Lecture On Leadership, Decision Making Management and Adminstration (Lea5) by Frof Rey Niño Abucay

Leadership, Decision making
management and administration

By: Rey Nino B. Abucay
Top 3 CLE 2012
Leadership – According to Keith Davis,
“Leadership is the ability to persuade
others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically. It is the human factor
which binds a group together and
motivates it towards goals.”
Other definitions:
Leadership
• is a process by which an executive can direct, guide
and influence the behavior and work of others
towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given
situation.
• is the ability of a manager to induce the subordinates
to work with confidence and zeal.
• is the potential to influence behavior of others.
• It is also defined as the capacity to influence a group
towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are
required to develop future visions, and to motivate
the organizational members to want to achieve the
visions.
Role of a Leader
Role of a Leader
Role of a Leader
Role of a Leader
Since the role of leader has been discussed
and emphasized from the above table, do
you think Importance of Leadership must
be possessed by a certain leader? Why do
you think so?
We l l , L e a d e r s h i p i s a n i m p o r t a n t
function of management which helps to
maximize efficiency and to achieve
organizational goals. The following points
justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.
Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies
and plans.
Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working.
Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for
the subordinates.
Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates.
Building morale, A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so
that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals.
Builds work environment An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable
growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into mind by a leader.
it can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with
organizational goals.
As shown from the step-ladder above, clearly it manifests the level of actions
that needs to be attained in accordance to what is required on a certain level of issues
with specific clear-cut of communications to be done by a leader of a department or
organization.
Did you wonder why the step-ladder starts with co-ordination (beginning phase) and
ends with initiates action (final phase)? Let`s check this out.
Note: Therefore, as a leader, in importance of leadership, it must start
with coordination to better build-up a proper communication to the
concerned departments as to what is really the point of the plan in
which in line with the organization and or department`s goals as a
primary concern of all. By these, the last stage to be made by the
leader is to initiate action, meaning the leader must be the first to do
an action to take the lead for the group by putting everything in usable
means to see the results of what is being planned
FAQs
1. How important is leadership?
Ans: Leadership is an important function of management which helps
to maximize efficiency and to achieve organizational goals.
2. Why the qualities of a leader must be considered?

Ans: Qualities of a leader must be considered to develop future visions,
and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the
visions.
Leadership and Management – Its
Relationship & Differences
Leadership and management are the terms that are usually
used synonymous. It is essential to understand that leadership is
an essential part of effective management.
As a crucial component of management, remarkable

leadership behavior emphasizes upon creating an environment in
which each and every employee develops and excels.
The organizations which are over managed and under-led do

not perform up to the benchmark. Leadership accompanied by
management sets a new direction and makes efficient use of
resources to achieve it. Both leadership and management are
essential for individual as well as organizational success.
Leadership and Management – Its Relationship &
Differences
a. Leader versus Manager
“Leadership and managership are two synonymous terms” is an incorrect
statement.
Leadership doesn’t require any managerial position to act as a leader.
On the other hand, a manager can be a true manager only if he has got the
traits of leader in him. By virtue of his position, manager has to provide
leadership to his group.
A manager has to perform all five functions to achieve goals:
Planning,
Organizing,
Staffing,
Directing, and
Controlling.
Differences
Leadership is a part of these functions. Leadership as a general term is not
related to managership. A person can be a leader by virtue of qualities in
him.
For example: leader of a club, class, welfare association, social
organization, etc.
Therefore, it is true to say that, “All managers are leaders, but all leaders
are not managers.”
A leader is one who influences the behavior and work of others in group
efforts towards achievement of specified goals in a given situation.
On the other hand, manager can be a true manager only if he has got traits
of leader in him. Manager at all levels are expected to be the leaders of
work groups so that subordinates willingly carry instructions and accept
their guidance. A person can be a leader by virtue of all qualities in him.
Differences
Leaders and Managers can be compared on the following basis:
Basis Manager Leader

A person becomes a manager by virtue of A person becomes a leader on basis
Origin
his position. of his personal qualities.
Manager has got formal rights in an
Formal Rights Rights are not available to a leader.
organization because of his status.
The subordinates are the followers of The group of employees whom the
Followers
managers. leader leads are his followers.
A manager performs all five functions of Leader influences people to work
Functions
management. willingly for group objectives.
A leader is required to create cordial
Necessity A manager is very essential to a concern. relation between person working in
and for organization.
Stability It is more stable. Leadership is temporary.
Differences
Leaders and Managers can be compared on the following basis:
Basis Manager Leader

Mutual Relationship All managers are leaders. All leaders are not managers.
Manager is accountable for self and subordinate`s
Accountability Leaders have no well-defined accountability.
behavior and performance.
A leader ’s concern is group goals and
Concern A manager’s concern is organizational goals.
member’s satisfaction.
Followers People follow manager by virtue of job description. People follow them on voluntary basis.
A manager can continue in office till he performs
A leader can maintain his position only
Role continuation his duties satisfactorily in congruence with
through day to day wishes of followers.
Manager has command over allocation and
distribution of sanctions. A leader has command over different
Sanctions sanctions and related task records. These
sanctions are essentially of informal nature.
Differences
Authority versus Leadership
Individuals, who do not rely on authority but lead people, are the ones who enjoy
the privilege of their ideologies and thoughts practiced by later generations long
after they are gone. Even with individuals who held positions of responsibilities,
the ones who actually led their people are the ones remembered and followed.
When dealing with adults, the sole use of authority to direct and discipline them
hardly works, leadership provides a better approach of sharing and involving thus
building rapports with followers and creating long term relationships.
Authority can hardly make people change their attitudes and behaviors
with lasting effects and results however a leader inspires followers through self
modeled ways and hence leadership displays greater effectiveness in addressing
attitudes and behaviors of people.
What is the effects of exercising the authority and showing leadership to a
certain group of people in an organization?
Ans: Exercising authority sometimes limits the approaches to arrive at solutions for
issues and problems while leadership encourages people to look beyond the
obvious and think innovatively and sometimes emerge with radical solutions.
Organizational Leadership: it`s Leadership Ethics and
Styles and Traits of Effective Leadership
a. Organizational leadership deals with both human psychology as well as expert
tactics. Organizational leadership emphasizes on developing leadership
skills and abilities that are relevant across the organizations. It means
the potential of the individuals to face the hard times in the industry
and still grow during those times.
b. Leadership Ethics
Ethics refer to the desirable and appropriate values and morals

according to an individual or the society at large. It serve as guidelines for
analyzing “what is good or bad” in a specific scenario. Correlating ethics
with leadership, we find that ethics is all about the leader’s identity and the
leader’s role.
Ethical theories on leadership talk about two main things:

(a) The actions and behavior of leaders; and
(b) the personality and character of leaders. It is essential to note
that “Ethics are an essential to leadership”.
c. Leadership Strategy
Best players in a team do not guarantee success without a great
coach, similarly, work teams may not function effectively if leaders do not
follow an appropriate leadership strategy.
To understand leadership styles here are three scenarios:
Scenario 1 - A Teacher gives a question to the class full of students, however,
solves it for them;
Scenario 2 - A Teacher gives the question to the students and observes how
students solve them;
Scenario 3 - A Teacher gives a question to the students and moves around the
class, observes the students, and helps wherever required.
Scenario 1 was “Leading from the Front”, Scenario 2 was “Supportive

Leadership Style”, and Scenario 3 was “Interactive Leadership Style”. Besides
this the leadership styles / strategies could be based on personality traits like
Directive Leadership, Structured Leadership, Intuitive Leadership, or Process
Driven leadership.
Some of the important leadership styles are as follows:

Autocratic leadership style: In this style of leadership, a leader has complete command and hold over their
employees/team. The team cannot put forward their views even if they are best for the team’s or organizational
interests. They cannot criticize or question the leader’s way of getting things done.
The Laissez Faire Leadership Style: Here, the leader totally trusts their employees/team to perform the job themselves.
He just concentrates on the intellectual/rational aspect of his work and does not focus on the management aspect of
his work.
Democrative/Participative leadership style: The leaders invite and encourage the team members to play an important
role in decision-making process, though the ultimate decision-making power rests with the leader. The leader guides
the employees on what to perform and how to perform, while the employees communicate to the leader their
experience and the suggestions if any.
Bureaucratic leadership: Here the leaders strictly adhere to the organizational rules and policies. Also, they make sure
that the employees/team also strictly follows the rules and procedures. Promotions take place on the basis of
employees’ ability to adhere to organizational rules.
Does Ethical Leadership gives credit to one`s action?

Ans: YES! It serves as guidelines for analyzing “what is good or bad” in a specific scenario
Theories of Leadership
WHAT IS THEORY?
According to Freda Adler, theory is a statement
that explains the relationship between abstract
concepts in a meaningful way.
For example, if scientists observe that criminality rates
are usually high in neighborhoods with high
unemployment rates, they might theorize that
environmental conditions influence criminal behavior
(Siegel, 2007).
1. House`s Path Goal Theory
The theory was developed by Robert House and has its roots
in the expectancy theory of motivation. The theory is based on the
premise that an employee’s perception of expectancies between his
effort and performance is greatly affected by a leader’s behavior.
House’s theory advocates servant leadership. As per servant

leadership theory, leadership is not viewed as a position of power.
Rather, leaders act as coaches and facilitators to their subordinates.
According to House’s path-goal theory, a leader’s effectiveness
depends on several employee and environmental contingent factors
and certain leadership styles.
House`s Path Goal Theory
All these are explained in the figure 1 below:
Figure 1: Path-Goal Leadership Theory
2.Contingencies
The theory states that each of these styles will be
effective in some situations but not in others. It further
states that the relationship between a leader’s style
and effectiveness is dependent on the following
variables: Employee characteristics, and Characteristics
of work environment.
The four leadership styles are:
Directive Here the leader provides guidelines, lets subordinates know what
is expected of them, sets performance standards for them, and controls
behavior when performance standards are not met. He makes judicious
use of rewards and disciplinary action. The style is the same as task-
oriented one.
Supportive The leader is friendly towards subordinates and displays personal
concern for their needs, welfare, and well-being. This style is the same as
people-oriented leadership.
Participative The leader believes in group decision-making and shares
information with subordinates. He consults his subordinates on
important decisions related to work, task goals, and paths to resolve
goals.
Achievement- The leader sets challenging goals and encourages employees to
oriented reach their peak performance. The leader believes that employees are
responsible enough to accomplish challenging goals. This is the same as
goal-setting theory
Are some people born to lead? If we look at the great leaders of

the past such as:
Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, Queen
Elizabeth I, and Abraham Lincoln, we will find that they do seem
to differ from ordinary human beings in several aspects.
The same applies to the contemporary leaders like George W.
Bush and Mahatma Gandhi.
They definitely possess high levels of ambition coupled with
clear visions of precisely where they want to go. These leaders
are cited as naturally great leaders, born with a set of personal
qualities that made them effective leaders. Even today, the belief
that truly great leaders are born is common.
According to the contemporary theorists, leaders are

not like other people. They do not need to be
intellectually genius or omniscient prophets to succeed,
but they definitely should have the right stuff which is
not equally present in all people.
This orientation expresses an approach to the study of

leadership known as the great man theory.
Assumption
• The leaders are born and not made and possess
certain traits which were inherited
• Great leaders can arise when there is a great need.
Theory on this: The great man theory of leadership

states that some people are born with the necessary
attributes that set them apart from others and that
these traits are responsible for their assuming positions
of power and authority.
A leader is a hero who accomplishes goals against all
odds for his followers.
The trait theory gives constructive information

about leadership. It can be applied by people at
all levels in all types of organizations.
Managers can utilize the information from the

theory to evaluate their position in the
organization and to assess how their position
can be made stronger in the organization.
Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Informal observation of leadership behavior suggests that
leader’s action is not the same towards all subordinates.
The importance of potential differences in this respect is

brought into sharp focus by Graen’s leader-member
exchange model, also known as the vertical dyad linkage
theory. The theory views leadership as consisting of a
number of dyadic relationships linking the leader with a
follower.
The quality of the relationship is reflected by the degree
of mutual trust, loyalty, support, respect, and obligation.
Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leaders distinguish between the in-group and out-group members on
the basis of the perceived similarity with respect to personal
characteristics, such as age, gender, or personality. A follower may also
be granted an in-group status if the leader believes that person to be
especially competent at performing his or her job. The relationship
between leaders and followers follows stages:
• Role taking: When a new member joins the organization, the leader
assesses the talent and abilities of the member and offers them
opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities.
• Role making: An informal and unstructured negotiation on work-
related factors takes place between the leader and the member. A
member who is similar to the leader is more likely to succeed. A
betrayal by the member at this stage may result in him being
relegated to the out-group
Strength of LMX Theory
LMX theory is an exceptional theory of leadership as unlike the

other theories, it concentrates and talks about specific
relationships between the leader and each subordinate.
LMX Theory is a robust explanatory theory.
LMX Theory focuses our attention to the significance of
communication in leadership. Communication is a medium
through which leaders and subordinates develop, grow and
maintain beneficial exchanges. When this communication is
accompanied by features such as mutual trust, respect and
devotion, it leads to effective leadership.
LMX Theory is very much valid and practical in it’s approach.
The Basics of Decision-making: Decision-making versus Problem-solving
(Its Characteristics and Techniques)
Decision-Making
Decision-Making is an important function of every manager. Under
planning important things like, ‘what is to be done’, ‘how it is to be done’,
when it is to be done and who is to do it are considered. In an answer to all
these questions a manager has various alternatives. When a manager
chooses the best alternative out of many available ones, it is called
decision and the process that has been adopted in order to reach the final
decision is known as the decision-making.
According to Koontz and O’Donnel, “Decision-making is the actual

selection from among alternatives of a course of action.”
While according to George R. Terry, “Decision-making is the selection

based on some criteria from two or more possible alternatives.” And as of
Louis A. Allen, “Decision-making is the work which a manager performs to
arrive at conclusion and judgement.”
Decision-Making
Decision-Making
Characteristics
1. Decision-making is based on rational thinking. The manager tries to
foresee various possible effects of a decision before deciding a
particular one.
2. It is a process of selecting the best from among alternatives
available.
3. It involves the evaluation of various alternatives available. The
selection of best alternative will be made only when pros and cons
of all of them are discussed and evaluated.
4. Decision-making is the end product because it is preceded by
discussions and deliberations.
5. Decision-making is aimed to achieve organizational goals.
6. It also involves certain commitment. Management is committed to
every decision it takes.
7. Techniques or basis for Decision-Making
Techniques or basis for Decision-Making
Decision-making has become a complex problem. A number of techniques, extending from

guessing to mathematical analyses, are used for decision-making process. The selection of an
appropriate technique depends upon the judgment of decision-maker.
Following techniques of decision-making are generally employed:
1. Intuition
Decision-making by intuition is characterized by inner feeling of the person. He takes a
decision as per the dictates of his conscious. He thinks about the problem and an answer is found
in his mind.
2. Facts
Facts are considered to be the best basis of decision-making. A decision based on facts
has its roots in factual data. Such decisions will be sound and proper. The increasing use of
computers has helped in systematic analysis of data.
3. Experience
Past experience of a person becomes a good basis for taking decisions. When a similar
situation arises then the manager can rely on his past decisions and takes similar decisions. The
person sees and understands things in terms of concepts with which he is familiar.
Techniques or basis for Decision-Making
Decision-making has become a complex problem. A number of techniques, extending from

guessing to mathematical analyses, are used for decision-making process. The selection of an
appropriate technique depends upon the judgment of decision-maker.
Following techniques of decision-making are generally employed:
4. Considered Opinions
Some managers use considered opinions as a basis for decision-making. Besides
pertinent statistics, opinions are also given due weightage. Something discussed and considered
by more persons become logical and may form a sound basis for decision-making.
5. Operation Research
The traditional methods of taking decision on the basis of intuition, experience, etc. are
replaced by systematic techniques based on analysis of data. The operations research is one of the
techniques used by modern management for deciding important matters.
6. Linear Programming
This technique is used to determine the best use of limited resources for achieving
given objectives. This method is based on this assumption that there exists a linear relationship
between variables and that the limits of variations could be ascertained.
Problem-Solving
In order to effectively manage and run a successful
organization, leadership must guide their employees and
develop problem-solving techniques.
Finding a suitable solution for issues can be accomplished by

following the basic four-step problem-solving process and
methodology outlined below.
Problem Solving Chart
Step Characteristics
1. Define the problem  - Differentiate fact from opinion
 - Specify underlying causes
 - Consult each faction involved for information
 - State the problem specifically
 - Identify what standard or expectation is violated
 - Determine in which process the problem lies
 - Avoid trying to solve the problem without data

2. Generate alternative solutions  - Postpone evaluating alternatives initially
 - Include all involved individuals in the generating of alternatives
 - Specify alternatives consistent with organizational goals
 - Specify short- and long-term alternatives
 - Brainstorm on others' ideas
 - Seek alternatives that may solve the problem

Problem Solving Chart
Step Characteristics
3. Evaluate and select an alternative  - Evaluate alternatives relative to a target standard
 - Evaluate all alternatives without bias
 - Evaluate alternatives relative to established goals
 - Evaluate both proven and possible outcomes
 - State the selected alternative explicitly

4. Implement and follow up on the  - Plan and implement a pilot test of the chosen alternative
solution
 - Gather feedback from all affected parties
 - Seek acceptance or consensus by all those affected
 - Establish ongoing measures and monitoring
 - Evaluate long-term results based on final solution

The Basics of Decision-making: Decision-making versus
Problem-solving
Q: Why problem-solving is important?

Ans: it enables us to exert control over our environment and it gives us a
mechanism for identifying these things, figuring out why they are broken and
determining a course of action to them.
Q: When decision is needed?

Ans: decision is needed when there are many alternatives to do a work. In
other words, if there is only one method of doing a work there is no need to take a
decision and in that case that method in itself is a decision.
Roles of Managers within the Organization: Interpersonal,
Informational, and Decisional
1. Interpersonal Roles:
There are three interpersonal roles inherent in the manager’s job. This set of
roles derives directly from the manager’s formal position. As the figurehead for his
unit, he stands as a symbol of legal authority, performing certain ceremonial duties
e.g., signing documents and receiving visitors.
Leader role: hires, trains, and motivates his personnel.

Liaison role: manager interacts with many people outside the immedi-ate chain of
command, those who are neither subordi-nates nor superiors.
2. Informational Roles:
Informational roles are important because informa-tion is the lifeblood of
organizations and the manager is the nerve center of his unit. As a monitor, the
manager is a receiver and collector of information. Information is acquired through
meetings, conversations, or documen-tation.
Disseminator role: managers distribute information to subordinates daily.

As a spoke-person: the manager transmits information to individuals outside the
organization. This role is present in all managerial jobs.
3. Decisional Roles:
To get the work done, managers have to make decisions. In performing the decision-making role,
man-agers act as entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator. In playing the
Entrepreneurial role: managers actively design and initiate changes within the organization. It involves some
improvements.
As a disturbance handler: the manager handles difficult prob-lems and non-routine situations such as strikes, energy
shortages etc.
As resource allocator: the manager decides how resources are distributed, and with whom he will work most closely.
As negotiator: Managers negotiate with suppliers, custom-ers, unions, individual employees, the government, and
other groups.
It is important to note that neither the functional (process) nor the role approach provides complete insight
into many aspects of a manager’s daily routine. Managers should integrate the role-oriented approach with the
traditional process approach, because it is, as Jon Pierce says, through the interpersonal, informational, and deci-sional
roles that managers execute the planning, organiz-ing, directing and controlling functions.
Other forms of Roles of Manager
Manager is responsible to integrates all the activities which are performed in
an organization. In other words, he has co-ordinate the talents of people working
under him for the purpose of achieving the organizational goals. The role of a manager
gets much importance than other executives in an organization. Hence, a manager’s
job is very much complex and requires some special qualities to be a head.
1. Director – Manager gives direction to people working under him. Direction includes
instructions. Manager has directed the executives towards achieving organizational
goals.
2. Motivator – Manager understands likes and dislikes of executives and motivates
them accordingly. Motivation stimulates the performance of job. Here, the manager
stimulates the executives through motivation.
3. Human being – Manager treats all the people working under him equally and no
personal bias. He has to mingle with others and understand the feeling of other
executives.
4. Guide – Manager should be well aware of using the equipment, techniques and
procedures involved in performing specific tasks. If so, he can guide others whenever a
need arises.
Other forms of Roles of Manager
Manager is responsible to integrates all the activities which are performed in an organization. In other
words, he has co-ordinate the talents of people working under him for the purpose of achieving the organizational
goals. The role of a manager gets much importance than other executives in an organization. Hence, a manager’s job
is very much complex and requires some special qualities to be a head.
5. Friend – Unnecessary misunderstanding may be arising among the executives. Now, the manager should come
forward voluntarily and eliminate the misunderstanding at the earliest. Here, the manager is acting as a friend.
6. Planner – Day-to-day requirements of the organization has to be identified and arranged by the manager. He has to
plan the work and assign the same to the executives according to their position held.
7. Supervisor – Manager has to supervise and control executive’s performance and maintain personal contacts with
them. He has to perform this work along with the work to be performed by him.
8. Reporter – The feedback information is provided by the manager to the top management people. Sometimes,
workers’ problems have not been solved by the manager. If so, the same should be communicated to the top
authorities.
Q: What is the responsibility of a manager?

Ans: Manager is responsible to integrates all the activities which are performed in an organization. In
other words, he has co-ordinate the talents of people working under him for the purpose of achieving the
Q: Do managers work independently?

Ans: NO! A manager cannot convert the raw materials into finished products himself; he has to take the
help of others to do this. The greatest problem before any manager is how to manage the personnel to get the best
possible results.
The Fundamentals of Management: Fundamental functions of
management as to Planning, Organizing, Leading, Staffing and
Controlling.
Originally identified by Henri Fayol as five elements,

there are now four commonly accepted functions of
management that encompass these necessary skills:
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.
Consider what each of these function entails, as well as
how each may look in action.
The Fundamentals of Management: Fundamental functions of management
as to Planning, Organizing, Leading, Staffing and Controlling.
Fundamental Functions of Management
Planning
One main role of a manager is creating a plan to meet company goals and objectives. This involves allocating
employee resources and delegating responsibilities, as well as setting realistic timelines and standards for
completion. Planning requires those in management roles to continuously check on team progress in order to
make small adjustments when necessary, while still maintaining a clear picture of a company's larger aims and
goals.
Organizing
Along with planning, a manager's organizational skills can help to ensure a company or departmental unit runs
smoothly. From establishing internal processes and structures to knowing which employees or teams are best
suited for specific tasks, keeping everyone and everything organized throughout daily operations are important
functions of management.
Leading
Managers should be comfortable and confident commanding their team members’ daily tasks as well as during
periods of significant change or challenge. This involves projecting a strong sense of direction and leadership
when setting goals and communicating new processes, products and services, or internal policy.
Controlling
To ensure all of the above functions are working toward the success of a company, managers should
consistently monitor employee performance, quality of work, and the efficiency and reliability of completed
projects. Control (and quality control) in management is about making sure the ultimate goals of the business
are being adequately met, as well as making any necessary changes when they aren't.
(PNP perspective) of planning

We must pro-act, not just react – it is best to solve a problem before it
happens.
Doing more with less – this ensures efficiency. It emphasizes that “one plus
one should be equal to three or more”
Foundation of your work – the plan serves as a basis or guide for what you
will do.
Help make your people more productive – when people are aware and
understand the plan leads them to improve themselves.
Reflect your competence – your knowledge and skills will reflect on the plan
you make. A good plan is a good image builder.
Elements of Planning
A goal – what do you want to attain?

Course of action – how would you reach your goal?
Implementing group – who is tasked to do the action?
Resources needed – what is needed to accomplish this
task?
Time/duration – when is to be done?
Place or environment – where is to be done?
PLANNING APPROACHES
Acronym: S-T-A-I-R
Synoptic Planning – the rational comprehensive approach and tradition in
planning. This is the most appropriate for police agencies because it is based
on a problem-oriented approach to planning.
Transactive Planning – the approach involves the interaction with the people
who are to be affected by the plan hence; surveys and interpersonal dialogues
are conducted.
Advocacy Planning – the beneficial aspect of this approach includes greater
sensitivity to the unintended and negative side effects of the plan.
Incremental Planning – in this planning approach, the problems are seen as
too difficult when they are grouped together and easier to solve when they
are taken one at a time and broken down into gradual adjustment over time.
Racial Planning – this involves collective actions to achieve concrete results in
the immediate future.
Characteristics of Plans
Clearly defined goals or objectives
Clarity, simplicity and directness
Flexibility
Possibility of attainment
Provisions for standard of operations
Economy
Q: Why PLAN is essential for a person to succeed?

Ans: a well-guided person will become more organize that is why plan is very
important for an individual will be able to hit his/her targets and be able to realize
his/her objective daily.
Communication (in management process): It`s characteristics and Elements
for effective communication
Communication refers to the process by which

information is exchanged between two or more people
( i n c r e a s i n g l y, m a c h i n e s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d i n
communication, but we limit the discussion here to
communication between people).
Each of the management roles—planning, organizing,

leading, and controlling—depends on effective
communication.
As Richard Holdin said, communication is the lubricant for the

wheels of progress; people must talk to each other if there is to
be coordination and a minimum of duplication is scattered over
numerous disciplines and fields and is often contradictory.
it is in the residues of our discovered imperfections that we are
able to predict what might work. Sufficient evidence is now
before us to conclude that communication is characterized as;
The Perception
The Expected
Making Demands
Related to but different from information, and
Marginal when one way
Characteristics of Communication
Communication is Perception – paradoxically, it is the recipients who communicate
rather than the person who emits the message. While communication speaks, write,
or gesticulates a message, communication does not occur until the receiver perceives
it, keep in mind that perception is a total experience as opposed to logic.
Communication is Expectation – in most instances they perceived what they expect to

find in the message. The unexpected or unwanted data are frequently ignored or
filtered in line with their expectations. Basically, our human mind seeks to fit incoming
data into a pre-established pattern of expected expectations.
Communication is Deemed – the prime usage of the communication is to influence

control. Therefore, it is always making demands on us to change or continue to do
what we are doing, believe it or not, or act or not to act. Usually, such demands are
gradual or subliminal, and the major demands are frequently resisted because they do
not comply with the existing patterns of expectations.
Characteristics of Communication
Communication is Related to Information- communication and
information, although different, are nevertheless independent.
Information is formal and logical; conversely, communication is
personal and psychological. Indeed, communication can occur
without information. Also, of interest is the difference between
effective communication.
Two-Way is Best – one-way communication typically fails. It is

ineffective for obvious reasons that we do not know if or how
the recipient has perceived the message. Listening is important,
but not sufficient to ensure that one has communicated.
1. Encoding – information must be converted into whatever form the system requires.
2. Transmission – the information must be moved from one place to another.
3. Decoding – when the information is received at the intended place and time, it must be
converted back into a form that the human brain can process.
4. Feed Back – for a communication system to work properly there must be some means for
the sender of information to know that it has been accurately received.
5. Dependability – above all, the system must work properly at all times, or as close to that
ideal as any mechanical system can come.
6. Security – a related requirement is that the system must be protected from being
disrupted, whether deliberately by someone who intends to interfere with the operations,
or accidentally such as by natural phenomena.
7. Confidentiality – security is important not only to ensure that the system works but to
prevent sensitive information from falling into wrong hands.
8. Accessibility – a police communication system must be available to all the personnel who
have need of it, at the time and place where it is needed.
9. Speed – even in routine matters, personnel need to exchange information as quickly as
possible. In an emergency, communication must be immediate.
10. Easy to Use – communication system may be technologically complex and sophisticated
but they should be easy for the personnel to operate.
Elements of the Communication Model
The communication process may seem simple: one person sends a message and
others receive it. The process becomes more complex, however, because the information in
the message must be sent and received accurately. The communication-process model
describes how the information is sent and received.
The person initiating the communication, the sender, has information he wants the other
person, the receiver, to know.
However, before it can be sent, the information has to be encoded into a form that can be
transmitted.
In a simple case, the information is put into words spoken to the receiver. Or the information
may be converted into printed text, tables, charts, or graphs given to the receiver. In a more
complicated case, the information is encoded into words or images that are then converted
into electronic signals sent to the receiver. The channel is the medium through which the
information is conveyed. It could be air conveying sound waves, paper conveying text and
images, or wires or magnetic fields conveying electronic signals.
The receiver reverses the process. She receives the encoded message and then
decodes it. That means she converts the message back into information that can be
understood. In the opening example, an employee reads the message and knows who has
been hired and when he will start. Information has been transferred from managers to
employees. In an interactive communication process, the receiver can send feedback to the
sender to indicate that the message has been received and how it has been interpreted. This
can start an interactive back-and-forth exchange that can assure the sender that the
message has been received and understood correctly.
Factors Affecting Decision-Making in Management
What is Decision-Making?
In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in
the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options
It is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on
the values, preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker. Every decision-making process
produces a final choice, which may or may not prompt action.
Decision-Making is a conscious and human process involving both individual and social
phenomenon based upon factual and value premises which concludes with the choice of
one behavioral activity among one or more alternatives with the intention of moving
towards some desired state of affairs. (Shull, Delberg, and Cumming)
Decision-making is a process of identifying and choosing alternative course of
action in a manner appropriate to the demand of the situation. The act of choosing implies
that alternative course of action must be weighted and weeded out. (Kreitner)
Types of Decision
1. Organizational and Personal Decision

Organizational Decisions - are those which managers undertake under certain conditions relating to
organization. Sometimes taken independently and sometimes delegated to other colleagues.
Personal Decisions – are to be taken by the managers on their own. Others need not be consulted.
2. Tactical (Routine) and Strategic (Basic) Decisions

Tactical (Routine) Decisions
• Concerned with routine and preventive problems
• Neither require collection of new data nor conferring with the people. Thus, can be taken without
much deliberation.
• Has short term implications
• May be complicated but are always one dimensional
• More experience and judgement
Strategic (Basic) Decisions
• Made on the problems which are important
• Require thorough fact-finding analysis of the possible alternatives
• Finding the correct problem in such decisions assume more importance
• Has long term implications
Types of Decision
3. Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions
Professor Herbert Simon has given this classification. He has utilized terminology
in classifying decisions.
Programmed Decision may also be called as routine decision and non-programmed as
strategic decisions.
4. Policy and Operative Decisions

Policy Decisions determined the basic policies organizations and are taken at top level
management. The policies are decided at the top become the basis for operative decisions
can go beyond the policy framework of the organization. These are important in nature and
have long term impact.
Operative Decisions on the other hand, are less important and related with day-to-day
operations of the business. Middle and lower management take these decisions since these
involve actual execution and supervision.
Example:
Whether to allow bonus to employee or not is a policy decision. Once it is decided
to pay bonus then making calculation of payments to be made to different employees is an
operative decision.
Types of Decision
5. Individual and Group Decisions
It is based on the number of persons involved in decision-making
Generally individual decisions are less important and programmed one.
Group decisions are taken by a group of persons. These are generally important
decisions and relate to policy matters. The decisions are taken after a thorough
discussion among persons who are assigned this work. The problem of delay I
taking group decisions may create difficulties but otherwise these are well
discussed.
Factors Affecting Decision Making in an

Organization
Whenever we are involved in making decision
a number of factors can affect the process we
follow and ultimately the decision we make.
They can be organized into 3 major groups:
• Perception Issues
• Organizational Issues
• Environmental Issues
Factors Affecting Decision Making in an Organization

1. Perception Issues:
Perception can be described as the way in which
individuals interpret their environment.
Perception can be influenced by the following:
The Perceiver
The types of personal characteristics that can affect
an individual`s perception include:
- background and experience
- personal values
- personal expectations
- Personal interests
1. Perception Issues:
The Situation
- Time, location and other situational factors can influence our perception of an object.
Example:
Team Leader may notice team members who work late on the same evenings as the Team
Leader. However, team members who work late on other evenings may not be noticed by the Team
Leader.
The Object
- The object, which refers to any person, item or event can have an impact on the way it is
perceived.
Example:
When a manager receives a number of reports to read, he may be more inclined to read the
one with the most colorful cover as this one stands out.
- The relation an object has to other objects can also affect the perception of the perceiver.
Example:
An individual team member may be judged on the actions of the whole team even when it is
more appropriate for them to be judged on their own merits.
2. Organizational Issues (issues within the organization)
A number of organizational issues can impact on the decision-making process. These issues include:
• Policies and procedures
• Organizational hierarchy
• Organizational politics
Policies and Procedures
- Many organizations have formalized policies and procedures which have been developed to resolve
common problems and to guide managers when making decisions.
Example:
Many organizations have documented disciplinary procedures which guide managers through a process of
resolving issues with staff members.
Organizational Hierarchy
- refers to the management structure of the organization. Most organizations have different levels of
management which carry with them different degrees of authority. The degree of authority directly
impacts on the nature of the decisions an individual can make.
Example:
A Customer Contact Center Team Leader cannot make decisions about the overall goals of the
organization. However, the Team Leader can make decisions about how their team contributes to the
achievement of the organization`s goal.
2. Organizational Issues (issues within the organization)
A number of organizational issues can impact on the decision-making process. These issues include:
• Policies and procedures
• Organizational hierarchy
• Organizational politics
Organizational Politics
- Refers to the behavior displayed by the individuals and groups which is designed to influence others.
Individuals and teams will often use politics to:
- Advance their careers
- Advance their interests and ideas
- Increase their rewards
- Organizations are made up with individuals with different beliefs, values, and interests. These
differences are often the driving forces behind organizational politics.
Example:
Two teams believe they require an extra team member. Unfortunately, the organization can only afford
one new employee. The two teams may well use politics in an attempt to influence their manager to
allocate the new employee to their team.
3. Environmental Issues (issues within the environment)

- Environmental issues are the external factors that affect the
organization. The types of external factors that can have an effect on
decision-making include:
- The market in which the organization
- The economy
- Government legislation
- Customer`s reaction to the organization`s products and
services
Principles of Efficient Management (Division of Work, Authority and
Responsibility, Discipline, Unity of Command, and Scalar Chain)
The principles of management are the activities that “plan, organize,

and control the operations of the basic elements of people, materials,
machines, methods, money and markets, providing direction and
coordination, and giving leadership to human efforts, so as to achieve
the sought objectives of the enterprise.
“The fundamental notion of principles of management was developed

by French management theorist Henri Fayol (1841–1925).
He is credited with the original planning-organizing-leading-

controlling framework (P-O-L-C), which, while undergoing very
important changes in content, remains the dominant management
framework in the world.
A. Division of Work or Division of Labor

In the law enforcement agencies, it cannot function without division of work and
often specialization. Neither they can function without maximum coordination of
these generalists and specialists. As the organization grows in size, specialization
develops to meet the needs of the community. The extent of specialization is a
management decision.
Specialization occurs when the organizational structure is divided into units with
specific tasks to perform. It creates a potential for substantially increased levels of
expertise, creativity, and innovation. It can enhance department`s effectiveness
and efficiency.
The division of work is the course of tasks assigned to, and completed by, a group
of workers in order to increase efficiency. Division of work, which is also known as
division of labor, is the breaking down of a job so as to have a number of different
tasks that make up the whole. This means that for every one job, there can be any
number of processes that must occur for the job to be complete.
A. Division of Work or Division of Labor

Let us take the example scenario below.
Can you remember the last time that you went to a restaurant for carry out? More
than likely, and for pure convenience, you probably used the drive thru window.
How many people did it take to complete your order from start to finish? Let's see.
The first order of business was to have someone take your order. Once that was
completed, your order was submitted to the cooks. The cooks made your meal
and placed it on the counter. Someone working the counter collected your food
and placed it in a bag to hand to you out the window. Another person handed the
bag out the window. Those are the different steps that were taken to fully
complete one task. It is also a perfect example of the division of work.
B. Authority and Responsibility

Authority – it is the supreme source of government for any particular
organization. The right to exercise, to decide, and to command by
virtue of rank and position.
-is the power to give orders and get it obeyed or in other words it is
the power to take decisions.
Responsibility – means state of being accountable or answerable for
any obligation, trust, debt or something or in other words it means
obligation to complete a job assigned on time and in best way.
Authority and responsibility are closely related and this principle
states that these two must go hand in hand. It means that proper
authority should be delegated to meet the responsibilities.
B. Authority and Responsibility

A match should be there between these two because of two main
reasons:
Firstly Secondly
if A person is given some if There is excess authority
responsibility without sufficient being delegated to an individual
authority he can’t perform better, without matching responsibility then
and also could not accomplish the the del egate d a u t h o r i t y w i l l b e
desired goal. misused in one way or the other.
This is an important and useful principle of management because if

adequate authority is not delegated to the employee, they cannot discharge
their duties with efficiency and this in turn will hamper the achievement of
the organizational goal. Sometimes the relation between management and
employees is also badly affected by non-delegation of proper authority.
C. Discipline
-It comprises behavioral regulations and imposed by command or self-
restraint to ensure supportive behavior.
Henri Fayol, “Discipline means sincerity, obedience, respect of authority &
observance of rules and regulations of the enterprise”.
– This principle applies that subordinate should respect their superiors
and obey their order.
– It is an important requisite for smooth running of the enterprise.
– Discipline is not only required on path of subordinates but also on
the part of management.
DISCIPLINE can be enforced if:
-There are good superiors at all levels.
-There are clear & fair agreements with workers.
- Sanctions (punishments) are judiciously applied.
D. Unity of Command
Means that every individual in the organization has only one
immediate superior or supervisor. Each individual unit should be
under the control of one and only one person.
-Unity of command provides that an employee is responsible to only
one supervisor, who in turn is responsible to only one supervisor, and
so on up the organizational hierarchy. This is true even if the top of
the organization is led by a group of people.
-Imagine you are the CEO of a technology firm in Silicon Valley. While
the board of directors of your company governs the policy making
and strategic planning, under the concept of unity of command, you
do not answer to all members of the board, but only the chairman of
the board.
D. Unity of Command
Let's take a minute and climb a corporate ladder to demonstrate how unity of command
works from the bottom up.
Imagine that you are a new systems analyst for the technology company in Silicon Valley. For
better or worse, you are at the bottom rung and you supervise no one. However, you do
answer to your unit supervisor, who answers to her department manager.
The department manager answers to the vice president of operations, who answers to the
CEO. The CEO answers to the chairman of the board of directors.
Unity of Command Chart

E. Scalar Chain
– Fayol defines scalar chain as ’The chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest”.
– Every order, instruction, message, request, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain.
– But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut shirt and this short cut is known as Gang
Plank.
– In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with the
help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time and by
that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two.
– A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different points to facilitate quick & easy
communication as explained below:
In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G

he will first send the communication upwards with
the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the
help of E and F to G which will take quite some
time and by that time, it may not be worth
therefore a gang plank has been developed
between the two.
Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible. They can be molded and
modified as per the requirements of situations
Q: What are the possible consequences in violating the principle of

Authority and Responsibility?
Ans: the following are the consequences in violating this
principle: misuse of authority, responsibility can’t be discharged
effectively, no one can be held accountable, conflicts between
management and employees.
Q: What is Principle of Management?

Ans: are the activities that plan, organize, and control the
operations of the basic elements of people, materials in giving
leadership to human efforts, so as to achieve the sought objectives of
the enterprise.
Human Behavior in Organization (HBO)
What is Organizational behavior?

Organizational behavior is the study of human
behavior in the workplace, the interaction between people
and the organization with the intent to understand and
predict human behavior.
The understanding of individual, group, and organizational

behavior is critical to success as a leader or a follower, and
it requires a systematic study to even begin to grasp all of
the variables that impact behavior.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE:
A major factor in determining how well a person will be
satisfied with the company is organizational culture.
Organizational culture is defined as individuals in an
organization having a common perception and sharing core
values. As a result, organizational culture is a critical
determinate in the establishment of organizational policies
and actions toward a wide range of issues.
Organizational culture is a determinate in such things as
the dress code and the language used on the job, from the
establishment of a team environment to ethical standards.
– Three very important points:
• It is within organizations that the differences in behavior are observed. An
organization is a group of two or more people that shares a common goal and
meets at regular times. There are many types of organizations, ranging from
small groups to clubs to companies; however, the same principles apply to all
organizations.
• Do not rely on your intuition. Many “common sense” ideas are wrong; therefore,
a systematic study is required. A systematic study refers to well-constructed
studies that examine the many aspects of human behavior.
• Human behavior can be understood and predicted, but it often depends on the
contingencies or the situation.
– Three key factors that define a person:
– Three very important points:
• It is within organizations that the differences in behavior are observed. An
organization is a group of two or more people that shares a common goal and
meets at regular times. There are many types of organizations, ranging from
small groups to clubs to companies; however, the same principles apply to all
organizations.
• Do not rely on your intuition. Many “common sense” ideas are wrong; therefore,
a systematic study is required. A systematic study refers to well-constructed
studies that examine the many aspects of human behavior.
• Human behavior can be understood and predicted, but it often depends on the
contingencies or the situation.
KEY ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR
ELEMENTS FACTORS
Individual and group People make the internal social system of the organization. They consist of
individuals and groups (large as well as small). There are informal as well as
formal groups.
Each individual has his own physical, psychological and social, needs for which
he uses his own traits and experiences.
His work behavior is influenced not only by his biological inheritance, but also
by his interactive environment, viz. family relationships, racial background,
social setup, religious beliefs, technological perceptions, learning and
personality to shape their work behavior.
Their desires, needs, wants, attitudes and experiences shape their work
behavior. The study of these factors would help management to mold the
behavior of employee for achieving organizational objectives.
ELEMENTS FACTORS
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Individuals and groups operate within the structure of formal
Structure organization.
The structure establishes the relationships of people in an
organization.
It leads to division of labor so that people can perform their duties to
accomplish the organizational goals.
Different jobs are required to accomplish all of an organization’s
activities.
For example, there are managers and employees, accountants and

assemblers. These all people performing different jobs at different
levels have to be related in some structural way so that their work can
be effectively coordinated.
ELEMENTS FACTORS
Technology Technology has a significant influence on work the
work environment and working relationships.
It provides the resources with which people work
and affects the task that they perform. Apply
specialized knowledge.
The use of scientific methods and latest technology
effect the behavior of individuals and groups at work.
ELEMENTS FACTORS
Environment All organizations operate within an external environment. A
single organization does not exist alone.
It is a part of a large system that contains many other elements,
such as government, the family and other organizations.
The external environment affects the organization through

technological and scientific development.
Economic activity social and cultural i nfl uences and

government actions. The changes in environmental conditions
may compel the management to bring changes in the internal
organizational relationships.
– How important is MOTIVATION?

Motivation is the willingness of a person to exert
effort to satisfy wants and needs. As noted in the
need’s theories of motivation, motivation is intrinsic
and is a driving force.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Human needs fall into five groups:
M a s l o w ' s physiological, safety, social and love,
n e e d s
esteem and ego, and self-actualization.
hierarchy
When a need at one level is essentially

satisfied and is no longer a driving force,
that need loses its strength and the next
level need is activated.
Takes Maslow's five levels of needs and
compresses them into three interactive needs.
Alderfer's
ERG model This more contemporary model shows multiple
needs being active at the same time, and this
model is supported by research.
This theory demonstrates that the individual
worker is very complex and has multiple needs
all interacting at the same time.
That makes the manager's task much more

challenging.
Divides job factors into satisfiers and
dissatisfiers.
Herzberg's The satisfiers are the motivators, and the
m o t i v a t i o dissatisfiers are the maintenance or hygiene
n— hygiene factors.
theory The problem we find in business and industry
today is when management attempts to
motivate through the use of the hygiene factors,
which may not be successful.
Management will try to motivate with policies,
procedures, and pay increases, and, as noted
by Herzberg's model, this only prevents
dissatisfaction for a short period of time. It
does not motivate.
Looks at motivation from the manager's
perspective. The manager with the Theory X
perspective believes people are inherently lazy
McGregor's
and will try to avoid work, therefore requiring a
Theory X
and Theory v e r y a s s e r t i v e a n d d i r e c t i v e f o r m o f
Y management.
The manager with the Theory Y perspective
believes people enjoy work as much as play
and will seek responsibility. Those with the
Theory Y perspective will use a more
participative and self-controlled style of
management for motivation.
Explains that certain needs that people strive
to satisfy are acquired from the culture.
McClelland'
s n e e d s His research centers around three needs of
theory particular significance in understanding
managers and workers: need of achievement,
need for power, and need for affiliation.
The need for power is the primary motivator of

successful managers.
Is an important part of all major theories of
motivation.
Goal-setting
theory Goals that are more specific and difficult but
achievable will result in higher performance
than easy goals.
Goals that are participatively set are accepted

by the workers, provide some sort of feedback
provision and reward, and are more effective in
motivating the worker.
E q u i t y Explains how people are motivated by
theory fairness.
A person will make a determination of

equity by evaluating all of the inputs and
outputs of a situation.
If the person perceives the situation to

be unfair, he or she may use a variety of
ways to find equity in the situation.
The consequences of an action
Reinforce (rewards and punishments) determine a
m e n t person's motivation for engaging in
theory certain behaviors.
People learn to repeat behaviors that

bring them pleasurable outcomes and
learn to avoid behaviors that lead to
uncomfortable outcomes.
Is based on the idea that motivation
Expectanc results from deliberat e choices t o
y theory engage in certain activities in order to
achieve worthwhile outcomes.
The expectancy theory model is based

on effort-to-performance expectancies,
performance-to-reward expectancies,
and reward-to-need satisfaction
expectancies.
Group Behavior
A time-based model of group development is the punctuated equilibrium
model, which is based on improving performance over time—from the first
meeting to the transition period to the completion.
There are three types of teams:
• Problem-solving teams that focus on solving problems
• Cross functional teams that include workers from different areas that
focus on a task
• Self-managed teams that manage a process
How conflicts be addressed?

Informational-based conflicts can be resolved by sharing
information. Conflict may also be functional, when it supports
the goals of the organization, and dysfunctional, when it hinders
performance and does not support the goals of the organization.
Military Leadership and Management
Military leadership
is the process of influencing others to accomplish the mission by providing
purpose, direction, and motivation.
is the ability to influence others directing them towards the accomplishment of a
mission.
Providing Purpose and Vision

By providing purpose, you enable your Soldiers to see the underlying rationale for
a mission; you provide them the reason to act in order to achieve a desired
outcome. Leaders should provide clear purpose for their followers; they do that in
a variety of ways. They can use direct means through requests or orders.
Vision is another way that leaders provide purpose. Vision refers to an

organizational purpose that may be broader or have less immediate consequences
than other purpose statements. Higher-level leaders carefully consider how to
communicate their vision.
The Be, Know, Do Leadership Philosophy

The characteristics of an effective Army leader
make up the Be, Know, Do philosophy.
Embracing a leadership role involves developing all

aspects of yourself: your character, your competence,
and your actions.
You learn to lead well by adopting the Army Values,

learning military skills, and practicing leadership actions.
Only by this self-development will you become a
confident and competent leader of character.
Be, Know, Do
T h e k e y
characteristics of an Army
leader that summarize the
leader attributes and core
leader competencies.
Attributes—What an Army Leader Is

BE: Who You Are—A Leader of Character and a Leader with Presence
Army leadership begins with what the leader must Be—the values and
attributes that shape character. It may be helpful to think of these as internal
and defining qualities you possess all the time.

KNOW: Skills You Have Mastered—A Leader with Intellectual Capacity Competence in
soldiering skills—what you Know—is as important as good character in your growth as
an Army leader. Without it, your command will lack substance. To ask subordinates to
perform to standard, you must first master the standard yourself. You must master five
types of Army leadership attributes and skills in your training:
• Mental agility—having flexibility of mind, a tendency to anticipate or adapt to
uncertain or changing situations
• Sound judgment—having a capacity to assess situations or circumstances shrewdly
and to draw feasible conclusions
• Innovation—the ability to introduce something new for the first time when needed
or an opportunity exists
• Interpersonal tact—interacting with others and accepting the character, reactions,
and motives of oneself and others
• Domain knowledge—possessing facts, beliefs, and logical assumptions and an
understanding of military tactics related to securing a designated objective through
military means.

Core Leader Competencies—What an Army Leader Does
DO: How You Carry out Your Decisions—Leads, Develops, and Achieves As you
have already seen, leadership takes place in action.
What you Do is every bit as important as the Be and Know aspects of your
Army leadership philosophy.
While character and knowledge are necessary, by themselves they are not
enough.
Leaders cannot be effective until they apply what they know. What leaders
Do, or leader actions, is directly related to the influence they have on others
and on what is done.
T h e C o r e
Leadership LEADS DEVELOPS ACHIEVES
Competencies
Levels of Army Leadership

Army leadership positions divide into three levels—direct,
organizational, and strategic. The leadership level involves a
number of factors, including:
• Span of control
• Headquarters level
• Extent of the influence of the leader holding the position
• Size of the unit or organization
• Type of operations the unit conducts
• Number of people assigned
• The unit’s long-term mission or how far in advance it develops
plans.
Is face-to-face, first-line leadership. Subordinates of direct leaders see
them all the time at the team, squad, section, platoon, company, battery,
squadron, and battalion levels.
Direct Leadership The direct leader may command anywhere from a handful to several
hundred people. Direct leaders influence their subordinates one-on-one,
but may still guide the organization through subordinate officers and non-
commissioned officers (NCOs).
Direct leaders quickly see what works, what doesn’t work, and how to
address problems.
Organizational leaders command several hundred to several thousand
people. Their command is indirect, generally through more levels of
subordinates.
This “chain of command” sometimes makes it difficult for them to see
results. Organizational leaders usually employ staffs of subordinate
officers to help manage their organizations’ resources. Organizational
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l leaders are responsible for establishing policy and the organization’s
Leadership working climate.
Their skills are the same as those of direct leaders, but they cope with
more complexity, more people, greater uncertainty, and a greater number
of unintended consequences.
They have little face-to-face contact with the rank-and-file Soldier and
command at the brigade through corps levels. Typically, their focus is on
planning and missions in the next two to 10 years.
Strategic leaders include military and Department of the Army (DA) civilian
leaders from the major command level through the Department of Defense
leadership.
Strategic leaders are responsible for large organizations and influence
Strategic Leadership several thousand to hundreds of thousands of people. They establish
force size and structure, allocate resources, communicate strategic vision,
and prepare their commands for their future roles.
Strategic leaders consider the total environment in which the Army
functions.
They may take into account such things as congressional hearings, Army
budgetary constraints, new-systems acquisition, civilian programs,
research, development, and inter-service cooperation
LEADERSHIP TRAITS
BEARING, COURAGE, DECISIVENESS, DEPENDABILITY, ENDURANCE, ENTHUSIASM
INITIATIVE, INTEGRITY, JUDGEMENT, JUSTICE, KNOWLEDGE, LOYALTY, TACT, UNSELFISHNESS
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES
Know yourself and seek self-improvement
Honest self-evaluation to determine his own strengths and weaknesses is a paramount importance
to a leader. Through this process he can determine his capabilities and limitations
Be technically and tactically proficient
A leader must demonstrate to his men that he is qualified to lead his unit. He must be competent
in combat operations and training as well as in the technical and administrative aspect of his duty
Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions
Armed with knowledge gained from the honest self-evaluation and with the sound technical and
tactical foundation required to perform his duty, the leader must take initiative to accomplish his unit’s mission.
By seeking responsibility, he develops himself professionally and increases his leadership
ability.
Make sound and timely decisions
The leader must be able to make a rapid estimate of the situation and arrive at a sound decision.
He should be able to reason under the most trying conditions and decide quickly what action is necessary to
take advantage of opportunity as it occurs.
Set an example
A good leader must be a good example to his men in integrity, courage, professional competence,
personal appearance and conduct. More so, he must set the personal and professional standard for his men.
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES
Know your men and look out for their welfare
Understanding self is of equal importance in understanding his men. It is not enough that a leader knows
his men’s names, ranks, and other data. The leader must understand what makes his men stick to their values, ideas
and attitude.
Keep your men informed
This will encourage initiative, improve teamwork and enhance morale. Keeping your men informed will
reduce fear and rumours thus will gain cooperation and instilling to them one common goal and mission.
Develop sense of responsibility in your subordinates
Another way to show your men that you are interested in their welfare is by giving them the opportunity
for professional development. Delegation of authority commensurate with responsibility thus develops mutual
confidence and respect between the leader and his subordinates.
Ensure that the task is understood, supervised and accomplished
Your men must know what is expected from them and must be informed of specific task requirements
through clear and concise orders. Be sure that you are understood by communicating with your men. Do not
overtake an order by giving too many details.
Train you men as a team
The very essence of leadership is the ability to influence your men to act as one, to act in unison and as a
team in the accomplishment of a mission.
Employ your command/unit in accordance with its capabilities.
Men get satisfaction when performing tasks which are challenging yet within their capabilities, but
become dissatisfied if given tasks that are considered too easy, too difficult and above all out of bound. Putting the
right person on the right job is the key to this principle.
Leadership Versus Management
As you can see, leadership operates through a wide range of levels, organization sizes, and
conditions. Depending on the course of your career as an officer, your path might lead to almost any of
these levels and assignments if you are willing to work hard to develop your character, competence,
and behavior.
You should prepare to embrace the opportunity for promotion when it arises. This path will also take
you on an exciting journey through Army life that will almost always provide fulfilling work.
One aspect of your job to which you should pay particular attention is the tendency toward the
“management mindset.”
Management versus Leadership
Managers Leaders
Administer Innovate
Maintain Develop
Control Inspire
Short-term View Long-term View
Imitate Originate
Ask How/When Ask What/Why
Accept Status Quo C h a l l e n ge S tat u s
Quo
Police Leadership and Management
Police Leadership
Police departments are frequently called upon to provide crowd control and management
during large group events, demonstrations, or disturbances basically it sums up their fundamental duty
“to serve and protect” . Some of these events are planned in advance by groups, giving law
enforcement agencies an opportunity to develop appropriate management strategies.
For example:
1. The Seattle Police Department was aware of the possibility of widespread *demonstrations during
the 1999 World Trade Organization meetings in the city and, in the months immediately leading up to
the event, received intelligence about possible criminal activity and other disruptions.
2. Awareness of events is no guarantee of effective control, as the department *acknowledged being
caught off guard by the scale of the protests. Other events emerge more spontaneously, such as a
street fight that grows in size or a sudden demonstration that turns into a destructive or violent
riot.
From the above statement, it clearly speaks of a thing how leadership works in a certain police
organization by means of stern implementation of rules and regulations and how should it be managed
by a direct officer who lead such department. With this, management should be done promptly by a
manager of the department to take a lead on actions to be taken with regards to departmental or
administrative issues and personnel development.
Standard of Police Professionalism
PNP members shall perform their duties with integrity, intelligence and competence in the application
of specialized skill and technical knowledge with excellence and expertise.
Police Ethical Standards
Ethical standards shall refer to established and generally accepted moral values. Ethical acts
to be observed are the following:
Ethical standards shall refer to established and generally accepted moral values.
Ethical acts to be observed are the following:
Morality - PNP members shall adhere to high standards of morality and decency and shall
set good examples for others to follow. In no instance during their terms of office, among
other things, shall they be involved as owners, operators, managers or investors in any
house of ill-repute or illegal gambling den or other places devoted to vices, nor shall they
patronize such places unless on official duty, and tolerate operations of such establishments
in their respective areas of responsibilities. They shall be faithful to their lawfully wedded
spouses.
Judicious Use of Authority - PNP members shall exercise proper and legitimate use of
authority in the performance of duty.
Integrity - PNP members shall exercise proper and legitimate use of authority in the
performance of duty.
Ethical standards shall refer to established and generally accepted moral values.
Ethical acts to be observed are the following:
Justice - PNP members shall strive constantly to respect the rights of others so that they can
fulfill their duties and exercise their rights as human beings, parents, children, citizens,
workers, leaders, or in other capacities and to see to it that others do likewise.
Humility - PNP members shall recognize the fact that they are public servants and not the
masters of the people and towards this end, they shall perform their duties without
arrogance. They shall also recognize their own inadequacies, inabilities and limitations as
individuals and perform their duties without attracting attention or expecting the applause
of others.
Orderliness - PNP members shall follow logical procedures in accomplishing tasks assigned
to them to minimize waste in the use of time, money and effort.
Perseverance - Once a decision is made, PNP members shall take legitimate means to
achieve the goal even in the face of internal or external difficulties, and despite anything
which might weaken their resolve in the course of time.
Power and Related Constructs
– Power and Authority
The terms power and authority are frequently used interchangeably. In this way,
there is little distinction in the phrases the sergeant has authority over her officers
and the sergeant has power over her officers. In spite of the casual use of both
terms, there is a significant distinguishing feature. Individuals willingly comply with
the commands of authority figures, accepting the fact that the person has the right
to make demands of others.
In modern organizations, much of this authority is derived from position with the
hierarchically structured department. Subordinates have a duty to comply with the
requests of superiors and tend to do so as long as the commands fall within their
“zone of indifference.”

– Power and Influence
The terms power and influence are typically used in conjunction with
one another. Power tends to be viewed as a capacity, something to
be mobilized or exercised. This is quite different from actual
influence.
Police officer conceivably has a great amount of power to fulfill

peacekeeping responsibilities, drawing upon the threat of the
criminal law to resolve interpersonal disputes.
– Power and Leadership
Leaders exercise power and authority in order to move group members toward the
achievement of goals. Indeed, the amount of power inherent within a position in
an organization was identified as a critical contingency in Fiedler’s theory of
leadership. The distinction between power and leadership may appear murky, with
most definitions of the latter explicitly mentioning influence. This similarity aside,
writers have generally made sharper distinctions between the two concepts.
For example:
Jago, restricted leadership to “noncoercive influence.” Unfortunately,
omitting coercion ignores the fact that a leader’s role sometimes requires the
development of a shared purpose among followers that is otherwise initially
absent, even if it means drawing upon coercive or other power bases.
Bases of Power
What gives an individual power over another? According to Bertram
Raven, “Social power can be conceived as the resources one person has available
so that he or she can influence another person to do what that person would not
have done otherwise.
Researchers have grouped the bases of power into those derived from:
-One’s position in the organization (position power) or
-those independent of position and related to the individual (personal power)
In most cases, an individual’s ability to reward, punish, invoke rank, or access

information is largely dependent upon his or her position in the organizational
hierarchy.
1. Reward Power
Individuals acquire reward power through their ability to, or perceived ability to,
distribute intrinsic and extrinsic rewards to others in the organization. If we draw upon the
language of the expectancy theory of motivation, power wielders provide outcomes that
have positive valences for the power recipient or remove outcomes that have negative
outcomes.
2. Coercive Power
Coercive power is based on the power recipient’s perception that sanctions will
result from noncompliance. Perceptions are more critical than the power holder’s actual
ability to punish or deliver some penalty. Coercion is widely regarded as a position power
base since an individual’s location within an organization provides access to various coercive
means.
3. Legitimate Power
By including legitimate power in their typology, French and Raven considered
compliance based on authority. It is based on the power recipient’s belief that the power
holder has a right, generally based on an organizationally bestowed position or rank, to
extract compliance from others.
4. Referent Power
Referent power is based on one party’s identification with the other, “the desire of followers
to identify with their leaders and to be accepted by them.” The power recipient admires, respects, or
seeks to associate with the power holder. Referent power comes from the characteristics of the
individual (e.g., personality, approachability), not the position occupied
5. Expert Power
Individuals acquire expert power due to their extensive knowledge in a specific area. Power
recipients often defer to an expert’s advice, particularly in situations where their own knowledge base is
lacking.
6. Information Power
One additional base of power emerged soon after the publication of the original five—
information power. In spite of its prominence in the power literature, scholars never unified around a
single definition of the concept. Accordingly, information power is possessed by individuals who control
information flows within an organization or who have access to information sought by others.
Police Management
Police management includes the administrative activities of
coordinating, controlling and directing police resources, activities and
personnel. Simply put, it's the everyday act of running the police
department.
Police work involves many different duties and
responsibilities, including patrolling, responding to calls, investigating
complaints, conducting interviews and interrogations, performing
searches, gathering evidence, documenting case files and testifying
in court.
It takes a lot of coordination, and a lot of people, in order to
fulfill these duties. Therefore, successful police management is key.
Organizational Types
An organizational type refers to the way an entity is structured, or
ordered. Police departments typically use one of four basic organizational types.
The four types are line, line and staff, functional, and matrix. Let's take a brief look
at each type.
Organizational Type Description

Line Organization Uses a simple chain of command structure, where authority
flows from the top to the bottom in a distinct line.
This organizational type is the oldest structure.
It's used mainly in small police departments that serve rural
communities.
It's hard to use this type of structure in large agencies,
because the chain, or line, simply becomes too long to be
efficient.
at each type.

L i n e a n d S t a f f Resemble the line organization, but adds internal
Organization support roles.
This organizational type is popular in medium-sized
police departments, because the department can utilize
the simple line structure while delegating administrative
duties to other personnel.
This is helpful when a department has recently grown,
and when new duties or demands are placed on the
police officers.
at each type.

Functional Organization  A functional organization is a common type of organizational
structure in which the organization is divided into smaller groups
based on specialized functional areas, such as IT, finance, or
marketing.
 Functional departmentalization arguably allows for greater

operational efficiency because employees with shared skills and
knowledge are grouped together by function.
 A disadvantage of this type of structure is that the different functional

groups may not communicate with one another, potentially
decreasing flexibility and innovation. A recent trend aimed at
combating this disadvantage is the use of teams that cross
traditional departmental lines.
at each type.

M a t r i x -Is a structure in which there is more than one line
Organization of reporting managers. Effectively, it means that
the employees of the organization have more than
one boss.
-Is complex but helps in achieving the ultimate goal
i.e. reaching higher productivity. It has various
benefits. This type of structure is used in
organizations which have diverse product lines and
services.
Principles of Policing
PRINCIPLE 1 “The basic mission for which the police exist is to prevent crime and
disorder.”
PRINCIPLE 2 “The ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon
public approval of police actions.”
PRINCIPLE 3 “Police must secure the willing cooperation of the public in voluntary
observance of the law to be able to secure and maintain the respect of the public.”
PRINCIPLE 4 “The degree of cooperation of the public that can be secured

diminishes proportionately to the necessity of the use of physical force.”
PRINCIPLE 5 “Police seek and preserve public favor not by catering to the public
opinion but by constantly demonstrating absolute impartial service to the law.”
Principles of Policing
PRINCIPLE 6 “Police use physical force to the extent necessary to secure

observance of the law or to restore order only when the exercise of persuasion,
advice and warning is found to be insufficient.”
PRINCIPLE 7 “Police, at all times, should maintain a relationship with the public
that gives reality to the historic tradition that the police are the public and the
public are the police; the police being only members of the public who are paid to
give full-time attention to duties which are incumbent on every citizen in the
interests of community welfare and existence.”
PRINCIPLE 8 “Police should always direct their action strictly towards their
functions and never appear to usurp the powers of the judiciary.”
PRINCIPLE 9 “The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, not
the visible evidence of police action in dealing with it.”
Police Organizational Structure (PNP)
This organizational structure of the PNP basically shows how the work will function
from the higher echelon down to the lower echelon. It manifested how authority
takes off from the Chief, PNP going to Directorial staff which also manages the
administrative support units and the operational support units respectively with
their corresponding functions.
The Basics of Police Administration: Theories of Community Policing (Social structural
theory, Broken Windows Theory, and Zero tolerance theory)
Community policing
Is, in essence, a collaboration between the police
and the community that identifies and solves community
problems.
With the police no longer the sole guardians of law and
order, all members of the community become active allies
in the effort to enhance the safety and quality of
neighborhoods.
Community policing has far-reaching implications.
1. Social Structure Theory

- I n s o c i o l o g y , t h e d i s t i n c t i v e , s t a b l e a r ra n g e m e n t o f i n s t i t u t i o n s
whereby human beings in a society interact and live together. Social structure is often
treated together with the concept of social change, which deals with the forces that change
the social structure and the organization of society.
Although it is generally agreed that the term social structure refers to regularities
in social life, its application is inconsistent.
For example:
The term is sometimes wrongly applied when other
concepts such as custom, tradition, role, or norm would be more
accurate.
Social structure theories emphasize poverty, lack of education, absence of marketable skills,
and subcultural values as fundamental causes of crime.
Three subtypes of social structure theories can be identified:
• social disorganization theory,
• strain theory, and
• culture conflict theory.
The Basics of Police Administration: Theories of Community Policing (Social
structural theory, Broken Windows Theory, and Zero tolerance theory)
1. Social Structure Theory
1. Social structure theories emphasize poverty, lack of education, absence of marketable

skills, and subcultural values as fundamental causes of crime.
(Social disorganization)
Bursik and Grasmick (1993) found that instability greatly reduced the
neighborhood residents’ ability to exert social control. At the level of residents, high
population turnover made it difficult to maintain ties to other residents.
For example:
A tenant in a public housing unit may live there for years and never form a
relationship with his or her neighbors. Residents who do not know the children of the area
were less likely to intervene when the children displayed unacceptable behavior. Instability
also negatively influenced the security of the neighborhood because it reduced informal
surveillance. A strong neighborhood network reduced the places crime could hide from
surveillance, whereas weak networks increased the ability of crime to occur in the open
without being detected.
1. Social structure theories emphasize poverty, lack of education, absence of

marketable skills, and subcultural values as fundamental causes of crime.
(Strain Theory)
People feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to
obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving
those goals (R. Merton)
Example:
A study of Canadian Mohawks` involvement in the organized crime of smuggling in
the early 1990s
1. Social structure theories emphasize poverty, lack of education, absence of

marketable skills, and subcultural values as fundamental causes of crime.
(Cultural Conflict)
Cultural conflicts are difficult to resolve as parties to the conflict have different
beliefs. Cultural conflicts intensify when those differences become reflected
in politics, particularly on a macro level.
Example:
The debate over abortion. Ethnic cleansing is another extreme example of
cultural conflict. Wars can also be a result of a cultural conflict; for example the
differing views on slavery were one of the reasons for the American civil war.
2. Broken Windows Theory

The broken windows theory states that visible signs of disorder and
misbehavior in an environment encourage further disorder and misbehavior,
leading to serious crimes. The principle was developed to explain the decay of
neighborhoods, but it is often applied to work and educational environments.
Although widely used to explain criminal behavior and to inform policing
policies in the 1990s, psychological and scientific evidence backing the theory is
scarce. As a result, it has been increasingly discredited.
Defined in 1982 by social scientists James Wilson and George

Kelling, drawing on earlier research by Stanford University psychologist
Philip Zimbardo, argues that no matter how rich or poor a neighborhood,
one broken window would soon lead to many more windows being broken:
“One unrepaired broken window is a signal that no one cares, and so

breaking more windows costs nothing.”
Disorder increases levels of fear among citizens which leads them to

withdraw from the community and decrease participation in informal social
control.
2. Broken Windows Theory

Experimental Evidence for the Broken Window Theory
In the late 80's, New York experienced a high rate of violence and crack was
everywhere.
In 1985 when George L. Kelling, coauthor of the article "Broken Windows", was
hired as a consultant to the New York City Transit Authority, the subway was awful.
Kelling implemented new measures. He made every graffiti disappear and cleaned
every station. Day after day after day, new graffiti would be made in the night and
removed during the day, until one day the new policy started to be successful and
graffiti progressively disappeared.
Mayor and police department of New York also employed the same method, they
implemented a zero-tolerance policing with easier arrestee procedure. Police
started enforcing the law very strictly, against subway fare evasion, public drinkers,
urinators, and the like. The rates of both petty and serious crime fell suddenly and
significantly.
3. Zero Tolerance Theory

Defined as a strict non-discretionary law enforcement approach that is thought to
be tough on crime. Under this approach, the police enforce every facet of the law.
This also means that they pay closer attention to minor offenses and those
considered quality of life offenses, such as public drinking, vandalism, graffiti,
begging, and vagrancy.
History tracing
• The expression zero-tolerance can be traced back to the Safe and Clean
Neighborhood Act, which was approved in New Jersey in 1973. It became
popular in 1982 when criminologists James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling
published their broken windows theory of crime. Under that theory, the idea
that minor physical and social disorder, if left unattended, would cause more
serious crime to occur.
• Zero-tolerance policing was publicly implemented in 1994 by New York
City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani and his police commissioner William Bratton based
on the broken windows theory, and it seemed to have instant success. Upon its
implementation, the crime rate in New York City dropped by 30-50%.
3. Zero Tolerance Theory

Sample scenario
You wake up on the first day of a new month and realize that your vehicle
registration expired last month. Driving to the department of motor vehicle to
purchase a new registration, you are stopped by police.
You explain to the police officer that you are in the process of obtaining your
new registration, and he issues you a citation saying that he doesn't have any
discretion because you are in violation of the law. What you have just experience is
called zero-tolerance policing.
Q: What is community policing?
Ans: It is a collaboration between the police and the community that
identifies and solves community problems.
Q: Why community policing needs to be enforced?
Ans: COP is needed to be enforced for the law enforcers to have constant
relationship with the community in reaching the common goal of reducing crime
rate and suppressing the possible occurrence of crime.
Theories of Community Policing (Public Relation theory, Communitarian theory,
Organizational Culture Theory)
1. Public Relations Theory
What is Public Relations?
Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually
beneficial relationships between organizations and publics.
(Public Relations Society of America, 2017)
Public Relations Functions:
Research, Public and Media Relations,

Employee Relations, Community Relations,
Problem Management, Industry Relations
Four Models of Public Relations:
• Press Agentry Press Agentry - Mostly in 19th century
- Uses propaganda, persuasion and manipulation to
• Public Information influence audiences to behave as the organization
desires
• Two-way asymmetrical - Truth is not essential
- Key figure: Barnum P.T.
• Two-way symmetrical P u b l i c - Beginning of the 20th century
Information - Uses press releases and other one-way communication
techniques to distribute organizational information
- Truth is essential
- Key figures: Ivy Lee
T w o - w a y - Middle of the 20th century
Asymmetrical - Uses persuasion to influence audience to behave as
the organization desires
- Imbalance effects
- Key figures: Edward L. Bernays
T w o - w a y - End of 20th century
Symmetrical - Uses communication to negotiate with the public,
resolve conflict and promote mutual understanding
and respect between the organization and it s
stakeholders.
- Balanced effects
Four Models of Public Relations:
• Press Agentry
• Public Information
• Two-way asymmetrical
• Two-way symmetrical
Model Main sphere of use type

Press Agentry Show business, sports,
product information. One-way communication
Public Information Government, n o n -p ro f i t
business.
T w o - w a y Business
Asymmetrical Two-way communication
T w o - w a y Business, non-profit
Symmetrical
2. Communitarian Theory
Communitarian theory suggests a primarily non-political approach
towards the rejuvenation of a democratic political culture. This approach regards
the rebuilding of community as a social and moral project - strengthening
relationships, enhancing processes of participation, developing the capacity for
communal self-help, promoting feelings of empowerment and connectedness - in a
sphere that is distinct from market and polity.
Concept
Is a philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community.
Its overriding philosophy is based upon the belief that a person's social identity and
personality are largely molded by community relationships, with a smaller degree of
development being placed on individualism.
Origin:
T h e te r m " c o m m u n i ta r i a n " wa s c o i n e d i n t h e 1 8 4 0 s b y t h e B r i t i s h
U to p i a n S o c i a l i st G o o d w y n B a r m b y ( 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 8 1 ) t o re fe r t o a d v o c at e s o f
a communalist society (which refers to communal living and/or communal property,
essentially a forerunner to modern Communism).
2. Communitarian Theory
Origin:
The term "communitarian" was coined in the 1840s by the British Utopian Socialist Goodwyn
Barmby (1820 - 1881) to refer to advocates of a communalist society (which refers to communal living
and/or communal property, essentially a forerunner to modern Communism).
3. Organizational culture theory
Emphasizes that culture is a set of values that an organization or group of people have in common.
Seven (7) elements make up an organizational culture:

1. Structural stability. All cultures are held together quite rigidly by their own values and beliefs. It’s
what identifies the group and resists any changes to the members.
2. Breadth. Culture is pervasive and touches every part of the organization. Even if someone doesn’t
fully adhere or agree with the culture, they are subject to it anyway since it’s what is generally
accepted.
3. Depth. Do not underestimate how ingrained and unconscious culture is present in any group. It’s
how people act and not have to explain their actions to their peers.
4. Patterning or integration. When the members of the group exhibit the same behavior over a period
of time, it means that culture makes their beliefs coherent.
5. Visible artifacts. The office is a great example of an artifact important to organizational culture
theory. But mostly these are things that are very apparent on the surface of the group such as
hierarchy, interaction and attitudes during meetings.
6. Espoused beliefs, values, rules and behavioral norms. When you look up at the company
corkboard or its website and you see the mission and visions then you’ve seen these element.
7. Underlying, taken-for-granted assumption. There are tacit, basic things that explain the artifacts
and beliefs.
Four (4) types of Organizational Culture
Every organization is different, and all of them have a unique culture to
organize groups of people.
Yet few people know that every organization actually combines a mix of four
different types of organizational culture under one leading cultural style, according
to research by business professors Robert E. Quinn and Kim S. Cameron at the
University of Michigan.
Quinn and Cameron developed the Organizational Culture Assessment

Instrument (OCAI), a validated survey method to assess current and preferred
organizational cultures. The OCAI is based on Quinn and Cameron’s Competing
Values Framework Model, which has been used by over 12,000 companies
worldwide.
The framework explains how the four organizational cultures compete with one
another. The four parameters of the framework include internal focus and
integration vs. external focus and differentiation, and stability and control vs.
flexibility and discretion. (As shown in diagram above.)
To determine what type of organizational culture you belong to, here is a
summary of the four types and their specific qualities:
This culture is rooted in collaboration.

Members share commonalities and see themselves are part of one big family who are
active and involved. Leadership takes the form of mentorship, and the organization is
The Clan Culture bound by commitments and traditions.
The main values are rooted in teamwork, communication and consensus.
A prominent clan culture is Tom’s of Maine, the maker of all-natural hygiene products.
To build the brand, founder Tom Chappell focused on building respectful relationships
with employees, customers, suppliers and the environment itself..
This culture is based on energy and creativity. Employees are encouraged to

take risks, and leaders are seen as innovators or entrepreneurs.
The organization is held together by experimentation, with an emphasis on
The Adhocracy individual ingenuity and freedom.
Culture The core values are based on change and agility. Facebook can be seen as a
prototypical adhocracy organization, based on CEO Mark Zuckerberg’s famous
admonition to, “Move fast and break things – unless you are breaking stuff,
you are not moving fast enough.”
This culture is built upon the dynamics of competition and achieving concrete
results.
The focus is goal-oriented, with leaders who are tough and demanding. The
The Market organization is united by a common goal to succeed and beat all rivals.
Culture The main value drivers are market share and profitability. General Electric
under ex-CEO Jack Welch is a good example of this culture. Welch vowed that
every G.E. business unit must rank first or second in its respective market or
face being sold off.
Another example of the market culture is software giant Oracle under hard-
driving Executive Chairman Larry Ellison.
FAQ
Q: What is community policing?
Ans: It is a collaboration between the police and the community
that identifies and solves community problems.
Q: Why community policing needs to be enforced?

Ans: COP is needed to be enforced for the law enforcers to have
constant relationship with the community in reaching the common goal of
reducing crime rate and suppressing the possible occurrence of crime.
Theories of Public Administration
Public Administration Theory

Ø Is the amalgamation of history, organizational theory, social theory, political
theory and related studies focused on the meanings, structures and functions of
public service in all its forms.
Ø Often recounts major historical foundation for the study of bureaucracy as well
as epistemological issues associated with public service as a profession and as
an academic field.
Ø In more recent times, the field has had three (3) main branches: New Public
Administration, Classic Public Administration, and Postmodern Public
Administration.
Characteristics of Administration: (Waldo, 1955)
The characteristics of administration are best subsumed under two terms
ORGANIZATION and MANAGEMENT.
• Organization is the anatomy, Management is the physiology of administration
• Organization is the structure, Management s the functioning of administration
THEORIES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Theories are analytical tool for understanding, explaining, and making predictions
about a given subject matter.
1. Classical Public Administration Theory
The classical approach is based upon the ideas similarly generated in the late
1800’s and early1900’s and are primarily based upon the economic rationality of all
employees. This evolved around the classical assumption of Adam smith, that
people are motivated by economic incentives and that they will rationally consider
opportunities that provide for them the greatest economic gain. The rational
economic view is summarized as below, based on Schein (1970)’s position, as
quoted by Smit, et.al (2007):
Organizations can be designed in ways to control irrational emotions and
thus unpredictable, dysfunctional behaviors of employees.
There are three (3) branches which feed on the same underlying principle
of classical theory, these are: Scientific Management, Administrative Principles,
and Bureaucratic Organization Theory.

2. Modern Public Administration Theory

The modern theory of public administration emphasizes more on behavioral and
quantitative schools of thought.
Modern management theory has changed the way public administrators look at
their jobs (Denhardt, 2008). Advancements and refinements in management
theory and practice have enabled managers and managerial systems to evolve.
The modern approach to public administration is oriented to results, focusing on
clients, outputs and outcomes. The adoption of new form of public management
means the emergence of a new paradigm in public sector. In the word of
Katsamunska (2010)

Below is a brief explanation of modern approach to public administration:
System Approach -This is also called system analysis of organization and it was developed in
or Model the ‘50s to eliminate the deficiencies of the classical model by requiring
that any organization should be viewed as a system and its actions
p e r fo r m e d . L u d w i g vo n B e r ta l a n f f y , a b i o l o g i st a n d o n e o f i t s
staunchest proponents wrote in the 1920’s about the unification of science
and scientific analysis (Manithaneyam, 1995).
-The system theory is however a unified whole having a number of

interdependent parts or sub system and it has identifiable boundaries that
distinguish it from its surrounding environment in which it is embedded
and with which it interacts. The system theory explains how public
administration activities are coordinated within a system and sub system
that interact.

Structural- - The entire units that constitute the sum of a system are
functional structures and these structures function to ensure the delivery of
Approach services to the public.
- Structural functionalism or simply referred to as functionalism is
the relations among government sub system such as
intergovernmental relations with the goal of achieving desired
goals through an institutional arrangement that perform certain
functions in order to survive and operate efficiently.
- It tries to explain how structures operate in a society, the various
part or institutions combine to give society continuity over time.

Contingency - “contingency theory is a class of behavioral theory that claims that

Approach there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company or to
make decisions.
- Instead the optimal course of action is contingent (dependent) upon
the internal and external situation.”
- A contingent leader effectively applies their own style of leadership to
the right situations. Some writers considered contingency theory as
dominant, theoretical, rational, open system model at the structural
level of analysis in organization theory and that the basic assumption
of contingency approach is that the environment in which an
organization operates and determines the best way for it to organize
(Betts, 2005).

Behavioral - The key scholar under this category is Elton Mayo.

School - The origin of behavioralism is the human relations
movement that was a result of the Hawthorne
Works Experiment carried out at the Western
Electric Company, in the United States of America
that started in the early 1920s (1927-32_.
3. Postmodern Public Administration Theory
-Postmodern theory is a broad and somewhat ambiguous belief system tied to the
philosophical and cultural reaction to the convictions of Modernism (sometimes
equated with Humanism). Postmodernism is the philosophical proposal that reality
is ultimately inaccessible by human investigation, that knowledge is a social
construction, that truth-claims are political power plays,and that the meaning of
words is to be determined by readers not authors (James, 2006).
-In brief, postmodern theory sees reality as what individuals or social groups make
it to be. Postmodernism is commonly spoken in recent time among intellectuals in
arts and social sciences. It is a novel imagination and thought in social theory with
no clear definition for the term. Post modernists are interested in psychedelic
imagination of the world. The theory rejects “foundationalism” and tends to be
relativistic, irrational and nihilistic (Ritzer, 2012).
Theories are analytical tool for understanding, explaining, and making predictions about a given subject
matter.
3. Postmodern Public Administration Theory
Postmodernism is a reflection of difference between modernism and post modernism over whether itis
possible to find rational solution to society’s problems. Post-modernists question some foundation such
as the system that tend to privilege some groups and downgrade the importance of others, give some
group power and render some groups powerless (Ritzer, ibid.).
These are the Effects or contribution of theories in the field of Public Administration:
Ø Public-Private Partnership
Ø Public Administration in Policy making
Ø Movements Towards Political Economy
Ø New Emerging Goals of Public Administration
Ø Staff and Line Units are Complementary, not Antagonistic
Ø Human Relations Approach in Public Administration
Ø People`s Participation Decision-making
Ø Decentralization
Ø Emerging Changes in Bureaucratic Pattern and Behavior
The Forensic Science and Police Administration
What is forensic science?
Forensic science is a branch of science that aids in the investigation,
solution and prevention of crime.
Forensic science is a broad field that refers to a variety of sciences and
technologies used to enforce the law. This discipline is composed of a cast of
criminal justice and scientific professionals, such as experts in toxicology, pathology,
anthropology, computer science and criminalistics.
Development of Forensic Science
In 16th-century Europe,
Medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the
cause and manner of death.
Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death
on internal organs.
Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of
modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the
result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These
included A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician Francois
Immanuele Fodéré and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical
expert Johann Peter Frank.
Development of Forensic Science
18th century,
Criminal investigation became a more evidence-based, rational procedure − the use of
torture to force confessions was curtailed, and belief in witchcraft and other powers of
the occult largely ceased to influence the court's decisions. Two examples of English forensic
science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and
procedure in criminal investigations at the time.
(Landmark cases)
In 1784, in Lancaster, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw
with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper
used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly
with a torn newspaper found in Toms's pocket, leading to the conviction.
In Warwick 1816, a farm laborer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young
maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault.
The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the
damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff. The
breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and
corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool.
Forensic Science and Humanitarian Works
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
Uses forensic science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons after
armed conflict, disasters or migration, and is one of the services related to Restoring Family
Links and Missing Persons. Knowing what has happened to a missing relative can often make
it easier to proceed with the grieving process and move on with life for families of missing
persons.
Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate and whereabouts
of persons who have gone missing. Examples include the NGO Argentine Forensic
Anthropology Team, working to clarify the fate of people who disappeared during the period
of the 1976–1983 military dictatorship. The International Commission on Missing
Persons (ICMP) uses forensic science to find missing persons,[95] for example after the
conflicts in the Balkans.
Recognizing the role of forensic science for humanitarian purposes, as well as the
importance of forensic investigations in fulfilling the state's responsibilities to investigate
human rights violations, a group of experts in the late-1980s devised a UN Manual on the
Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, which
became known as the Minnesota Protocol. This document was revised and re-published by
the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2016.
Supplemental Forensic Sciences
Various other life and physical sciences are used to assist police investigations. Specialists
approach the problem from different scientific perspectives, and the results of their
investigations can provide police with a wealth of information about a case.
The following are few of the many supplemental forensic sciences that are usually
the main focus of crime investigation when it is momentarily occurred.
Forensic pathology Is a specialty within the field of medical pathology. Forensic

pathologists conduct an autopsy in cases of violent, unexplained, or
unattended deaths, closely examining the decedent’s wounds, blood,
and tissue to ascertain how he died.
Forensic anthropology Is primarily concerned with the identification of human skeletal remains.
Forensic anthropologists can differentiate animal remains from those of
humans and, given the proper bones, can determine the gender and in
some cases the race of the victim.
Facial reconstruction Combines both art and science. A skull can be used as a foundation and
the face reconstructed with clay. By using charts of specific points
of skin and tissue thickness, scientists can produce a relatively unique
face that can then be used to help identify the decedent.
Supplemental Forensic Sciences
Various other life and physical sciences are used to assist police investigations. Specialists
approach the problem from different scientific perspectives, and the results of their
investigations can provide police with a wealth of information about a case.
The following are few of the many supplemental forensic sciences that are usually
the main focus of crime investigation when it is momentarily occurred.
Is another field that assists police in determining time of death. Insects

infest a corpse at a very predictable rate. Certain insects immediately
Forensic entomology invade the body to feed or to lay eggs, while others will not approach
the body until it has reached a more advanced stage of decomposition.
Examine teeth and bite marks. They can compare the teeth of an
unidentified body with an individual’s antemortem dental X-rays or dental
Forensic odontology molds. They also may tie a suspect to a crime by comparing a bite mark
taken from the crime scene with dental casts taken from the suspect.
Examine plants and plant matter to determine their species and origin. In
some cases, suspects may leave behind plant parts, spores, or seeds that
had adhered to their clothing.
Forensic botany
Forensic Science in the Administration of Police organization (PNP)
History of PNP-SOCO (Forensic Science)

PSSUPT MARLENE M SALANGAD Ph.D., the incumbent director, made the great leap
of NCRTI to its present state as premier institution of PPSC in Crime Investigation and Scientific
Crime Detection possible.
Her leadership, skill and experience in the field of forensic science were clearly manifested in the
emergence of the PPSC-NCRTI Crime Scene Plaza - considered as the outdoor laboratory for the
investigative training of public safety personnel from the Philippine National Police; Bureau of Fire
Protection; and the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology.
The implementation of the directive to produce proficient crime investigators in the country issued
by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo gave birth to the Public Safety Crime Investigation and
Detection Course, It also led to the improvement of the NCRTI facilities, particularly the offices and
laboratories as well as the acquisition of sophisticated equipment.
The Forensic Science Department and the Crime Scene Plaza of the Philippine National Police
Academy in Camp Gen. Mariano N. Castañeda, Silang Cavite, another constituent unit of PPSC,
were also developed.

For now, a high standard of training has been set for the
CRIDEC Course to ensure quality for the students and to
contribute to the success of criminal prosecution in the country.
With the untiring support of the leadership of PPSC President Dr.
Margarita R. Cojuangco, MNSA, NFSTI will soon be at the
forefront for the public safety services.
Training Programs
Public Safety Traffic Investigation Course (PSTIC)

Designed to provide students with proficiency in traffic investigation and enhance
the students in responding to critical and challenging traffic problems in the
country and be knowledgeable of the procedures and technical aspects of the
traffic rules and regulations.
Public Safety Investigation and Detection Course (PSIDC)

Designed to provide students with proficiency in crime investigation and detection
crafted to keep the graduates of the course abreast with the most recent
techniques in crime solution.
Public Safety Narcotics Investigation Course (PSNIC)

Designed to train and develop skilled investigators to respond to the challenging
problems that beset society on the drug menace both in the local and
international community qualifying them as certified narcotics investigators.
Forensic (Science) Crime Laboratory

What is PNP Crime Laboratory?
The men and women of the PNP Crime
Laboratory are committed to the vision of a professional,
dynamic and motivated forensic service providing quality
scientific investigation and working in partnership with the
responsive pillars of the Criminal Justice System towards
the attainment of equality and justice.
Crime Lab Units:
Biology Unit
Staffed with biologists and Biochemists who identify and perform DNA profiling on
dried bloodstains and other bodily fluids.
Firearms Unit
Examines firearms, discharge units, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and
ammunition of all types.
Document Examination Unit
studies the handwriting and typewriting to ascertain authenticity and or source on
questioned documents.
Photography Unit
Examines and records physical evidence
Toxicology Unit
examine bodily fluids and organs to determine the presence or absence of drugs
and poisons.
Crime Lab Units:
Latent Fingerprint Unit
Process and examines evidence for latent fingerprints when submitted in conjunction with
other lab examinations.
Polygraph Unit
Also known as lie detector, has come to be recognized as an essential tool of the criminal
investigator than the forensic scientist.
Voiceprint analysis Unit
Investigators may require the skills of the voiceprint analysis unit to tie the voice to a
particular subject.
Crime Scene Investigation Unit
Dispatches especially trained personnel to crime scene to collect and preserve physical
evidence that will later be processed at a crime lab.
Forensic Psychiatry
Specialized area that examines the relationship between human behavior and legal
proceedings.
Forensic Odontology
Practitioners help identify victims based on dental evidence when the body is left at an
unrecognizable state.
FAQ
Q: Why Forensic science is essential in police works?
Ans: Forensic Science aids in the investigation,
solution and prevention of crime in the police works since
this will lead the investigators to a high percentage
solvability of criminal investigation.
Research and Police Administration
What do we mean by research?
One impediment to research within police agencies is that it can seem overly
demanding. But, in practice, research does not need to be complex, complicated,
mathematical, or statistical.
Research
- It is simply a process of systematic inquiry, generally aimed at either increasing
knowledge (basic research) or solving problems and improving practices (applied
research).
Research that might immediately be useful to police practitioners is mainly applied

research. Since the 1970s, a substantial amount of applied research has been conducted
within and on behalf of the policing field on a host of topics, including operational
effectiveness, community relations, officer stress and safety, and use of force.
Despite the fact that policing studies have become rather common, some of us still
misunderstand research because we equate it to completing a “research” paper in high
school or college, which typically involved summarizing information published in articles
and books or found on the internet. Although integrating existing information and
consuming research are very important skills, they are not what we usually mean by doing
research.
It is always important to keep in mind, “What is the question?”
Research is conducted in order to answer a research question — something that
is not fully known or understood and that cannot simply be looked up or “Googled.”
An example research question is “Does assigning a school

resource officer (SRO) to a high school result in fewer crimes being
committed in the school?” In the more formal version of the scientific
method, this might be restated as the hypothesis, “High schools with
SROs will have fewer reported Part I crimes than high schools without
SROs.” Hypotheses and research questions serve the same purpose;
however, for most people, research questions are a more natural way of
expressing something that we would like to know.
1. Types of agency-based police research
Most of the better-known policing studies have been done by academics or
organizations such as the Police Foundation, the Police Executive Research Forum, and the
Rand Corporation.
1. Types of agency-based police research
Most of the better-known policing studies have been done by academics or
organizations such as the Police Foundation, the Police Executive Research Forum, and the
Rand Corporation.
Research focused INTERNALLY Research focused EXTERNALLY

within the police organization o n C R I M E , D I S O R D E R ,
LEGITIMACY
Descriptive research identifies, A. Organizational analysis, C. Problem analysis (e.g., crime
d e s c r i b e s , m e a s u re s , a n d systems analysis analysis, intelligence analysis,
analyzes problems and traffic analysis)
conditions
E x p l a n a t o r y R e s e a r c h A. M a n a g e m e n t s c i e n c e , D. Evidence-based policing
evaluates, tests, and continuous improvement
experiments to determine and
improve the effectiveness of
agency practices.
Models for conducting agency-based police research
Contract Research
Through time, police agencies have adopted several different models to develop
and enhance their capacity to conduct research:
Contract Research
Models
A police agency might enter into a contract with an individual or firm
■ Contract to provide a specific research service or product. Contracts are
research sometimes used to conduct an evaluation in conjunction with a grant,
to meet some particular technical requirement, or to satisfy demands
for an independent and objective external review.
Contract Research
A police agency might enter into a partnership, typically with a local

college or university, for the provision of research services. Although
■ Research this may often involve a contract, it is generally thought to be
partner somewhat more of a relationship than strictly a business deal. Recent
studies have found that about one-third of larger police agencies have
had some kind of research partnership, but most are short term
rather than long term.
Contract Research
A few police agencies have hired researchers, either full or part time,
■ Embedded not simply to conduct one study but also to provide an ongoing, high-
researcher level research capacity. Police departments taking this approach have
included Indianapolis, Boston, and Redlands, California. An
alternative, “flipped” approach has been to embed police
practitioners into research organizations.
Contract Research
A police agency might have a unit staffed with sworn officers or civilian personnel, or
both, that is assigned the task of conducting research. At one time, planning and
research units were considered critical indicators of professionalism in larger police
■ Research unit agencies. However, as a result of dramatic developments in information technology,
along with the introduction of the crime analysis and intelligence analysis functions, the
word “research” seems to have become less popular among police units. It is not clear
whether this indicates that less research is being done within agencies, or if it is simply
a change in semantics.
Contract Research
A current phenomenon associated with evidence-based policing is experiments conducted

by working police officers, often in conjunction with the officers’ graduate education. This is
not an entirely new practice. Police personnel completing master’s theses and even doctoral
■ Researchers in dissertations have been relatively common since the 1970s, but it is suspected that some of
the ranks the studies being done by police officers today have a higher profile and may have a more
immediate impact. Not unlike their predecessors, though, these officers are sometimes
“prophets without honor in their own lands” — that is, their research is frequently
recognized elsewhere but not within their own police departments.
Research in Police Administration (Philippine National Police)
Directorate for Research and Development (DRD-PNP)
DRD HISTORY:
Research is a very broad human activity embracing various aspects of
man's existence. It is practically a “conception resurrection” concept that deals
with all the branches of knowledge.
Research work, however, may be limited depending upon the scope of the study
being conducted. In law and justice, a research may be undertaken to redefine
police as role as some legal adjustments are made to adapt to social change.
In law enforcement, research may be done to resolve ethical problems within
police agencies. The most common problem areas being explored are in the
organizational frontiers, behavioral patterns, processes and procedures and value
system.
LEGAL BASES OF DRD:
- Establishes the Philippine National Police under a reorganized Department of

the Interior and Local Government Section 25, Chapter III thereof provides for
its organization.
Republic Act
- Section 30, Rule VII of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Act,
6975
provides that “the Chief of the PNP shall, within sixty (60) from the effectivity
of the Act and in accordance with the broad guidelines set forth therein,
recommend the organizational structure and staffing pattern of the PNP to the
National Police Commission”.
- In its resolution numbered 92-36, approved the revised organizational structure
NAPOLCOM of the PNP on October 11, 1993, by virtue of NHQ, PNP, General Orders No. 834.
PCSUPT MILTON F TIBURCIO was designated as the Director of the Directorate
for Research and Development.
ACTIVATION:
The Directorate for Research and Development was activated on 1 November 1993 and
became operational on 16 January 1994 imbibing a conspicuous role in PNP organizational
which is to conduct research studies pertaining to criminalistics equipment and
investigative equipment / materials, communication-electronics and transportation,
weapons and clothing for effective and efficient maintenance of law and order and public
safety function and to uphold the furtherance of self-reliant development projects of the
PNP.
DIVISIONS OF DRD:
DIVISIONS OF DRD:
DIVISIONS OF DRD:
Policies Plans and Programs Division
Functions
1. Undertake program development, monitoring and evaluation of Research and
Development plans and programs of the PNP and recommend necessary amendment
thereof.
2. Formulate and implement policies and on matters falling under the area of concerns of
DRD.
3. Consolidate and review all DRD researchers and studies.
4. Conduct research and develop project proposals for the PNP Research and
Development Center (PNP-RDC).
5. Responsible in undertaking programs and activities of the Directorate for Research and
Development in complying with the requirements of the different PNP Strategic
programs.
6. Act as Assistant Secretariat of the UNiforms and Equipment Standardization Board
(UESB) and as Head of Secretariat of Test and Evaluation Board, Test Parameters Board
and Task Force “Bantay Bihis”.
7. Perform other tasks as directed by the Director, DRD.
Policies Plans and Programs Division
Functions
1. Undertake program development, monitoring and evaluation of Research and
Development plans and programs of the PNP and recommend necessary amendment
thereof.
2. Formulate and implement policies and on matters falling under the area of concerns of
DRD.
3. Consolidate and review all DRD researchers and studies.
4. Conduct research and develop project proposals for the PNP Research and
Development Center (PNP-RDC).
5. Responsible in undertaking programs and activities of the Directorate for Research and
Development in complying with the requirements of the different PNP Strategic
programs.
6. Act as Assistant Secretariat of the UNiforms and Equipment Standardization Board
(UESB) and as Head of Secretariat of Test and Evaluation Board, Test Parameters Board
and Task Force “Bantay Bihis”.
7. Perform other tasks as directed by the Director, DRD.

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Leadership, Decision making

management and administration

2. Why the qualities of a leader must be considered?

As a crucial component of management, remarkable

The organizations which are over managed and under-led do

Basis Manager Leader

Basis Manager Leader

Ethics refer to the desirable and appropriate values and morals

Ethical theories on leadership talk about two main things:

Scenario 1 was “Leading from the Front”, Scenario 2 was “Supportive

Some of the important leadership styles are as follows:

Does Ethical Leadership gives credit to one`s action?

1. House`s Path Goal Theory

House’s theory advocates servant leadership. As per servant

Are some people born to lead? If we look at the great leaders of

According to the contemporary theorists, leaders are

This orientation expresses an approach to the study of

Theory on this: The great man theory of leadership

The trait theory gives constructive information

Managers can utilize the information from the

The importance of potential differences in this respect is

LMX theory is an exceptional theory of leadership as unlike the

According to Koontz and O’Donnel, “Decision-making is the actual

While according to George R. Terry, “Decision-making is the selection

Decision-making has become a complex problem. A number of techniques, extending from

Decision-making has become a complex problem. A number of techniques, extending from

Finding a suitable solution for issues can be accomplished by

Problem Solving Chart

 - Specify underlying causes

 - Consult each faction involved for information

 - State the problem specifically

 - Identify what standard or expectation is violated

 - Determine in which process the problem lies

 - Avoid trying to solve the problem without data

 - Include all involved individuals in the generating of alternatives

 - Specify alternatives consistent with organizational goals

 - Specify short- and long-term alternatives

 - Brainstorm on others' ideas

 - Seek alternatives that may solve the problem

Problem Solving Chart

 - Evaluate all alternatives without bias

 - Evaluate alternatives relative to established goals

 - Evaluate both proven and possible outcomes

 - State the selected alternative explicitly

 - Seek acceptance or consensus by all those affected

 - Establish ongoing measures and monitoring

 - Evaluate long-term results based on final solution

Q: Why problem-solving is important?

Q: When decision is needed?

Leader role: hires, trains, and motivates his personnel.

Disseminator role: managers distribute information to subordinates daily.

Q: What is the responsibility of a manager?

Q: Do managers work independently?

Originally identified by Henri Fayol as five elements,

(PNP perspective) of planning

A goal – what do you want to attain?

Q: Why PLAN is essential for a person to succeed?

Communication refers to the process by which