culture and true spirit of the
nation was popularized through folk songs, folk poetries and folk dances respectively.
Poland: Language became weapon of National Resistance.
At the end of 18th century, Great powers- Russia, Prussia, Austria separated Poland.
Russia got the power to rule the territory of Poland.
Consequently, it brought some changes in Poland.
Polish language was removed.
Moreover, they implemented Russian language in schools, offices etc.
Such changes resulted in Russian dominance over Poland.
Karol Kurpinski: He was a leading Polish musician and composer during the nineteenth century.
He celebrated the national struggle through the operas and music, turning folk dances like polonaise and
mazurka into nationalist symbols.
To end the Russian dominance, many attempts were made by polish people.
First, An Armed Rebellion took place (against Russian Rule) which did not get success.
However, they did not give up. Many members of clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon.
Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
As a result, Russian authorities responded in a cruel manner. Priest and bishops were put in jail or Siberia for their
refusal to preach in Russian.
Thereby, Polish became the symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt:
The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
There were several reasons or causes for economic crisis in Europe:-
An enormous increase in population all over Europe in the first half of 19th century.
In most countries there were more seekers of job than employment.
Migration of large number of people from village to cities led to the spread of urban slums.
Moreover, Stiff competition from imports of machine made goods made small produces (in towns) suffer great
losses. [Especially in textile production.]
Furthermore, the burden of feudal dues and obligations faced by peasants in the areas of aristocratic
dominance.
Besides, widespread pauperism in town and country due to rise of food prices or year of bad
harvest aggravated the situation.
Meanwhile, there were riots going on in some places. These were:-
Uprising of Silesian weavers in 1845: In Silesia, weavers revolted against contractors since they drastically
reduced their (weavers) payments.
4th June 1845:– Weavers demanded higher wages and began attacking contractor’s house.
The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village however, did not get shelter.
After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead.
Uprising of peasants (Paris) in 1848: In Paris, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the people
out on the roads.
As a consequence, Louis Phillippe had to flee.
In his absence, a National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed
the right to work.
It also set up National workshops for providing employment.
1848: The Revolutions of the Liberals
Apart from the poor, unemployed & starving peasants and workers, revolution also led by the educated middle
class.
In France, February revolution ended monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic.
After the event of February 1848 in France, Liberals in other parts of Europe (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro
Hungarian Empire) revolted for the same reason.
Revolution was led by educated Middle class.
They wanted to establish nation state.
Moreover, they demanded for Parliamentary Principles –
a constitution
Freedom of Press
Freedom of Association (no restrictions to form parties)
In German regions, political associations were largely formed by middle class professionals, businessmen and
prosperous artisans.
They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives revolted in the Frankfurt parliament (Convened in Church of St
Paul).
They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
So, they offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, king of Prussia.
However, king rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
Reasons for the failure of Frankfurt Parliament:-
The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger.
The parliament which was dominated by the middle classes, resisted the demands of workers and artisans.
Consequently, lost their support.
Women’s Position:
Women participated actively over the years.
They formed their own political associations, founded newspapers.
Furthermore, they took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
Note: Despite this, they did not get voting rights in the election of the Assembly. They could
only stand in the visitors’ gallery as observers.
Did the Conservatives re-establish their power?
Monarchs realized the need of granting concessions in order to end the cycle of revolutions.
Hence, after the years of 1848, The autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the
changes.
They abolished serfdom and bonded Labour (in Habsburg dominions and in Russia).
Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867. Now they were able to make their self
governed country.
Note: In Western Europe, the above mentioned changes took place before 1815.
The Making of Germany & Italy and The Strange case of Britain:
After 1848, Conservatives themselves began mobilizing nationalist sentiments for promoting state power and achieving
political domination over Europe.
Germany:
There was no homogenous German identity until the 19th century.
The German states were bound together in a loose political entity known as the Holy Roman Empire.
There were Austrian rulers (dominant one) and Prussian rulers.
The Process of Unification:
Prussia became the leader of the German Unification Movement.
King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Chief Minister of Prussia in 1862.
Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of the unification process.
He carried out with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy.
He followed the policy of Blood and Iron. Thus, fought three wars for seven years against Austria, Denmark and France.
This resulted in Prussian victory. Hence, it unified Germany.
On 18th January 1871, Kaiser William I (Prussian King) was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles.
Finally, Germany emerged as an independent nation state.
A new nation state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in
Germany.
Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.
Italy:
Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
During mid 19th Century, Italy was divided in Seven States.
The only state ruled by Italian king was Sardinia-Piedmont.
Austrian Habsburg had control over north, Pope ruled center and Bourbon Kings of Spain controlled the south part of
Italy.
Besides Italian language, there were many different regional languages as well.
Unification of Italy:
In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini who formed secret society with the aim of making Italy a nation state, did not get much
success in doing so.
Now, Victor Emmanuel II (Italian ruler of Sardinia Piedmont) became a central figure of the movement for Italian
unification.
He (King) appointed Count Camillo de Cavour for leading movement further.
Count Camillo de Cavour was Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state. He led the movement to unify the regions
of Italy.
Chief Minister Cavour accomplished the goal by being adaptable and embracing diplomatic tactics.
In addition, Cavour took the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
In 1860, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi marched into South Italy and
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
They attained success in winning the support of peasants. Thus, Spanish rulers were overthrown.
Finally, On 17th March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became first king of unified Italy.
The Strange Case Of Britain:
Unlike Germany and Italy, the formation of the nation state in Britain was the result of a long drawn-out process.
There was no British nation prior to 18th century.
People who inhabited British Isles belonged to different ethnic groups- such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
They had their own cultural and political traditions.
However, as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over
other nations of Islands.
Some reasons for the formation of Britain as a nation state were:-
First, the parliament through a bloodless revolution seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
The Act of Union.
Conflicts between two different religions; Catholics and Protestants.
The Act Of Union (1707):
The Act of Union between England and Scotland held in 1707, Also known as Treaty Of Union. It was the Agreement
between English and Scottish Parliament for the creation of ‘ The Kingdom Of Great Britain’.
Gradually, this act resulted in domination of England over Scotland.
Forced incorporation of Ireland:
In Ireland, there were conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.
England took advantage by assuring help to Protestants of Ireland against Catholics. Later on, it got control over Ireland
too.
In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
Therefore, Britain actively promoted British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King) and the
English language.
Visualizing the Nation:
In 18th and 19th Centuries, Artist began to personify a nation in an allegory.
Female figure was symbolized to represent a nation state. It was mainly done to give an abstract idea of nation a
concrete form.
For Example: The French Artists (during French Revolution) used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty,
Justice, and the Republic.
They represented these ideas through specific objects or symbols. These were:-
Attributes of Liberty: Red Cap, or the broken chain.
Justice: Blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.
Similarly, other artists also invented such allegories.
Allegory of France: Marianne.
Characteristics/Attributes : The Red Cap, The Tricolor, The Cockade.
Allegory of Germany: Germania.
Attributes: A crown of oak leaves (Symbol of heroism), Sword, Olive branch around the sword and Tricolor Flag (Black,
Red and Gold), rays of rising sun, broken Chains and Breastplate with Eagle.
Nationalism and Imperialism: (1871-1900)
After 1871, there was a significant change in the concept of nationalism in Europe.
The excessive nature of Nationalism in Europe turned into imperialism.
Subsequently, Competition among nations began to take place.
Nationalism: It is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation.
Imperialism: The practice of extending power over foreign countries with the use of military forces or other means.
Nationalist groups became intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.
The major European powers began taking advantage of nationalism in Europe, to further their own imperialistic aims.
These major powers were:- Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary.
Consequently, Balkans became the center of tension. There were mainly two reasons:-
Internal Conflicts.
External Conflicts.
Before we read these two reasons in elaboration, let’s take a look over basic information about Balkans.
Balkans:
Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations.
A large part was under the control of Ottoman Empire.
This region was comprised of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
The inhabitants of this region were known as the Slavs.
Internal reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:
The spread of ideas of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire contributed to the feelings of
resistance.
One by one the European subjects broke apart and declared independence, Since the Empire had failed to modernize
and implement the internal reforms.
Moreover, they emphasized their nationality and looked back to history to claim their long-lost independence.
Consequently, these causes made Balkan an area of intense conflict.
The Balkan states became jealous of each other.
Each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.
Hence, it led to external conflicts.
External reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:
The major cause was internal conflict itself that made European powers take advantage of the situation.
For Example: Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary got attracted towards Balkans.
These powers colonized many countries.
Also, fought against each other in order to get control over Balkan regions.
Furthermore, this led to the beginning of First World War.
Development of Anti-Imperialist Movements:
Anti-imperialist movements that developed in colonies were nationalist.
Sense of collective national unity inspired these movements.
People began opposing imperialism and developed their own specific variety of nationalism.
The idea of ‘nation state’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.
 Nationalism In India
Introduction:
In this chapter we will look at the events that led Indians to form a nation state and you will
also get to learn about the fact, how the feeling of being the people of one nation developed
among all Indians. To become free from the control of the colonial govt. was a far cry for most
of the Indians, however some brave people made this possible through their efforts. They also
made ordinary people believe in themselves. Encouraged them to raise the voice for
independence. They organized anti-colonial movements with the support of the masses who
participated in the freedom struggle.
First World War, Khilafat, Non Cooperation Movement:
i) First World War- (1914-1918)
It created a new political and Economic situation.
It spread the feeling of nationalism among different groups to free the country from colonial rule.
Impact of 1st World War:
Huge increase in defense Expenditure.
Custom duties were increased and Income tax introduced.
People suffered extreme hardships due to the increase in the prices. (1913-1918)
Forced recruitment in Rural areas to supply soldiers.
After 1st World War-
In 1918-19 and 1920-21, Crop failed in many parts of India.
In 1921, 12-13 Million people died due to famines and Epidemics.
To solve the problems and improve the condition of the people of India, Gandhi ji came up
with the Idea of Satyagraha.
THE IDEA OF SATYAGRAHA :
The word “Satyagraha” originated from the Sanskrit words Satya- “truth” and agraha- “polite
insistence“, or “holding firmly to”. Since Gandhi’s understanding and faith was in non-violence.
Satyagraha was a novel method of mass agitation that emphasized upon the power of truth
and the need to search for truth in order to fight against injustice without using physical force.
In 1915:
Mahatma Gandhi Returned India from South Africa. He organized three Satyagraha
Movements: 1916, 1917, 1918
In 1916, Several leaders from Bihar (at the first meeting of the Congress at
Lucknow) approached M.K. Gandhi with a request to start a movement against the atrocities
on farmers in Champaran.
1917 – Champaran (Bihar)
To help the peasants (plantation workers) against the oppressive plantation system.
1917 – Kheda District (Gujarat)
To support the peasants as they were unable to pay high revenue demanded by the Britishers.
1918 – Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
To help cotton Mill workers because prices had gone up and the mill workers were demanding higher
wages in Ahmedabad. However the mill owners refused to pay high wages and bonuses to the workers
of the mill.
They were demanding higher wages and better working conditions.
Since all movements were successful, Gandhi ji decided to launch a nationwide Satyagraha
against Rowlatt Act.
In 1919:
Nationwide Satyagraha for Rowlatt Act.
Rowlatt Act / Black Act:
The Anarchical and Revolutionary crimes of 1919 (popularly known as the Rowlatt Act.) by
British India. The Act curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and
strengthened police powers. It gave British officers enough power to repress any political
activities and put leaders in prison for 2 years without any trial.
Non-violent civil disobedience against (Rowlatt Act) unjust law:
It began with a hartal on 6 April.
Rallies were organized in various cities.
Workers went on strikes in railway workshops.
Shops were closed.
This led British administration take action:
On 10th April 1919 :
In Amritsar, Punjab:
officials arrested two nationalist leaders- Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satya Pal under the infamous
Rowlatt Act.
And they even arrested Mahatma Gandhi while he was going to Punjab against the Rowlatt Act.
On the same day (April 10), police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession.
This provoked widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations.
To see that, General Dyer implemented the Martial Law.
Martial Law :
Army control power in place of local police in emergency situation.( Military Govt.)
No more than two people could form a group and meet at a place.
April 13, 1919
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:
People did not know about Martial law being imposed as the place was away from the city.
Some people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures while some people
had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair.
General Dyer entered there. He ordered to block the exit points and started open fire in order to strictly
enforce Martial Law
In this, hundreds of people died.
Raged people started protesting:
Crowed took to the streets in many north Indian towns.
They went for strikes.
began to fight with the police.
They attacked Government Buildings.
Government began terrorizing people:
People were beaten.
and had to face humiliation.
Villages were bombed.
In viewing this, Gandhiji called off the Movement.
Limitations:
Rowlatt Satyagraha was limited to towns and cities.
Gandhi ji thought of conducting a broad Movement. Thus felt the need of bringing Hindu and Muslim
come together.
then they started Khilafat Movement
ii) Khilafat Issue: (1919 – 1924)
In the 1st World War Ottoman Turkey was defeated. Rumors were there that a harsh treaty would be
imposed on the Khalifa (the spiritual head of the Islamic world).
To defend this, Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay headed by two brothers Muhammad Ali
and Shaukat Ali.
Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali went to meet Gandhi ji, he saw this as an opportunity to bring Hindu
and Muslim together.
At the Calcutta session of the congress in September 1920 Gandhi ji convinced other leaders.
N.C.M. was started in support of Khilafat and for Swaraj.
iii) Why ‘Non Cooperation Movement’?
According to Gandhiji, British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians. If Indians
refuse to cooperate , British rule will end within a year. and India would become Independent.
Gandhi ji had written about this in his book Hind Swaraj.
Non Cooperation Movement ( 1 August 1920 – February 1922)
Mahatma Gandhi proposed that the movement should unfold in stages:-
He said, It should begin with the surrender of titles that Government awarded,
and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, Foreign goods.
They would also launch a full civil disobedience campaign in case the government used repression.
Earlier, Congress did not support N.C.M. because:-
Council’s election was scheduled in November 1920. They were of the view that if they would come to
power they could defend and make changes in Policies, created by the British.
Non Cooperation Movement would create popular violence.
Finally in the congress session held at Nagpur in December 1920, N.C.M. was adopted.
Differing Strands within the Movement:
January 1921:
Non cooperation Khilafat Movement was started.
Various social groups participated in this movement.
For each social group, the meaning of the term ‘swaraj’ was different as everyone had different issues.
TOWNS COUNTRYSIDE (Villages) PLANTATIONS
Towns : (Middle Class participated and began the movement from cities)
Thousands of students left government controlled schools and colleges.
Headmasters and teachers resigned.
Lawyers gave up their legal practices.
The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.
Foreign goods were boycotted.
Liquor shops were picketed and burnt all foreign clothes.
Who did not participate in this movement?
Non-Brahmans did not take part as they felt that entering the council was the only way to gain some
power.
Effects:
Import of foreign cloths halved between 1921 and 1922. Imports of goods (cloth) decreased from 102
crores to 57 crores.
Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
People began discarding imported clothes and began wearing Indian clothes (khadi).
Production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.
But this movement gradually slowed down due to many reasons.
Reasons:
Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not
afford to buy it. So they had to wear foreign clothes.
Indian Institutions were slow to come up as there were no alternative Indian Institutions so students
and teachers joined back government schools and colleges.
Lawyers rejoined in government courts.
Countryside: (Peasants and Tribal people)
Peasants:
In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra. He was a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an
indentured laborer.
The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rent and asked to do
begar (compulsory Labor without payment).
Demands of Peasants:
They demanded a reduction of Revenue.
Abolition of Begar.
Social Boycott of oppressive landlords.
In protest against talukdars and landlords :
In many places, Panchayats organized nai-dhobi bandhs to deprive landlords from the services like
washerman and barbar.
Peasants attacked the houses of Talukdars and Merchants.
They Looted bazaars, and took over grain hoards .
The local leaders used Mahatma Gandhi ‘s name to fulfill their aspirations.
June 1920:
Jawaharlal Nehru began going around the villages in Awadh where he talked to villagers to
understand their grievances.
October 1920:
Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra (the leader of peasants in Awadh) and few others set up Oudh
Kisan Sabha.
It helped integrate the peasants in the N.C.M.
Tribal People:
In Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant Guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s.
Problems faced by tribal people:
The Colonial Government closed the forest area.
They could not graze their cattle or collect their fuel wood.
Changes affected their lives badly.
They felt that their traditional rights were being denied by the British government.
They were also forced to do Begar for building roads.
Consequence:
The Guerrilla Movement started, led by Alluri Sitaram Raju.
He claimed that he had special powers to make astrological predictions, heal people and he could
even survive bullet shots.
Gandhi’s Non Cooperation Movement was an inspiration for him.
He told people to wear Khadi and give up drinking.
However, he believed that India could be liberal only by force, not by Non-Violence.
Guerrilla Movement:
Rebels attacked police stations.
They Attempted to kill British officials.
In 1924:
Alluri Sitaram Raju was captured and executed.
Overtime he became a folk hero.
Plantation Workers:
Under the inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not allowed to leave the tea garden
without permission.
When they heard of N.C.M. They interpreted in their own way and thousands of workers left the
plantation and headed home.
They Believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.
But they could not reach their destination and were beaten by Police.
Everyone interpreted Swaraj in their own ways. They started imagining that all suffering and
troubles would be over. The slogan ‘Swatantra Bharat’ further added to their emotions.
4 February, 1922: (Chauri Chaura Incident)
At Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of the united provinces in British India : Modern Uttar
Pradesh
A peaceful demonstration in the bazaar turned into a violent clash with the police.
Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Towards Civil Disobedience:
In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement as it
was becoming violent in many places.
He felt satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles.
Some leaders in Congress were tired of mass struggle.
They wanted to participate in elections so that they could oppose British policies and argue for reform.
On 1st January 1923, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj party to argue for a return to
council politics.
But Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose did not participate as they thought India would get
full Independence by mass struggle only.
Two factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s:-
World Wide Economic Depression:
Agricultural prices began to fall in 1926 and collapsed after 1930.
As the export of Agricultural goods declined, peasants found it difficult to sell their harvest crops and
pay their Revenue.
2. Britain set up a statutory commission under Sir John Simon in response to the nationalist
movements.
It was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system of India and suggest changes.
But the problem was that there were all Britishers in the commission.
When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon’.
All parties including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations.
In October, 1929
The Viceroy, Lord Irwin, announced a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India. He arranged a
round table conference to discuss the future constitution. However, this did not satisfy the
Congress leaders.
In December, 1929
Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the demand
of ‘Purna Swaraj’ It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as an
Independence day although it attracted very little attention. Mahatma Gandhi had to find a
way to relate this abstract idea of freedom to more concrete issues of everyday life.
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement
On 31st January 1930, Gandhiji sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin in which he had stated 11 demands.
Some of these were of general interests and others were specific demands of different classes, from
industrialists to peasants.
The Idea was to make demands wide ranging so that all classes within Indian society could be united.
Some demands were:
Abolition of salt tax.
Look into land Revenue.
However, Viceroy did not accept Gandhiji’s demands.
On 11th March 1930
Gandhi with other leaders gave an ultimatum, if demands were not fulfilled then congress
would launch Civil Disobedience Movement (C.D.M). Despite that, Irwin was reluctant to
Negotiate. As a consequence, Gandhi ji had to take the steps further:-
Gandhi ji selected salt. As salt was something consumed by both rich and poor and everyone had to
pay tax to the Government for it.
Government had a monopoly over salt production, others could not produce.
On 12th March 1930, Gandhi started his Dandi March.
Dandi March:
Salt March accompanied by 78 trusted Volunteers of Mahatma Gandhi.
They walked about 390 Km.
They started to walk from Sabarmati to Dandi.
On 6th April, they reached Dandi.
Violated the law and manufactured salt by boiling water.
This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
How C.D.M. was different from N.C.M.?
N.C.M. : Don’t cooperate with the British.
C.D.M. : Not only they refused cooperation but also broke colonial laws.
Thousands of people in different parts of India broke salt law.
People started boycotting Foreign clothes.
They also picketed liquor shops.
Peasants refused to pay the ‘Chaukidari tax’.
Furthermore, Forest people violated forest laws. They started going to reserved forests for collecting
fuel wood and grazing their cattle.

Non-Cooperation Civil Disobedience

Movement Movement

1. It started on 12
1. It was launched
March, 1930 with the
on 5 September
beginning of salt
1920
satyagraha.

2. Its aim was to

2. It aimed at attaining
paralyze the British
Purna Swaraj by
government by
breaking the laws made
boycotting their
by British government.
goods and services.

3. NCM was the 3.Gandhiji launched

outcome of Rowlatt CDM because Lord
Act and Jallianwala Irwin ignored Gandhi’s
Bagh Massacre. eleven demands.

4. Violent clashes in
4. Gandhiji called off
different parts (due to
NCM due to violent
the arrest of leaders) of
incident at Chauri
India made Gandhiji call
Chaura.
off the Movement.

5. Women did not

5. Women participated
participate in large
in large scale.
scale.

6. It ended in 6. It ended on April 7,

February 1922. 1934.

Colonial Government:
Worried by the developments, the colonial government began arresting the congress leaders
one by one. Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Gandhi ji were also arrested. Angry crowds
demonstrated in the streets and industrial workers attacked police posts, municipal buildings,
law courts and railway stations- all structures that symbolized British Rule.
Government Responded with the policy of brutal repression
The British Government attacked peaceful people.
They beat Women and children.
Also, they arrested about 100,000 people.
Due to this, Gandhi ji once again decided to call off the movement on January 25, 1931 and
entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931.
Gandhi – Irwin Pact :
In this, Gandhi consented to participate in a round table conference in London.( the Congress had
boycotted The first Round Table Conference) and the government agreed to release the political
prisoners.
In December 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down and he
returned disappointed.
After returning back, he saw Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in Jail.
The British government declared congress illegal.
After that, Gandhi ji relaunched C.D.M. (we can call this C.D.M. II) but it lost its momentum by 1934.
How Participants saw the Movement:
Rich Peasants:
( Patidars of Gujarat, Jats of Uttar Pradesh)
Being producers of commercial crops, they were hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices.
As their income disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the govt. revenue.
They became enthusiastic supporters of CDM and participated in boycott programmes .
For them the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues.
However, they were deeply disappointed when CDM was called off in 1931 without revenue rates
revised.
So, when CDM II started in 1932, many of them refused to participate.
Poor Peasants:
Small tenants cultivated on landlord’s rented land.
As the depression continued and cash income diminished, small farmers found it difficult to pay their
revenue.
Their demand was to remit (cancel) their unpaid rent by landlords.
Although, Congress did not support this “No rent Campaigns” as this might upset landlords.
Business Class:
During the First World War, Indian Merchants and Industrialists had made huge profits and became
powerful but colonial policies restricted business activities. So, they wanted such policies which
supported them.
They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods.
Indian Industrial and commercial congress in 1920 and federation of Indian Chamber of commerce
and industries (FICCI) in 1927. Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and
Ghanshyam Das Birla.
They gave financial assistance to C.D.M and refused to buy and sell imported goods.
Most Businessmen came to see swaraj as a time when colonial restriction on business would no longer
exist.
However, failure of the Round Table Conference made them feel less enthusiastic.
Industrial Working Class:
They did not participate in CDM in large numbers except in the Nagpur region.
Those who participated, adapted Gandhian programmes, like boycotting foreign goods as a part of
their own movement against low wages and poor working conditions.
Railway workers did strikes, mine workers (in Chotanagpur tin mines) wore Gandhi caps. They also
participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns.
However, Congress was reluctant to support the worker’s demand as industrialists would not like it.
Women’s Participation:
During the Dandi March, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to Gandhi ji.
They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
Many went to jail.
In Urban areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas they came from rich
peasant households.
Moved by Gandhiji’s call, they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.
However, for a long time the congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority
within the organization.
The Limits of Civil Disobedience:
Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of Swaraj.
Congress had ignored dalits and depressed class, for the fear of offending the conservative high class
Hindus.
From the mid 1920s, Congress was most visible as Hindu dominating party because they joined Hindu
Mahasabha. So Muslim started keeping away.
M.D. Ali Jinnah demanded separate Electorate for Muslim as he feared that the culture and identity of
Minorities would be lost.
Muslim league was established in 1920. It gave a vital blow to the united struggle.
The Industrial working class did not participate in large numbers except Nagpur Region.
Poona Pact:
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was nominated as leader of the oppressed class from a round table conference.
He clashed with Gandhi (in the second round table conference), demanding separate electorate for
dalits.
The British accepted Ambedkar’s demand. Gandhi ji began fast unto death. He believed that
a separate Electorate for Dalits would slow down the process of integration of society.
The Poona Pact was signed in September 1932. It gave depressed class reserved seats in provincial
and central legislative councils but they were to vote by General Electorates.
The Sense of Collective Belonging:
How people developed a sense of collective belonging?
United Struggle: Everyone wanted to throw the British Raj out of India.
Cultural process: History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in
the making of nationalism.
Bharat Mata: (symbol) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhya depicted the idea of symbol in his book to
raise patriotic feelings among Hindus. He also composed the national song ‘Vande Mataram’. Later
included this hymn in the novel ‘Anandmath’.
Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata.
Rabindranath Tagore began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths.
The sense of collective belonging also developed from Indian folklore.
Natesa Sastri published a massive four volume collection of Tamil folk tales. (Folk of the Southern
India)
During The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal, a tricolor Indian flag was designed (red, green and yellow).
It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing
Hindus and Muslims.
Gandhiji had designed the tricolor Swaraj Flag (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the
center, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.
Reinterpretation of History: British saw Indians as backward and incapable of governing themselves,
Indians saw their history as the greatest Achievement.

3.The Making of a Global World

Introduction:
The world which we term as a ‘global village’ is the outcome of a long history. Through
this, we came across different phases which resulted in interconnectedness of the entire
world. So, this chapter will take you to the journey of globalization. We will study how the
economic, political and cultural closeness took place over time. Let’s discuss the
premodern world first.
1. The Pre-Modern World:
The Pre-Modern Era lasted till the 18th century.
From ancient times, people traveled vast distances for different purposes.
For Example: Priests traveled for knowledge, traders for opportunities and pilgrims for spiritual
fulfillment.
They carried goods, money, values, skills, ideas, inventions and even germs and diseases.
Goods: The trade link between Indus Valley Civilization and West Asia is the evidence of globalization in
the past. Since, it linked both of them till 3000 BCE.
Money: Maldives, China and East Africa used cowries (Seashells) as a form of currency for more than a
thousand year.
Disease: Furthermore, we can trace the spread of diseases to the 7th century.
The pre modern world is divided into three parts;
Silk Routes link the world.
Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potatoes.
Conquest, Diseases and Trade.
1 A. Silk Routes Link The World:
The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant
parts of the world.
Trade through silk routes:-
Historians identified many silk routes over the sea and on the land which connected Asia, Europe and
Northern Africa.
It is believed that it existed since before the Christian Era and thrived till the 15th Century.
Moreover, Chinese pottery, textiles and spices of India & Southeast Asia travelled through these routes
for trading with Europe.
In return, they used to get precious metals- gold and silver from Europe.
Cultural exchange through silk routes:-
Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Since, trade helped people to share their
ideas, food and teachings.
Christian missionaries, Muslim and Buddhist preachers used these routes to spread their teachings.
1 B. Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato:
Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange.
Traders and travelers introduced new crops to the lands they traveled.
Take for instance, noodles and Spaghetti. It is believed that noodles traveled west from China and
became spaghetti.
Another example we can take is of Pasta (the Italian dish).
In the 16th Century, Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered the Americas. It was after that
many of our common foods such as Potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet
potatoes and so on came to be known.
It created a new difference between life and death because:-
On one hand, the introduction of potatoes led the poor population of Europe to eat better.
On the other hand, peasants of Ireland became so dependent on potatoes that when disease
destroyed crops in the mid 1840s, many died due to starvation.
1 C. Conquest, Disease and Trade:
‘Asia’ Before and After 16th Century :-
In the 16th Century, European sailors found a sea route to Asia and America (For trade).
For centuries before, Maximum trading would run mainly in the Indian Ocean.
The Indian Subcontinent was a crucial point in their network.
However, after the entry of Europeans, the flow of trade expanded and shifted towards Europe.
‘Americas’ Before and After 16th Century :-
Before the 16th Century, America had been cut off from the entire world.
But after its discovery, its vast lands, abundant crops and minerals began to transform trade and lives
everywhere.
For Example:- Peru and Mexico had silver mines which Europeans began to use for trading purposes
with Asia. It helped Europeans in growing their wealth.
In the 17th Century, When Europeans heard about an imaginary place ‘El Dorado’, they set off in search
of El Dorado which was also known as the city of gold.
In the 16th Century, Portuguese and Spanish decided to take decisive action on conquest over
America.
Germs such as smallpox (instead of firepower) became the most powerful weapon of Europeans. It is
because:-
American inhabitants had no immunity (due to isolation) against these diseases that came from
Europe.
However, Europeans were already immune to such a disease.
As a consequence, conquest became much easier.
‘Europe’ Before 19th Century:
Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe.
Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread.
Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters had to face persecution.
As a result, thousands of people fled from Europe to America.
‘Africa’ till 18th Century:
Europeans captured Africans and made them slaves.
Therefore, Africans had to do plantation work of cotton and sugar in America for European markets.
‘India and China’ till 18th Century:
India and China were among the world’s richest countries.
They were pre-eminent in Asian trade.
However after the 15th Century, China stopped overseas trading. Hence, less involvement in the trade
affairs paved the way for Europeans to emerge as the center of world trade.

Print Culture and the Modern World

Introduction:
It is difficult for us to imagine a world without printed matter. We find evidence of print everywhere
around us – in books, journals, newspapers, prints of famous paintings, cinema posters etc. It has
become so common that we take it for granted. However, it has a major role in the making of the
contemporary world. Do you know print also has an interesting history? So, let’s discuss it through this
chapter.

1. The First Printed Books:

• The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
• This was the system of hand printing.

China:

• The Chinese developed a form of printing using carved wooden blocks. This printing
technique was known as block printing.
• From AD 594 onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper against the inked
surface of woodblocks.
• The traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side, since the
sheet was thin and porous.
• To copy down writing in a beautiful manner, there were skilled craftsmen. This artistic style is
called calligraphy.
• Moreover, Imperial China remained the major producer of printed material for a long time.
• China possessed a huge bureaucratic system which recruited its personnel through civil
service examinations.
• Textbooks printed in vast numbers for this examination under the sponsorship of
the imperial state.
• Although, from the 16th century, the number of candidates went up and that
increased the volume of print.
Diversification in the uses of print:

• By the 17th Century, not only scholar-officials but there were some other groups as well who
also started using print in their everyday life.
• For example: Merchants used prints to collect trade information.
• Rich women began to read and many women began publishing their poetry and
plays.
• Wives of scholar-officials published their works and courtesans wrote about
their lives.
• The new readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of
literary masterpieces, and romantic plays.

Influence of Western technology on reading culture:

• New technology of the west developed a new reading culture in China.

• Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported in the late
19th century as Western powers established their outposts in China.
• Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture, catering the Western style
Schools.
• There was a gradual shift from hand printing to mechanical printing.

1 A. Print in Japan:

• Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around
AD 768-770.
• The oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing six
sheets of text and woodcut illustrations.
• Japanese people began printing pictures on textiles, playing cards and paper money also.
• In medieval Japan, many poets and prose writers came and published their works.
• Books were cheap and abundant.

The new visual culture in print:

• In the late 18th century, the flourishing urban circles at Edo (present day Tokyo) depicted an
elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans, and tea house gatherings.
• In Libraries and bookstores, hand printed material of various types was available now.
• For example: Books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony,
flower arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.

2. Print Comes to Europe:

• For centuries, silk and spices from China flowed into Europe through the silk route.
• In the 11th century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the same route.
• Paper made possible the production of manuscripts, carefully written by scribes.
A great explorer : Marco Polo

• In 1295, Marco Polo, a great explorer, returned to Italy after many years of exploration in
China.
• He brought the knowledge of woodblock printing from China back with him.
• Now Italians too started producing books with woodblocks, and soon the technology spread
to other parts of Europe.
• There was class wise division of paper.
• Luxury editions were still handwritten on very expensive vellum, meant for
aristocratic circles and monastic libraries
• Whereas, merchants and students in university towns bought the cheaper printed
copies.

Book market of Europe:

• As the demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe began exporting books to
many different countries.
• Book fairs took place at different places.
• To meet the growing demand, new ways of production of handwritten manuscripts were
organized.
• For Example: Producers started producing hand manuscripts in large quantities.
Also, they sold cheap as well as expensive scripts.
• Moreover, booksellers increasingly employed scribes and skilled hand writers.
• Note: Earlier, only wealthy people employed scribes and skilled hand writers.
• More than 50 scribes often worked for one bookseller.

Limitations of the handwritten manuscripts:

1. The production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever-increasing demand
for books.
2. Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business.
3. Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle, and could not be carried around or read
easily. Their circulation therefore remained limited.

With the growing demand for books, woodblock printing gradually became more and more popular.
By the early 15th century, Europeans widely used wood blocks to print textiles, playing cards, and
religious pictures with simple, brief texts. However, soon they realized the need for even quicker and
cheaper reproduction of texts.

2 A. Gutenberg and the Printing Press:

• At Strasbourg, Germany, Johann Gutenberg (a German inventor) developed the first known
mechanical printing press in the 1430’s.
• Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate.
 • From his childhood, he had seen wine and olive presses. Subsequently, he learnt
the art of polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the
expertise to create lead molds used for making trinkets.
• The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and molds were used for
casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
• The first book (in 1448) Gutenberg printed was the Bible.
• It took three years to produce about 180 copies.
• While printing books, he kept the taste and requirement of the consumers.
• Printing books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout.
• The metal letters imitated the ornamental handwritten styles.
• Also, they always left the borders unfilled and decorated by hand.
• Each purchaser could choose the design and decide on the painting
school that would do the illustrations.
• In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, most European countries set up printing
presses.
• Printers from Germany traveled to other countries, seeking work and helping start new
presses.
• As the number of printing presses grew, book production boomed.
• For Example: From 20 million copies of printed books in the second half of the 15th
century to 200 million copies in the 16th century.

3. The Print Revolution and its impact:

The Print Revolution transformed the lives of people, changed their relationship to information and
knowledge. It influenced popular perceptions and opened up new ways of looking at things.

3 A. A New Reading Public:

• Printing press led to the emergence of a new reading public.

• Printing reduced the cost as well as time and labor required to produce each book.
• Multiple copies could be produced with greater ease.
• Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever-growing readership.
• Access to books created a new culture of reading.
• For example: Earlier, knowledge among common people was transferred orally.
Only the elite class had access to reading. Now, a wider section of people could
read due to sufficient quantity and cheapness.

However, the transition was not so simple.

• Books could be read only by the literate, and the rates of literacy in most European countries
were very low till the 20th century.
• In order to make even illiterate masses purchase books, publishers tried several ways.
• They began publishing popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be
profusely illustrated with pictures.
 • These were then sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in taverns in
towns.

Thus, the hearing public and reading public became intermingled.

3 B. Religious Debates and the Fear of Print:

• Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas, and introduced a new world of
debate and discussion.
• Even those who disagreed with established authorities could now print and circulate their
ideas.
• Print made it easy for people to convey their ideas and persuade people to think differently.

The fear of Print:

• Many people were apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to the printed world
and the wider circulation of books could have on people’s minds.
• Religious authorities, monarchs, as well as many writers and artists were anxious and
criticized the new printed literature.
• They feared that if there was no control over what was printed and read then
rebellious and irreligious thoughts might spread. If this happens the authority of
‘valuable literature’ would be destroyed.

Implication of print revolution in religious sphere of life in early Modern Europe:

• In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote ‘Ninety Five Theses‘ criticizing many of the
practices of rituals of the Roman Catholics Church.
• He posted one printed copy on a church door in Wittenberg (Germany). It challenged the
Church to debate his ideas.
• Vast number of people liked his ideas and read his book. This led to a division within the
Church and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
• Luther’s translation of the New Testament sold 5000 copies within a few weeks and a second
edition appeared within a three months.
• Deeply grateful to print, Luther said, ‘Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest
one,’
• According to several scholars, print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and
helped spread the new ideas that led to the Reformation.

3 C. Print and Dissent:

• Even little educated people started writing books and gave their own interpretation of faith.
• For example: In the 16th century, Menocchio, a miller in Italy, reinterpreted the
message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation.
• Although, this attempt enraged the Roman Catholic Church.
 • As a result, the Roman Church began its inquisition to repress heretical ideas.
They hauled Menocchio twice and ultimately executed.
• In order to protect the religious dominance of Catholic Church, they began to
maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

4. The Reading Mania:

• Through the 17th and 18th centuries, literacy rates went up in most parts of Europe.
• Churches of different denominations set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to peasants
and artisans.
• By the end of the 18th century, in some parts of Europe literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80
percent. This led to the development of virtual reading mania.
• Now people started demanding books of different contents.
• To target new audiences, producers also began printing new forms of popular
literature.
• Booksellers employed peddlers who roamed around villages, carrying little books
for sale.
• There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales.
• Entertainment began to reach ordinary readers as well.
• For Example: In England, petty peddlers (known as chapmen) used to
carry penny chapbooks.
• In France, there were ‘bibliotheque Bleue’, small sized low priced books
available for even ordinary readers.
• There were the romances, printed on four to six pages.
• Books were of various sizes, serving many different purposes and interests.
• The periodical press developed from the early 18th century, combining
information about current affairs with entertainment.
• Newspapers and journals carried information about wars, and trade, as well as
news of developments in other places.
• Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more accessible
to the common people.
• For Example: When Scientists like Issac Newton began to publish their
discoveries, they could influence scientifically minded readers.
• Likewise, the writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and
Jean Jacques Rousseau developed new ideas in readers’ minds.
• So, we can conclude that the age of enlightenment came into being due to these changes
in print culture.

4 A. ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the World!’

• Many people believed that the books could change the world, liberate society from
despotism and tyranny, and there will be a time when reason and intellect would rule.
• Louis-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century France, declared: ‘The
printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion is the
force that will sweep despotism away.’
 • Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world! Tremble before the
virtual writer!’

4 B. Print Culture and the French Revolution

• Many historians have argued that print culture created the conditions within which the
French Revolution occurred. Three types of arguments were:-
1. Print popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers: writings of great
thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau provided a critical commentary on tradition,
superstition and despotism. They argued for the rule of reason rather than
custom. They attacked the sacred authority of the Church and the despotic
power of the state. Thus, their ideas made people think rationally.
2. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate: People re-evaluated and
discussed all the values, norms and institutions. They became aware of the power
of reason, and recognized the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. As a
consequence, new ideas of social revolution came into being.
3. Outpouring of Literature that mocked the royalty and criticized their
morality: Many cartoonists began printing cartoons and caricatures. Through
which they suggested that monarchy remained absorbed only in sensual
pleasures whereas common people suffered immense hardships. This led to
hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
• Since books which favored monarchy and church were also available in the market, people
did not get influenced by what they read or saw, they made their own interpretation.
• Therefore, print did not directly shape people’s minds but it opened up the possibility of
thinking differently.

5. The Nineteenth Century:

• Mass literacy led to the addition of new readers such as children, women and workers in
Europe.

5 A. Children, Women and Workers:

• Children: Children emerged as a new significant readers.

• From the late 19th century, several changes paved the way for new readers to
appear. As primary education became compulsory, children became an
important category of readers.
• Thus, production of school textbooks became critical for the publishing industry.
• Moreover, in 1857, The children’s press was also set up in France.
This press published new works as well as old fairy tales and folktales.
•
• There is another example of Grimm Brothers in Germany who spent years
compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. Although they modified
the old tale by not including unsuitable and vulgar things.
• Women: Readership developed among women also. They too became important readers
and writers.
 • Penny Magazines came into the market, especially for women.
• These magazines were regarding proper behavior and housekeeping.
• In the 19th century, people began to write novels as well.
• As the readership of women increased, publishers began producing novels for
women.
• Some of the best known novelists were women: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters,
George Eliot.
• Their writings became important in defining a new type of woman: a
person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to
think.

• Workers:
• In the 19th century, in England, lending libraries became instruments for educating
white collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class people.
• When the self educated working class got access to reading and a little free time
from work, they began writing autobiographies, political thoughts etc.

5 B. Further Innovations:

• Gradually, many changes took place in the printing press.

• By the late 18th century, the press came to be made out of metal.
• Through the 19th century, there were a series of further innovations in printing
technology.
• For Example: The power driven cylindrical press of Richard M. Hoe (He
was from New York).
• This was capable of printing 8000 sheets per hour. This press was
particularly useful for printing newspapers.
• In the late 19th century, when the offset press developed, it made it
possible for printers to print up to six colors at a time.
• In the 20th century, the electric press took the place of mechanical
press.
• These innovations accelerated printing operations in several ways:-
• Method of feeding paper improved.
• The quality of plates became better.
• Automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the color
register were introduced.
• Thus, these improvements changed the world of printing.

New strategies of Printers and publishers:

• Printers and publishers continuously developed new strategies to sell their product.
• Periodicals serialized important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of
writing.
• In the 1920’s, in England, sellers sold popular works in cheap series, called the
Shilling Series.
 • They also innovated dust cover or the book jacket.
• When the Great Depression came in 1930’s, publishers brought out cheap
paperback editions. As they wanted to sustain buying.

6. India and the World of Print:

• Now think, what would be the case of India before the age of print? Well, if you don’t know
then read the given topic below.

6 A. Manuscripts Before the Age of Print:

• India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts– in Sanskrit, Arabic,
Persian as well as in various vernacular languages.
• Here are some features of manuscripts.
1. Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
2. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
3. They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure
preservation.
4. Manuscripts were highly expensive and fragile.
5. They had to be handled carefully.
6. They could not be read easily as the script was written in different styles.
• Due to these reasons, people did not use manuscripts in their everyday life.
• However, Pre-colonial Bengal had developed an extensive network of village primary
schools.
• Student did not read texts. They only learnt to write.
• Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down.

6 B. Print Comes to India:

• The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth
century.
• Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts.
• By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in Konkani and in Kanara languages.
• By 1710, Dutch Protestant had printed 32 Tamil texts.
• Often they translated the older works.

Do you know?

• In 1579, Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book at Cochin.

• They also printed the first Malayalam book in 1713.

Note: The English language press did not grow in India till quite late even though the English East India
Company began to import presses from the late 17th century.
The Bengal Gazette: The first English language newspaper in India.

• The person who began English printing in India was James Augustus Hickey.
• From 1780, he began to edit the Bengal Gazette.
• It was a weekly magazine that described itself as ‘a commercial paper open to all, but
influenced by none’.
• It was a private English enterprise which was independent from colonial influence.
• Hickey published a lot of advertisements, including those that related to the
import and sale of slaves.
• He also published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior officials in India.

However, this made the Governor-General Warren Hasting enraged. Thus, he persecuted Hickey and
encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers.

• By the end of the 18th century, a number of newspapers and journals appeared in print.
• Indians too began to publish Indian newspapers.
• For Example: Gangadhar Bhattacharya published a Bengali weekly newspaper
named Bengal Gazetti.

7. Religious Reform and Public Debates:

• From the early 19th century, intense debates on religious issues began to occur.
• These debates carried out in public or in print.
• Different groups interpreted the changes within colonial society in different ways.
• Some criticized existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others
countered the arguments of reformers.
• Here also, print played a role in introducing debate and discussion. Let us understand how.
• Printed tracts and newspapers spread the new ideas and shaped the nature of
the debate.
• A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express
their views.
• New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinion.

7 A. Print affects the society:

A. Social and religious reformers V/s Hindu orthodoxy:

• Print led to intense controversies between social and religious reformers and Hindu
orthodoxy.
• They often debated on some delicate matters of society such as widow
immolation (sati), monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry.
• For example: In Bengal, debate caused the increase in tracts and newspapers
which circulated a variety of arguments.
• Furthermore, they used to print their ideas in spoken language of ordinary people.
 • For example: Raja Rammohum Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821.
And the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika.
• From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan
Nama and Shamasul Akhbar.
• Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar also appeared in 1822.

B. Ulama V/s Colonial rulers:

• In north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties.
• Muslims had fear that colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim
personal laws.
• To counter this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu
translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious newspapers and tracts.
• In 1867, the Deoband Seminary published thousands of fatwas telling Muslim readers how to
conduct themselves in their everyday lives and explaining the meanings of Islamic
doctrines.
• All these Muslim sects and seminaries came with different interpretation of faith and tried to
counter their opponents by using Urdu print.

C. Impact of print on Hindus:

• Print encouraged reading of religious texts 1 among Hindus, especially in the vernacular
languages.
• For example: The first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a 16th
century text, came out from Calcutta in 1810.
• By the mid 19th century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. Thus, this
made the print affordable for more people.
• From 1880’s the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar
Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars.
• Religious texts could be read out to large groups of illiterate men and women. It led to the
spread of religious texts among masses. Therefore, these texts encouraged discussions,
debates and controversies within and among different religions.
• Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions 2 amongst communities,
but it also connected communities and people 3 in different parts of India.

8. New Forms of Publication:

• Printing created an appetite for a new kinds of writing.
• As more and more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives, experiences,
emotions and relationships reflected in what they read. Hence, novel writing began in India
to cater the need.

Note: The culture of Novels which developed in Europe, also came to India. However, Indian writers
wrote novels in their Indian forms and styles.
 • Other literary forms also entered the world of reading- lyrics, short stories, essays about
social and political matters.

A new visual culture:

• By the end of the 19th century, new visual culture emerged. Since the number of printing
presses were increasing, it became easy to reproduce multiple copies of visual images.
• For Example: Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass circulation.
• This visual culture also provided employment to poor wood engravers.
• Since cheap prints and calendars were easily available in the bazaar (market), poor people
could also buy and decorate them on the walls of their homes or work place.
• These prints began shaping popular ideas about modernity and tradition, religion and
politics, and society and culture.
• By the 1870’s, caricatures and cartoons were published in journals and newspapers,
commenting on social and political issues.
• For example: Mocking caricature of Indians, imperial caricature, satirical caricature etc.

8 A. Women and Print:

In the mid-19th century, writings began to reflect women’s lives and feelings. Let’s understand how it
created an impact on the lives of Women.

• Liberal Hindus:
• Women’s reading increased enormously in middle-class homes.
• Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk.
• Some taught them at home.
• Some sent them to schools when women’s schools opened up in the
cities and towns.
• Many journals began carrying writings by women.
• They explained why women should be educated.
•They also carried a syllabus and attached suitable reading matter
which could be used for home based schooling.
• Conservative Hindus:
• Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims
feared that women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
• Some women resisted such beliefs.
• For example: A Muslim Girl secretly learnt to read and write in Urdu even after her
parents opposition.
• In Bengal, Rashsundari Debi secretly learnt to read and write. And later, she wrote
her autobiography ‘Amar Jiban’ in Bengali.
• Similarly, Kailashbashini Debi wrote about the experiences of women.
• Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai (from Maharashtra) wrote with passionate
anger about the miserable lives of upper-cast Hindu women, especially widows.
• In the early 20th century, the journals written or published by women became extremely
popular.
 • They discussed issues like women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage and the
national movement.

Early 20th century literature in Punjab:

• Ram Chadda published the fast-selling ‘Istri Dharam Vichar’ to teach women how to be
obedient wives.
• The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message.

Literature in Bengal:

• In Calcutta, there was Battala publication which produced cheap editions of religious tracts,
scriptures as well as obscene and scandalous literature.
• Peddlers took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their
leisure time.

8 B. Print and the Poor People:

• In 19th century, Indian markets began to sell very cheap small books. Now poor people too,
could buy and read the books.
• From the early 20th century, public libraries which were located in towns and cities,
expanded access to books.
• These libraries could be seen in prosperous village also.
• Rich local patrons set up these libraries in order to acquire prestige.

Caste and Printing:

• From the late 19th century, many writers started writing on the issues of caste discrimination.
• For Example: Jyotiba Phule wrote about the injustices of the caste system in
his ‘Gulamgiri‘ (1871). He was also known as the Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’
protest movements.
• In the 20th century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy
Naicker, better known as periyar (respected or elder in tamil), wrote powerfully on
caste. People all over India read their writings.
• As a result, many local protest movements arose.
• Journals about the caste issues began to publish in separate columns.
In these columns, they criticized the ancient scriptures and envisioned
a new and just future.
• Another example is of Kashibaba who was a cotton mill worker in Kanpur. He
wrote and published ‘Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal’ in1938 to show the links between
caste and class exploitation.
• Another Kanpur mill worker, Sudarshan Chakr wrote several poems between 1935
and 1955. Later he combined them and published a book called ‘Sacchi
Kavitayan’.
 • Note: Sudarshan Chakr was his pen name. He never mentioned his real
name.
• By the 1930’s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves,
following the example of Bombay workers.
• Social Reformers sponsored these libraries and promoted reading among workers as they
wanted to restrict excessive drinking, bring literacy and propagate the message of
nationalism.

9. Print and Censorship:

• Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was not too concerned with
censorship.
• However, when Englishmen like Augustus Hickey wrote about misrule of the Company, the
colonial government began to control printed matter.
• By the 1820’s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press
freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspapers that would
celebrate British rule.
• In 1835, when editors of English and vernacular newspapers filed petitions, Governor-
General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws.
• Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules that restored the earlier
freedom.

After The Revolt of 1857:

• The attitude to freedom of the press changed.

• Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the ‘native’ press.
• As the vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, colonial government began
to take strict measures of control.
• In 1878, the colonial government passed ‘the Vernacular Act’ also known as ‘The
Gagging Act’.
• It provided the government the extensive rights to censor reports and
editorials in the vernacular press.
• The government kept the regular track of the vernacular newspapers
published in different provinces.
• The colonial government warned the newspaper if it found any report
seditious. It could also seize the press and confiscate the machinery, if
the editor ignored the warning.
• However, these repressive measures could not stop nationalist newspapers from growing.
• Newspapers became the medium of spreading nationalistic sentiments.
• For Example: Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about the Punjab
revolutionaries in his newspaper ‘Kesari’. This led to his imprisonment in 1908,
provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.