NARRATIVE REPORT

Subject: DAP 211: ORGANIZATION & MANAGEMENT

Professor: Josephine V. Gimpaya, Ph.D.
Email Add: march14joy@gmail.com
CP No. 0917-8043450
Term: 2nd Semester 2021-2022
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UNIT 6: LEADING

Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students will:
1. Understand leading, and leaderships styles
2. Define motivation, and know the theories of motivation
3. Realize the qualities of a good leader
4. Identify the factors in managing diversity
5. Understand the Management Process
6. Appreciate the decision-making process, and the policy analysis
7. Grasp the meaning of Public Relations
8. Explain communication, and be an effective communicator in an organization

Introduction
Leading
Leading consists of motivating employees and influencing their behavior to achieve
organizational objectives. Leading focuses on managing people, such as individual
employees, teams and groups rather than tasks. Though managers may direct team
members by giving orders and directing to their team, managers who are successful
leaders usually connect with their employees by using interpersonal skills to encourage,
inspire and motivate team members to perform to the best of their abilities.
Managers can foster a positive working environment by identifying moments when
employees need encouragement or direction and using positive reinforcement to give
praise when employees have done their jobs well.
Managers usually incorporate different leadership styles and change their management
style to adapt to different situations. Examples of situational leadership styles include:
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1. Directing: The manager leads by deciding with little input from the employee. This
is an effective leadership style for new employees who need a lot of initial direction
and training.
2. Coaching: The manager is more receptive to input from employees. They may pitch
their ideas to employees to work cooperatively and build trust with team members.
This style of leadership is effective for individuals who need managerial support to
further develop their skills.
3. Supporting: The manager decides with team members but focuses more on building
relationships within the team. This style of leadership is effective for employees
who have fully developed skills but are sometimes inconsistent in their
performance.
4. Delegating: The leader provides a minimum of guidance to employees and is more
concerned with the vision of the project than day-to-day operations. This style of
leadership is effective with employees able to work and perform tasks on their own
with little guidance. The leader can focus more on high-level goals than on tasks.
LESSON 6.1. Leadership & Human Motivation
Leading – a management function that involves inspiring and influencing people in the
organization to achieve a common goal
Managing – the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational
objectives efficiently and ethically amid constant change. It also deals with planning,
organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling
There are at least two major influences that affect how individuals perform in their
environment. These influences include: i) the type of leadership that exists, and ii)
personal motivation. While neither is scientific in nature, there is significant research that
identifies some theories and general conclusions about why people perform, how they
perform, and why some people display different behaviors that puts them in positions of
leadership.
In addition to addressing leadership and motivation as theories rather than as scientific
fact, there are other issues about personal behaviour that must be considered. The most
basic concepts are that every person is (a) like every other person; (b) like some other
people; and (c) like no other person. A further explanation may help clarify this statement.
Every person is like every other person in that we have a need for food, water, shelter,
etc. We are like some other people in that we have similar personality traits which cause
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us to be more dominant and aggressive, while others may be more passive and submissive.
Finally, we are unique in that no other person has the same genetic make-up, past
experiences, or view of the world. It is these differences that suggest an analysis of
leadership and motivation can result in general conclusions about behaviour and
performance.
Human behaviour is as much a reflection of the differences between individuals as it is a
reflection of their similarities. These individual differences are caused by a number of
influences and characteristics. For example, personality traits focus on individual
differences that make each person a unique human being. Our biological make-up
concentrates on how we function as a result of our evolution and human inheritance. Our
behaviour is largely influenced by the system of rewards and punishments that are present
in our environment. Our cognitive approach focuses on how our thinking and memory
affects our behaviour. The fact that we are here at this time with immediate influences,
and the ability to express a free will, may present the greatest influence of all.
Any theories about leadership and motivation can be contradicted since these theories
have many exceptions. It is important that these theories are considered general
statements that have been confirmed through observational studies and are applicable
only to the extent that they reflect and are influenced by individual behaviour. We might
ask: “Why should we even pursue these topics if there are so many inconsistencies,
exceptions, and variables that affect conclusions?”. If we are searching for scientific
evidence that is universally applicable, we may be wasting our time, but if our goal is to
better understand human behaviour and its impacts on personal performance, the insights
gained from such theories and studies are invaluable.
Systems formerly made up of rules, regulations, and procedures are being replaced by
requirements for flexibility and customer service resulting in personal initiative,
empowerment, and greater levels of individual decision-making. To achieve this, it is
important to better understand human behaviour and some of the things that impact our
actions and reactions.
Motivation
Motivation can be defined as “the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a
goal” (Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler &Weick).
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Effort: The first aspect of motivation refers to the amount of effort being applied to the
job. This effort must be defined in relation to its appropriateness to the objectives being
pursued. One may, for example, apply tremendous effort to inappropriate tasks that do
not contribute to the achievement of the stated goals.
Persistence: The second characteristic relates to the willingness of the individual to stay
with a task until it is complete. For example, an important task that gets accomplished
with effort but allows the person to rest on their laurels for an extended period does not
display persistence.
Direction: Is the effort directed towards the organization’s goals or related to the
individual’s self-interest? Direction is therefore measured in terms of how persistent effort
is applied in relation to the goals being pursued.
Goals: There are two different kinds of goals being pursued simultaneously. They are
individual goals and organizational goals which may produce quite different results if they
are not compatible.
Next, we should distinguish between motivation and performance. While there may be
little doubt about the motivation of the individual in terms of effort, persistence, and
direction, there may be a lot of questions about the individual’s performance as it relates
to the organizational goals. The worker may be busy and factors such as skill levels, task
understanding, and aptitude may negatively impact performance. On the other hand, self-
interest may create its own motivation not related to the organizational goals.
People may be motivated by factors in the external environment such as pay, supervision,
benefits, and job perks. This is referred to as extrinsic motivation. They may also be
motivated by the relationship between the worker and the task. This type of motivation
is called intrinsic motivation. These factors often exist simultaneously, but we will
distinguish between them as they relate to specific levels of motivation.
We will explore three theories of motivation that are based on human needs. In assessing
these theories, we will try and identify what motivates people.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow developed a theory that humans have five sets of needs that are arranged
in a hierarchy. He contends that people start by trying to satisfy their most basic or
compelling needs and progress toward the most fulfilling. These needs are as follows:
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Physiological needs: These include the need for food, water, shelter, clothing and money.
Until an individual has access to these necessities, there can be no further progress. These
needs are very basic, and for the most part, society and our social network have ensured
that they are present. Intrinsic values include personal comfort and satisfaction, while
the extrinsic values are most often provided by the organization, the community, or
society.
Safety needs: These include security, stability, and a structured environment. Here, the
individual expects and pursues job security, a comfortable work environment, pension and
insurance plans, and freedom to organize in order to ensure continuation of these
benefits. Individual’s main objective is to ensure that benefits are protected or
employment needs are being met rather than contributing to long-term organizational
goals. Again, we see a dependance on the external environment to provide these supports.
Personal motivation may include the peace of mind that can be provided as a result of
these needs being secured.
Relationship needs: Relationship needs include socialization, affection, love
companionship, and friendship. The individual at this level participates for personal or
intrinsic rewards. Since no person can live for extended periods without interaction with
other people, the individual may be drawn to participate simply to fulfill this need.
Organizations that provide these opportunities include social clubs, singles clubs, seniors
clubs and service clubs, depending on the level of personal need. The organization can
assist by ensuring that the opportunity for social and relationship expectations are created
and met.
Esteem needs: These include feelings of adequacy, competence, independence,
confidence, appreciation, and recognition by others. Again, the individual is driven more
by internal or intrinsic needs. The external environment is needed more to provide
recognition than to provide material rewards. At this point, the intrinsic value is more
important than that which can be provided by outside influences. The ego seems to take
over here and the need is to ensure that it is satisfied.
Self-actualization: This area is the most difficult to define and therefore, may be the most
difficult to explain. Why does the successful business person need to pursue further wealth
when they have already accumulated more than they will ever need? The answer may lie
in the fact that motivation is more internal and therefore, even more individualistic.
Different people have different ideas about what they need to achieve in order to obtain
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true happiness. For the wealthy person, money may no longer be the motivator, it may
now be a need to exercise power or the adventure and adrenalin rush created as a result
of playing “high stakes games”. This becomes the intrinsic motivation. People who pursue
self-actualization are more accepting of reality, themselves, and others. Organizational
requirements may include the opportunity for creativity and growth. Frequently,
individuals aspiring to this level often operate outside existing organizations and instead
build their own structures to suit their individual needs.
In discussing this theory, it appears that the further up the scale an individual moves, the
more the rewards or motivators move from the external environment to an internal need.
It also becomes more difficult to influence motivation, since material rewards become
less relevant and internal rewards become more difficult to identify and address. In order
to enhance organizational performance, it is important that the organization recognize
the individual need and provide opportunities for satisfaction.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer developed another needs-based theory that supports in many ways, the
theory developed by Maslow, but consists of three rather than five basic needs. Alderfer
also sees his three levels which includes existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG) needs
as being hierarchical, and thus, influenced by personal growth and extrinsic and intrinsic
rewards.
Existence needs: These include needs that are satisfied by material substances or
conditions. They correspond closely to the physiological needs identified by Maslow and
those safety needs that can be satisfied by material rather than interpersonal rewards or
conditions. They include the need for food, shelter, pay, and safe working conditions.
Relatedness needs: These are needs that may be satisfied by communication, or exchange
and interaction with other individuals. There is a dependance on feedback from other
organizational or community members to fulfill these needs. Thus, the motivation is
provided by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. These rewards include
accurate and honest feedback, which may involve direction and advice rather than
unconditional pleasantness or agreement.
Growth needs: These are needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvement that fully
utilizes our skills, abilities, and creativity. They include Maslow’s self- actualization as
well as esteem needs that rely on intrinsic rewards.
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Both theories are also similar because they are hierarchical, and individuals will
concentrate on the achievement of the lowest level of need that is not fully satisfied.
Maslow contends that the lowest level of need must be satisfied before an individual can
proceed to the next higher level.
Alderfer theorizes that if a higher level need is unsatisfied, the individual will regress to
a desire to satisfy lower-level needs. Maslow believes that once a need is met, it is no
longer motivational.
Alderfer theorizes that while an individual may have met a higher-level need in one’s
personal life, for example, they may still be operating much lower on the scale where
skills, aptitude, and knowledge may affect performance and confidence.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Psychologist David McClelland contends that we develop a relatively stable personality
early in life that, once acquired, remains unchanged. McClelland, therefore, does not see
motivation as hierarchical. He does not address the issue of growth, but has been more
concerned with the behavioural consequences of need. The three areas of need he has
identified include the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for
power.
Need for achievement: Individuals in this category have a strong desire to perform
challenging tasks well. They have a preference for situations where personal responsibility
can be taken for successful outcomes. The goals they set provide for moderate and
calculated risk, and the individual seeks performance feedback to allow for modification
and to ensure success.
Need for affiliation: People in this category display a need to establish and maintain
friendly, compatible relationships. They have a need to like other people and want others
to like them. They have an ability to create social networks that will result in meeting
these needs.
Need for power: People in this category have a strong need to have influence over
others. They wish to make a significant impact and impression on those with whom they
come in contact. This need for power corresponds in many ways to Maslow’s esteem needs
where power is used to get attention or to build personal prestige.
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Since this theory is non-hierarchical, the growth pattern between intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards that are a major part of the earlier theories, do not appear to contain the same
significance.
McClelland contends that people will be motivated to seek out and perform well in jobs
that match their needs. These needs may include either of the three categories identified
above and are not contingent on any progression from one category to another.
The testing of these three theories has resulted in some conclusions that help us identify
the strengths and limitations of each approach. While Maslow’s theory is complicated and
contains more steps than the others, there is recognition of the progression from one level
to the other. Alderfer’s three levels seem to be simpler, less rigid, and therefore, may be
more satisfactory to those who wish to understand and apply a model to individual
behaviour. Results of McClelland’s research has been applied in organizational settings
and have been supportive of the idea that particular needs are motivational. Our former
theme, ‘when all else is consistent, the individual is different’, suggests that the
application of any theory of motivation has strengths and weaknesses that allow insight
into individual motivation and provide escapes for those times when the theory will let us
down. All theories contribute to a better understanding of human behaviour in general,
but specific application of theory depends on factors that respond to individual needs.
Motivational Goals
Carol Dweck theorizes that all goals a person might pursue fall into two distinct categories:
performance goals and learning goals. A performance goal is one in which the individual
is concerned with acquiring favorable judgement from his or her peers, supervisors, or
authority figures. A learning goal is one in which an individual uses feedback to increase
his or her competence.
If this theory is correct, it contains some further implications for motivation. Firstly, it
provides for a much better understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in relation to
performance. While favorable judgement from peers provides extrinsic rewards, the
intrinsic rewards come from both the acceptance of this judgement, and the direction
that it provides for further learning. The performer sees learning as a life-long process,
thus creating even greater levels of motivation.
Secondly, this theory provides a better understanding about failure and its impact on the
individual. Since we all fail sometimes, our ability to respond is an important factor in
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motivation. A person with a learning goal will respond to failure by trying even harder to
succeed the next time. In contrast, a person with a performance goal may respond to
failure by concluding that they cannot complete the task and may therefore, give up.
Dweck further theorizes that some people believe that personal qualities such as
intelligence and ability are fixed and unchangeable. This belief may lead people with
performance goals to conclude that they don’t have what it takes, and as a result, give
up, while others believe that intelligence and ability can change with time, education,
and experience. Their goal, therefore, is not to prove their competence but to increase
it, thus success and failure are learning experiences that cause them to try even harder
next time. Failure may even be seen as creating a greater challenge.
Leadership
In many circles, there is continuous debate about whether leaders are born or developed.
If we reflect on our earlier discussion about motivation, we will see that humans are very
complicated and are made up of a number of traits. As with motivation, these influences
are both inherited and acquired from our environment and influences, and consequently,
leadership theories will continue to be debated in the future. We will continue this
discussion on the assumption that leadership can be developed. Furthermore, for the
purpose of this unit, we will not distinguish between leaders and managers, but will use
the term leader to apply to any earned or appointed role that carries with it the exercise
of power and influence over others.
Leadership may be defined as: the influence that particular individuals (leaders) exert
upon the goal achievement of others (subordinates) in an organizational context. An
earlier unit on Board Governance addresses in a limited way, the impacts of leaders on
performance. We stated that leaders have an ability to see how different aspects of a
situation fit together and influence each other. They seek out alliances, opportunities,
and approach goals in a proactive way. They have a positive effect on others, which
attracts support from those who have similar needs for accomplishment. Their self
confidence creates a belief in other people’s abilities, therefore, emphasis is placed on
empowerment and freedom.
If we agree with these statements, then leadership has two distinct aspects: i) the
individual who exerts influence, and ii) those who are the objects of this influence.
Successful leadership depends, to a large extent, on the environment and situation in
which these dynamics exist.
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There are other issues that must also be acknowledged. There are two types of leaders:
emergent leaders - those who earn leadership positions through their expertise, skills,
abilities to influence others, or personal acceptability by the group; and assigned leaders
- those who are given power to exercise influence through appointment.
In general terms, both emergent and assigned leaders fulfill two different functions. They
must be able to provide social and emotional support to the group by listening,
acknowledging, teambuilding, and supporting other members in the group. This is referred
to as social-emotional support. The second factor is to provide direction and assistance to
the group in accomplishing their tasks. Successful leaders have the ability to identify and
apply the appropriate strategy at the right time. A group that is confused about the goals
of the organization, for example, will not respond well to a social-emotional approach,
nor will a group that is experiencing internal conflict and in need of team building skills
respond very positively to a request to improve individual performance.
The Search for Leadership
What are the qualities that make successful leaders? The lack of able officers in both the
First and Second World War led to a search for leaders. This continued after the war to
see if there were personality traits that distinguished leaders from followers. While some
general characteristics of leaders emerged, there were no conclusions whether personality
traits made up the leader or if the opportunity for leadership produced the traits. The
biggest weakness in the trait approach to leadership identification is its failure to take
into account the task, the subordinate, and the setting or environment in which work is
performed.
The study of emergent leaders gives some good clues to what qualities appointed leaders
must have to be successful. Emergent leaders hold their position as a consequence of their
appeal to their subordinates. Their role is safe only as long as the group is attracted to
these attributes and conditions. Should these positions change, or the group finds other
influences, a lack of support or outside forces may undermine the leader’s role. The role,
therefore, is dependant on performance and any real or perceived faltering will quickly
translate into lack of support. The present incumbent after losing support becomes
“dethroned” or replaced.
This fledgling type of leadership is what we most often observe in community groups and
organizations, politics, and citizen-led efforts. The leader is responsive to the group
agenda and is secure only as long as he or she remains responsive. Since most people are
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easily influenced and may change their minds as a result of immediate or emerging needs,
support is difficult to maintain. Leaders who find themselves in this position tend to try
and “ride out the storm” before subjecting themselves to any formal leadership review.
Assigned leaders draw their power and influence from sources outside the group, and in
most cases, have been given some power to assign tasks, and hand out rewards and
punishments based on performance. Rewards may include compliments, tangible benefits,
and deserved special treatment. When well thought out, with clear criteria rewards that
compliment individual needs can be very motivational. On the other hand, leaders who
have no authority to provide rewards may attempt to create them by giving compliments
and praise and making promises they can’t deliver. Over time, this tends to demotivate,
leads to a loss of loyalty, creates dissension and eventually causes the group to become
dysfunctional.
Punishments may include reprimands, unfavorable task assignments, and withholding of
raises, promotions, and other rewards. At best, punishments seem to have minimal impact
on satisfaction or productivity. At worst, punishments are seen as random, not contingent
on behaviour or performance and most often poorly administered. Leaders who have
access only to punishments often resort to identifying degrees of unfavorable behaviour,
and dole out punishment accordingly.
House’s Path-Goal Theory
According to Robert House, the most important activities of leaders are those that clarify
the path to various goals of interest to subordinates, thus effective leaders form a
connection between subordinate goals and organizational goals. Since leadership is about
increasing group performance through motivation, the leader must be more concerned
with job satisfaction and the creation of a clear picture of how subordinates can gain
rewards based on performance. House’s theory is concerned with four different kinds of
leader behaviour. These include:
• Directive behaviour: This includes scheduling work, maintaining performance
standards, and letting subordinates know what is expected from them.
• Supportive behaviour: A leader displaying this behaviour is friendly, approachable,
and concerned with pleasant interpersonal relationships.
• Participative behaviour: Leaders who practice this behaviour consult with their
subordinates, and consider their opinions.
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• Achievement-orientated behaviour: This behaviour encourages subordinates to

exert higher efforts and strive for a higher level of goal accomplishment. Leaders
demonstrating this behaviour express confidence that subordinates can reach these
goals.
Situational Factors
Subordinate characteristics and environmental factors greatly influence the success, and
create the opportunity for successful leadership. Firstly, individual characteristics affect
the achievement levels that can reasonably be expected. Secondly, subordinates have
individual needs that must be met if their performance and motivation level is to remain
high. Thirdly, subordinate’s aptitude and abilities will affect both the performance and
the response of other co-workers.
Environmental factors that impact on leadership include the following:
• The appropriateness of the leader’s style to the situation will have a major impact
on the behaviour of the group.
• Task clarity, urgency and subordinate empathy will affect performance and
motivation.
• Leader qualifications and knowledge will build group confidence and loyalty.
• There is probably no substitute for being in the right place at the right time.
Successful leaders will take advantage of the motivating and satisfying aspects of jobs
while offsetting or compensating for those factors that demotivate or dissatisfy. There is
evidence that this theory works better in predicting job satisfaction and leader
acceptance than increasing subordinate performance.
Participative Leadership
We have seen in an earlier unit (Public Participation) that there are differing degrees or
levels of participation. These range from total involvement of subordinates in planning,
implementation, and evaluation to simple requests for assistance where such participation
is a necessary ingredient for success. Given this fact, we can easily see that participation
will not be successful in all situations. While public or community involvement will provide
much better results in compiling a strategic plan for the community, you would not apply
a public participation model if you were trying to escape from a burning building.
Public or community participation can contribute to the following:
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• Motivation: Participation can contribute to identifying and establishing group

goals and how they can be accomplished. It can also contribute to intrinsic
motivation by enriching subordinates jobs through variety, autonomy, and
empowerment.
• Quality: There is an old saying that “two heads are better than one”. In many cases
this is true of participation. Subordinates have knowledge and expertise that the
leader may not have, thus this combination of leader and subordinate expertise can
lead to higher quality processes and solutions. In addition, the qualities of
empowerment allow employees to take direct action to solve problems.
• Acceptance: Participation can increase subordinates acceptance of the decision
since they were involved in making the decision in the first place. There is also a
better chance of subordinates seeing decisions as being more fair when they have
had input into these decisions.
Participative leadership can also create problems. The time and energy spent in calling
meetings, soliciting ideas and training participants may affect deadlines. The involvement
of subordinates may be perceived as a loss or sharing of power, thus creating resentment
at the leadership level. This may affect the performance of leaders which in turn, may
affect subordinate performance.
Some workers may not want to be involved in the decision-making aspects of jobs. When
the leader is distrusted or when a poor labor relations climate is present, subordinates
may see their participation as “doing management’s job”. When governments attempt to
involve the community in education reform, health care, economic and social
development, it may be perceived as “down loading”, especially if these activities are
undertaken in conjunction with other programs and economic cutbacks.
It appears that broad-based participation in short-term projects may not be as
advantageous as implementing a participation model among a group of employees that
will be part of the same team for an extended period, and have become very
knowledgeable and proficient at their job. Inability to recognize this can lead to a lack of
confidence in the process, the leaders, and create resistance to participation.
Vroom’s and Jago’s Leadership Styles
What are some of the options available to leaders? Victor Vroom and Arthur Jago
maintained that there are three different types of leader behaviour. Leaders use either
an autocratic, consultative, or group decision-making style.
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• Autocratic: This style states that the leader solves the problem or makes the
decision using information available to him or her at the time. In some cases, the
leader may consult with subordinates to obtain information, but at no time does
subordinate input include decision-making. The decision is passed on to
subordinates for implementation.
• Consultative: The leader shares the problem with subordinates and gets their input.
Subordinate involvement is seen as either a collective or individual request for
information which may or may not influence the decision. The leader reserves the
right to make that decision.
• Group: The leader shares the problem with subordinates as a group, obtains their
collective input and tries to reach consensus on the solution. The leader acts as a
facilitator or chairman, trying not to influence input and accepting any solution
that the group may suggest.
With these three different approaches, we can also see that there are differing degrees
within this spectrum that the leader may apply. According to Vroom and Jago, the
approach depends on the situation or problem at hand. The leader’s goal should be to
make the highest quality decision with the highest level of subordinate support.
Leader Qualities
It is apparent that leaders must possess many qualities in order to be successful and
maintain the support of subordinates. The following is a partial list of these qualities.

• Intellectual stimulation: People are stimulated to think of problems and solutions

in new and different ways. This depends on creativity, novelty and the ability to
help people empathize with a new situation.
• Energy: The leader must be willing to exert the energy and effort that is necessary
to see the task through to completion. Leaders show by example.
• Self-confidence: Leaders are self assured and possess a confidence in the task, their
ability to perform, and the abilities of subordinates to contribute.
• Assertiveness: Leaders express their feelings honestly and directly in appropriate,
spontaneous, and non-manipulative ways. Assertiveness communicates respect for
others while acting in one’s own best interest.
• Dominance: When appropriate, successful leaders must be able to take control and
dominate an issue, environment or situation. The successful leader also knows when
to relinquish control and involve others.
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• Motivation: Successful leaders know what they want, have a clear path to
achieving it, and are “driven” by intrinsic rewards. Whether it’s Maslows need for
self-actualization, Alderfer’s growth needs, or McClelland’s need for power,
leaders are driven by a need for success and achievement.
• Honesty and Integrity: To be recognized for the right reasons, leaders must be
seen as being above reproach. Honesty and integrity are two factors that allow
leaders to enjoy the support of subordinates. Without these qualities, there is a
perception of mistrust which leads to a lack of confidence.
• Charisma: Charismatic leaders possess the personal qualities that give them the
potential to have extraordinary influence over others. They tend to command
strong loyalty and devotion and in turn, inspire enthusiastic dedication and
commitment to the leader and his or her mission. Dedication is inspired from an
emotional commitment and followers come to trust and identify with the leader.
Charismatics tend to possess all of the qualities noted above, and there is some
argument that charisma is in itself a style of leadership
A single theory of motivation in isolation may provide some understanding of human
behaviour, but by combining these theories, one may see patterns that assist in
understanding why some people participate as they do. For example, the works of Maslow
and Alderfer to some extent may provide understanding of why some people participate
at higher levels than others and identify some of the rewards that may help this level of
participation to continue. Our observations of leaders when combined with the leadership
styles discussed in this unit will help us understand why some leaders perform successfully,
why some encounter difficulties and still others struggle with low levels of support while
displaying high technical abilities.
Understanding leadership and motivation opens our minds to new thought processes of
how people behave and why, helps understand some general principles of human
behaviour and allows us to use these theories as a guide for our participation, analysis and
understanding of group behaviour. This understanding can serve us best in selecting
individuals who display some of these qualities to fill specific roles in our organizations
and communities.
LESSON 6.2. Managing Diverse Human Resource
For an organization looking to cultivate a more diverse and inclusive workplace, it is
important to understand what constitutes workplace diversity.
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Workplace diversity refers to the variety of differences between individuals in an

organization. Diversity not only includes how individuals identify themselves but also how
others perceive them. Diversity within a workplace encompasses race, gender, ethnic
groups, age, religion, sexual orientation, citizenship status, military service and mental
and physical conditions, as well as other distinct differences between people.

Benefits

What are the benefits of diversity in the workplace? Well, there are many benefits to
having a diverse workplace. Organizations that commit to recruiting a diverse workforce
have a larger pool of applicants to choose from, which can lead to finding more qualified
candidates and reducing the time it takes to fill vacant positions. Businesses that do not
recruit from diverse talent pools run the risk of missing out on qualified candidates and
may have a more difficult time filling key roles, which increases recruitment costs.

According to a survey conducted by Glassdoor, 67 percent of job seekers said a diverse

workforce is important when considering job offers and 57 percent of employees think
their companies should be more diverse. These numbers are telling. Not only can
organizations fill positions with qualified candidates more quickly by recruiting from
different talent pools, but a diverse workforce also benefits their employer brand which
is crucial when it comes to getting the right talent.

Having a diverse workforce with multi-lingual employees and employees from varying
ethnic backgrounds can also be helpful for organizations who want to expand or improve
operations in international, national, regional and local markets.

MORE BENEFITS TO HAVING DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE:

• Employees from diverse backgrounds imbue organizations with creative new ideas
and perspectives informed by their cultural experiences
• A diverse workplace will help organizations better understand target demographics
and what moves them
• A diverse workplace can better align an organization’s culture with the
demographic make-up of America
• Increased customer satisfaction by improving how employees interact with a more
diverse clientele and public
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Managing Diversity

Managing diversity in the workplace presents a set of unique challenges for HR

professionals. These challenges can be mitigated if an organization makes a concerted
effort to encourage a more heterogeneous environment through promoting a culture of
tolerance, open communication and creating conflict management strategies to address
issues that may arise.

For leadership to effectively manage diversity in the workplace, they need to understand
their backgrounds and how their behavior and beliefs can affect their decision-making
within a diverse environment.

• PRIORITIZE COMMUNICATION
To manage a diverse workplace, organizations need to ensure that they effectively
communicate with employees. Policies, procedures, safety rules and other
important information should be designed to overcome language and cultural
barriers by translating materials and using pictures and symbols whenever
applicable.

• TREAT EACH EMPLOYEE AS AN INDIVIDUAL

Avoid making assumptions about employees from different backgrounds. Instead,
look at each employee as an individual and judge successes and failures on the
individual’s merit rather than attributing actions to their background.

• ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO WORK IN DIVERSE GROUPS

Diverse work teams let employees get to know and value one another on an
individual basis and can help break down preconceived notions and cultural
misunderstandings.

• BASE STANDARDS ON OBJECTIVE CRITERIA

Set one standard of rules for all groups of employees regardless of background.
Ensure that all employment actions, including discipline, follow this standardized
criteria to make sure each employee is treated the same.

• BE OPEN-MINDED
Recognize, and encourage employees to recognize, that one’s own experience,
background, and culture are not the only with value to the organization. Look for
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ways to incorporate a diverse range of perspectives and talents into efforts to

achieve organizational goals.

• HIRING
To build a diverse workplace, it is crucial to recruit and hire talent from a variety
of backgrounds. This requires leadership and others who make hiring decisions to
overcome bias in interviewing and assessing talent. If organizations can break
through bias and hire the most qualified people, those with the right education,
credentials, experience and skill sets, a diverse workplace should be the natural
result.

Tips for hiring a diverse workforce:

• Incorporate a diverse interview panel to ensure candidates are chosen solely based
on suitability for the position.
• Managers should be trained on what can and cannot be asked in an interview. For
example, questions about an applicant’s personal life, such as which church they
attend, their romantic life and political beliefs, are off-limits.
• Get creative when recruiting. For example, if an organization would like to hire
more women in the engineering department, they could reach out to professional
groups that cater to women in engineering and ask to advertise open positions in
their newsletter or member communications.

Policies and Practices

Organizations that embrace diversity also need to ensure that there are policies and
practices in place to protect employees’ rights and stay compliant with government
regulations.

It is essential for an organization to think about the impact that company policies and
practices have on a diverse group of employees. Companies should create a way for
employees to give feedback with surveys and suggestion boxes to gain a better
understanding of how employees feel about diversity policies. Any feedback received,
both positive and negative, is valuable. Companies need to be ready to adapt and change
policies that may be interpreted as obstructions or not helpful for employees.
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In addition to the written policies, it is also essential to ensure that the non-official “rules”
of an organization are thoroughly explained to all employees to communicate company
values and culture to all workers effectively.

DOCUMENTATION OF POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Properly documenting diversity policies is an effective means of communicating an
organization’s stances on diversity. Once concrete plans are ready to be implemented,
documents that outline each policy should be included in the employee handbook.
Diversity policies should be reviewed with every new hire, and when updates to policies
are made, they should be shared with current employees as well.

Employee handbooks should cover diversity in the following sections:

• Code of conduct should outline the company’s policy toward diversity

• Non-discrimination policy lets employees know about diversity
• Compensation and benefits policy
• Employment conditions and termination

ZERO-TOLERANCE POLICY
Having a diverse workplace means that off-color jokes about ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation or religion need to be met with zero-tolerance enforcement. Slurs, name-
calling and bullying employees for any reason has no place in today’s workplace. Policies
should be put in place to handle misconduct and communicate to employees that this type
of behavior will not be tolerated.

Organizations will also need to make sure employees feel safe reporting any instances of
inappropriate behavior by co-workers by establishing a formal complaint policy, so
employees know how to report misconduct to the proper authority within an organization.

SENSITIVITY TRAINING
Employees need to be aware of how to coexist with a diverse range of people, as well as
be cognizant of cultural sensitivity, to achieve harmony within a diverse workplace.
Sensitivity training can help an organization manage diversity in the workplace by helping
employees become more self-aware, which plays a vital role in helping employees
understand their own cultural biases and prejudices.
 NARRATIVE REPORT

Benefits of sensitivities training:

• Helps employees examine and adjust their perspectives about people from
different backgrounds
• Employees can learn to better appreciate the views of others
• Shows employees what actions are offensive and why they are perceived as such
• Teaches employees how to calmly communicate that a co-worker has offended
them and how to resolve the conflict properly
• Explains to employees how to apologize to a co-worker if they have indeed offended
them unknowingly
• All employees should be included in sensitivity training; adding specific training for
managers makes it even more impactful. Some companies also offer sensitivity
training online.

STAY ABREAST OF DIVERSITY LAWS

Managing diversity in the workplace means that businesses need to keep abreast of
changing employer-related laws and trends, especially diversity-related
changes. Organizations should regularly review internal policies, especially those around
harassment and equal opportunity, and make sure they reflect the most current laws and
regulations. If an organization has an international or multi-state presence, it is necessary
to track regional changes to laws and regulations as they vary from country to county and
state to state.

Importance
Encouraging diversity is the way forward for organizations. In a global talent market,
businesses that can successfully manage diversity in the workplace will have a definite
competitive advantage over others in terms of differentiation, innovation, and employer
branding.
LESSON 6.3. The Management Processes

We have defined management as a process to achieve organizational goals. A process is a

set of activities that are ongoing and interrelated. Ongoing means that the activities are
not done in a linear, step-by-step fashion where responsibility is passed from one activity
to the next. Instead, the activities are continued as new activities are
started. Interrelated means that the results of each activity influence the other activities
and tasks. It is the responsibility of management to see that essential activities are done
efficiently (in the best possible way) and effectively (doing the right thing).
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The management process consists of four primary functions that managers must perform:
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. It is important to realize that the
management process is not always linear. It does not always start with planning and
continue through each step until organizational goals are achieved because it is not
possible to plan for every problem the organization will face. As the management process
proceeds, changes and modifications are made when unforeseen events arise. Managers
make sure the necessary changes are implemented and that the unity and integrity of the
entire process is maintained.
Planning
Planning means defining performance goals for the organization and determining what
actions and resources are needed to achieve the goals. Through planning, management
defines what the future of the organization should be and how to get there. Strategic
plans are long-term and affect the entire organization. A strategic plan bridges the gap
between what an organization is and what it will become. Tactical plans translate
strategic plans into specific actions that need to be implemented by departments
throughout the organization. The tactical plan defines what has to be done, who will do
it, and the resources needed to do it.
For instance, recall the example used at the beginning of this module. It described how
ThyssenKrupp AG decided to become an elevator manufacturing and servicing company
because of increased competition from Chinese steel. The management of the company
set a goal of deriving the majority of its revenue from elevator-related activities. To do
this, the management team made plans to create partnerships or take over existing
elevator companies. The team devised plans to develop new human resources and to
acquire other material resources. The company also had to divest existing steel-related
resources to raise capital for the new initiative. This example is a long-term strategic plan
that will take years to complete and require many changes along the way. But it starts by
defining a goal and a preliminary path to achieve it.
Organizing
Once plans are made, decisions must be made about how to best implement the plans.
The organizing function involves deciding how the organization will be structured (by
departments, matrix teams, job responsibilities, etc.). Organizing involves assigning
authority and responsibility to various departments, allocating resources across the
organization, and defining how the activities of groups and individuals will be coordinated.
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In the case of ThyssenKrupp AG, the management had to determine how to support two
very different sets of activities if it were to achieve its long-term goal. Management
needed to continue steel production activities to provide continuity of funds as the
emphasis gradually shifted to elevator production. It also had to develop new skills and
resources to build the company’s elevator capabilities. A new organizational structure was
needed that could support both business activities as one was downsized and the other
built up.
Leading
Nearly everything that is accomplished in an organization is done by people. The best
planning and organizing will not be effective if the people in the organization are not
willing to support the plan. Leaders use knowledge, character, and charisma to generate
enthusiasm and inspire effort to achieve goals. Managers must also lead by communicating
goals throughout the organization, by building commitment to a common vision, by
creating shared values and culture, and by encouraging high performance. Managers can
use the power of reward and punishment to make people support plans and goals. Leaders
inspire people to support plans, creating belief and commitment. Leadership and
management skills are not the same, but they can and do appear in the most effective
people.
It is very difficult to motivate people when plans involve radical change, particularly if
they include downsizing and layoffs. Many people are naturally resistant to change. When
the change means loss of jobs or status, people will be very resistant. At ThyssenKrupp,
the labor unions vehemently opposed the shift from steel production to elevator
manufacturing. Although the people involved in the new business functions were excited
by the plans, people involved with steel production felt abandoned and demotivated.
Management would have been wise to get union support for its vision of the company’s
new future.
Controlling
There is a well-known military saying that says no battle plan survives contact with the
enemy. This implies that planning is necessary for making preparations, but when it’s time
to implement the plan, everything will not go as planned. Unexpected things will happen.
Observing and responding to what actually happens is called controlling. Controlling is the
process of monitoring activities, measuring performance, comparing results to objectives,
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and making modifications and corrections when needed. This is often described as
a feedback loop, as shown in the illustration of a product design feedback loop.
Controlling may be the most important of the four management functions. It provides the
information that keeps the corporate goal on track. By controlling their organizations,
managers keep informed of what is happening; what is working and what isn’t; and what
needs to be continued, improved, or changed. ThyssenKrupp had little experience in
elevator manufacturing when it was making plans. It was developing new products and
processes and entering new markets. The management knew it could not anticipate all
the difficulties it would encounter. Close monitoring as the plan progressed allowed the
company to make changes and state-of-the-art innovations that have resulted in a very
successful transition.

LESSON 6.4. Decision Making & Policy Analysis

Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering

information, and assessing alternative resolutions. Using a step-by-step decision-making
process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful decisions by organizing relevant
information and dening alternatives. This approach increases the chances that you will
choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

Factors Affecting Decision:

• Vision – Is there a vision?

• Mission – Do my decisions reflect the mission of accomplishing the vision?
• Perception – Does my decision glorify God? Will my decisions help or hinder my
business, family, or neighbor.
• Priority – Rank your priorities by importance Acceptability –
• Risk – Is the reward of the decision worth the risk?
• Resources – Do I have resources; such as, wisdom, knowledge, finances, people,
sales, marketing, production just to name a few?
• Goals - Develop strategies to accomplish the mission.
• Values –Are they ethical? Will this decision impact employer and employees in a
positive way?
• Demands – What will be required to accomplish the mission? Do I have a plan? Time?
Labor? Facilities?
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• Style – How will I handle the positives and negatives of the decision? Will I be
proactive or passive?
• Judgment – Will I be able to assess the decision? Make adjustments if necessary? Be
flexible? Weigh the positives against the negatives? Is the decision profitable to the
mission and does it accomplish the vision?

Six C’s of Decision Making:

• Construct a clear picture of precisely what must be decided.
• Compile a list of requirements that must be met.
• Collect information on alternatives that meet the requirements.
• Compare alternatives that meet the requirements.
• Consider the ―what might go wrong‖ factor with each alternative.
• Commit to a decision and follow through with it.

7 STEPS TO EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the
decision you must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is
needed, the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal
and external “work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-
assessment. Other information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other
people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or
alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct
new alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out
each of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would
be met or resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult
internal process, you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a
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higher potential for reaching your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order,
based upon your own value system.
Step 5: Choose among alternatives
Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that
seems to be best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your
choice in Step 5 may very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at
the top of your list at the end of Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative
you chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has
resolved the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need,
you may want to repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example,
you might want to gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore
additional alternatives.

What is Policy Making?

Before proceeding to understand the meaning of Policy Making, let’s first establish the
meaning of the word ‘policy‘. The term ‘policy’ has been defined as a course or principle
of action adopted and/or proposed by the government or executive of a state or by the
management of any organization. Simply put, it refers to a proposed plan or strategy in
relation to the state or an organization. This simplifies the term Policy Making. Based on
the definition of policy, we can understand the term Policy Making to mean the making or
creation of such a policy or policies. Traditionally, it is defined as the formulation of
ideas or plans that are used by the government or an organization. It also refers to the
act or process of planning or directing a particular course of action to be taken by the
government or an organization.

Policy Making by the government is at a high level and also entails the act or process of
creating laws or regulations. An example of this is when the executive, typically the
president and his/her cabinet, draft a bill pertaining to the prohibition of certain criminal
activities or smoking. The goal behind Policy Making is to ensure the improvement in the
quality of life of citizens, address economic and/or social challenges or problems, regulate
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industries and businesses and ensure the development of the state. Policy making is a
power that is vested in the executive branch of the country.

Why is policy analysis important?

Conducting a policy analysis ensures you have gone through a systematic process to choose
the policy option that may be best for your situation.

Who should you involve in your policy analysis?

1. People who can provide and/or interpret information about the policy
Who they are:
• Subject matter experts
• Economists
• Community Partners
How they can contribute:
• Provide and interpret information you need for your policy analysis

2. People affected by the policy

Who they are:
People whose jobs or lives might be affected by the policy
• Community members
• Community partners
• Local decision makers
How they can contribute:
• Provide contextual knowledge, such as potential social, educational, and
cultural perspectives

3. People who administer resources related to the policy

Who they are:
• Public officials and administrators
How they can contribute:
• Include these stakeholders during the policy analysis process to help you
understand the potential economic and/or budgetary impacts of the policy
options being considered. They can also help you understand the legal landscape
around the potential policies
STEPS IN POLICY ANALYSIS

1. Research and identify possible policy options.

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You can do this by reviewing research literature, conducting an environmental scan, and
surveying best practices to understand what other communities are doing.

2. Describe the possible policy options.

As you conduct your policy analysis, pay attention to the health impact, cost of
implementation, and feasibility of each option. To describe these three factors, you can
ask yourself and your stakeholders questions such as:

• What population(s) will be affected by each policy option? By how much? And when?
• What is the context around the possible policy options, including political history,
environment, and policy debate?
• What are the costs and benefits associated with each policy option from a budgetary
perspective?
When you are assessing feasibility, it is important to identify any barriers that could
prevent a policy from being developed, enacted, or implemented. A policy might be more
feasible in one city or at a certain time, but not others. You might find that as
circumstances change, what is considered affordable or publicly acceptable may change
with them.

3. Rank the possible policy options and pick the one you think is best.

Compare the policy options for health impact, economic and budgetary impact, and
feasibility. Next, rank each one based on those criteria. Stakeholders can provide guidance
on how to do this. Your rankings will always be partially subjective, so it helps to
systematically document your rationale. In some cases, your review may reveal a clear
winner—a policy that is a) feasible, b) has a strong, positive impact on public health, and
c) is economically and fiscally viable. In other cases, ranking the options may be more
complicated and involve assessing trade-offs.

For example, when considering policies for reducing smoking, there are trade-offs related
to feasibility and impact between options. (Feasibility and impact depends on your
context, like your location.) You may have to have choose between a more feasible policy
(like an indoor smoking ban for restaurants) and one with more widespread impact (like
raising prices on tobacco products in your state).
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How do you know you have successfully completed your policy analysis?

• You researched and identified possible policy options with a literature review,
environmental scans, and surveys of best practices
• You described possible policy options, including each one’s health impact, cost of
implementation, and feasibility
• You ranked each policy option based on health impact, economic and budgetary
impact, and feasibility—and then chose the one you think is best for your situation

LESSON 6.5. Public Relations and Communication

Public Relations

Public relations refers to the practice of enhancing an organization’s reputation in the

eyes of public, stakeholders, employees, investors and all others associated with it. Public
relations experts are specially hired by organizations who work hard towards maintaining
brand image of organization.

Understanding Public Relations

Although not inherent in the definition, PR is often thought of as "spin," with the goal
being to present the person, company, or brand in the best light possible. PR differs from
advertising in that PR attempts to represent a person or brand's image in ways that will
appear organic, such as generating good press from independent sources and
recommending business decisions that will incur public support. Loosely defined until the
mid-twentieth century, PR is one of the fastest-growing industries in the United States.

PR is essential to any company's success, especially when shares in the company are
publicly traded and the value of a share depends on the public's confidence in a company
or brand. In addition to handling media requests, information queries, and shareholder
concerns, PR personnel are frequently responsible for crafting and maintaining the
corporation's image. Occasionally, PR professionals engage in negative PR or willful
attempts to discredit a rival brand or company, although such practices are not in keeping
with the industry's code of ethics.

Public Relations in Practice

PR also involves managing a company's reputation in the eyes of its customers. In a 2012
PR crisis, restaurant chain Chick-fil-A was forced to issue emergency statements with
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respect to its stance on same-sex marriage after a Chick-fil-A executive publicly came
out against marriage equality. The statement stressed the company's "biblically-based
principles" and its belief in treating "every person with honor, dignity, and respect."1 It
was an example of how companies must exercise good PR. Most major companies have a
PR department or utilize the services of an outside firm.

A company often has multiple publics to impress. Internally, a company will want to
present itself as competently operated to its investors and biggest shareholders, which
can involve arranging product demonstrations or other events directed towards
shareholders.

Externally, a company that sells a good or service directly to consumers will want to
present a public image that will encourage genuine, lasting brand support, which extends
beyond the somewhat knowingly specious goals of advertising.

Communication

Communication plays an essential role in effective public relations. Two way

communication between both the parties is essential and information must flow in its
desired form between the organization and public. The receiver must understand what
the sender intends to communicate for an effective public relation. The receivers (public,
target audience, stakeholders, employees, investors) must clearly understand the
sender’s message. (organization in this case).

The message/information needs to create an impact in the minds of customers for an

effective brand positioning. Communication needs to have a strong influence on the target
audience for them to remain loyal towards the organization.

In public relations, the receivers play a crucial role than the sender. The sender
(organization) must ensure that the receivers interpret the information correctly and also
give necessary feedbacks and reviews. It is really essential for the sender to understand
its target audience. Public relations experts must do extensive research and gather as
much information as they can before planning any public relation activity. Public relation
activities would go unnoticed if receivers to not understand it well. Public relation
activities must be designed keeping in mind the benefits of the target audience for a
better brand positioning.
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Good communication can help you:

• Improve relationships and teamwork

• Improve performance and productivity
• Foster an open, creative environment
• Solve problems effectively

Steps in becoming a better communicator:

Your responsibility as a supervisor is to communicate clearly and concisely to all
employees and create an environment conducive to openness for others. As the staff
become more diverse, you may have to take extra time and effort to communicate to all
staff members. To become a better communicator:

• Create an open communication environment in your unit. Encourage employees

to talk about work issues; listen carefully and respond to questions or concerns with
actions or answers. If an issue is outside your authority, pass it along to the
appropriate person; then be sure to follow up.
• Conduct regular staff meetings. Tell your staff about decisions that may affect
them or the work they do and the reasons for those decisions. Use staff meetings
to encourage feedback, generate ideas, solve problems, and gain support.
• Set up individual meetings. Set some time aside periodically to meet one-on-one
with employees. Group staff meetings are important; however, meeting separately
with your employees shows concern about their individual work issues.

Effective Listening

An important ingredient that runs through all good communication is listening. Listening
is a skill that can be practiced and learned. Your goal as a listener is to fully understand
your employee's experience and point of view. Give the employee a chance to talk for a
while before you say anything.

• Use non-verbal communication. Be aware of what you communicate with your

body; your posture and expressions can convey your attitudes toward a speaker
even before you say one word. Use body language to show the speaker that you are
engaged in the conversation and open to hearing.
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• Recognize your own prejudices. Be aware of your own feelings toward the
speaker. If you are unsure about what the speaker means, ask for clarification
instead of making assumptions.
• Listen to understand the underlying feelings. Use your heart as well as your mind
to understand the speaker. Notice how something is said as well as the actual words
used.
• Don't interrupt: Be sure you think carefully before you speak. As a listener, your
job is to help the speaker express himself.
• Don't judge the person: A speaker who feels you are making judgments will feel
defensive. Avoid making judgments and instead try to empathize and understand
the speaker's perspective.
• Do not give advice: Keep in mind that the best resolutions are those that people
arrive at themselves, not what someone else tells them to do. If you feel it is
appropriate, and only after you have encouraged the person to talk, offer some
ideas and discuss them.

Responding
After you have listened and really heard, respond by conveying your interest and respect:

• Empathize: Put yourself in the other person's shoes and try to understand.
• Validate: Acknowledge that the person's feelings are valid. This is a very powerful
tool because you are recognizing the person's right to feel that way, regardless of
whether you would feel the same way.
• Restate what the other person has said: this allows you to make sure you
understand the feelings and shows you are listening. Point out the good things the
person has done or tried to do.
• Clarify: Ask questions to get more information about the problem.
• Summarize: Paraphrase the main points you have heard so that you can make sure
you understand all the issues.
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References
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https://www.cdc.gov/policy/polaris/policyprocess/policyanalysis/index.html
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-policy-making-and-vs-
decision-making/
http://fgbt.org/Files/BusinessSeminarPDFs/The6Cs.pdf
https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/m/72B7424E26ADE1AFC12582520051E25
E_Guide%20to%20policy%20analysis.pdf
https://www.lucidchart.com/blog/decision-making-process-steps
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CIDE%20Decision-Making%20Model.pdf
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functions-of-
management/#:~:text=The%20management%20process%20consists%20of,organizing%2C%2
0leading%2C%20and%20controll
https://pracademy.co.uk/insights/public-relations-as-communication-management/
https://www.managementstudyguide.com/communication-and-public-relations.htm
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a-manageme.html
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-531-90918-9_7?noAccess=true
https://hr.berkeley.edu/hr-network/central-guide-managing-hr/managing-
hr/interaction/communication
https://hr.berkeley.edu/hr-network/central-guide-managing-hr/managing-
hr/interaction/communication/principles
https://nacmnet.org/wp-content/uploads/Communication-in-the-Workplace-Reference-
Guide.pdf
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