Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Relationship between physicochemical characteristics of Korean

wheat flour and quality attributes of steamed bread
Ji-Eun Kim1, Byung-Kee Baik2, Chul Soo Park1, Jae-Han Son3, Chang-Hyun Choi3, Youngjun Mo3,
Tae-Il Park3, Chon-Sik Kang3*, Seong-Woo Cho1*

1
Department of Crop Science & Biotechnology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Korea
2
USDA-ARS CSWQRU, Soft Wheat Quality Laboratory, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
3
National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Korea

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to identify major factors affecting the manufacture and quality of steamed bread, consumed
in Southeast Asia including China, Japan, and Korea. Hence, flours of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were used to evaluate
quality attributes of two different styles of steamed bread, Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese
steamed bread (NSCSB). KSSB prepared more ingredients and higher optimum water absorption of dough than NSCSB
because Korean consumers prefer white and glossy surface and soft crumb. KSSB showed lower height, larger diameter
and volume of steamed bread, higher stress relaxation, and softer texture of crumb than NSCSB. The correlation between
flour characteristics and quality of steamed bread was different in KSSB and NSCSB. About 90% of variability in the height
and volume of KSSB could be predicted from protein content, mixing tolerance of Mixograph, average particle size of flour,
final viscosity and solvent retention capacity. Protein content and quality parameters also could explain the variation of
steamed bread height in NSCSB. Korean wheat carrying Glu-A3c allele produced higher volume of steamed bread (704.7 mL)
than Glu-A3d allele (645.8 mL) in KSSB, although there was no significant difference in volume of NSCSB by glutenin
compositions. Glu-D1d and Glu-A3c alleles had softer texture of crumb than Glu-D1f and Glu-A3d alleles in KSSB, Glu-B3i
allele also showed lower hardness of crumb than their counterpart allele in NSCSB. Hard wheat showed higher height and
volume of steamed bread, and lower stress relaxation and hardness of crumb than soft wheat in KSSB.

Keywords: steamed bread, quality, wheat, flour, evaluation

1. Introduction

Steamed bread has been consumed in Southeast Asia

Received 29 November, 2018 Accepted 28 February, 2019 including China, Japan, and Korea for a long time. Steamed
Correspondence Chon-Sik Kang, Tel/Fax: +82-63-238-5453, bread is known to originate from the Chinese steamed bread
E-mail: kcs1209@korea.kr; Seong-Woo Cho, Tel: +82-55-751- of Han Dynasty, and is different from pan bread baking that
3225, Fax: +82-55-751-3229, E-mail: tottoriu2009@naver.com
* the dough of steamed bread is fermented and steamed
These authors contributed equally to this study.
(Huang and Miskelly 2016). The shape and taste of steamed
© 2019 CAAS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
bread are different by preference of consumption area,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). and the ingredients are also various by area (Huang and
doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(19)62668-7 Miskelly 2016). Generally, the main ingredients of steamed
 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 2653

bread are flour (100%), water (50–60%), salt (1%), yeast complete blocks with three replications in the Upland Crop
(1–4%), sugar (5–10%), and shortening (3–5%) are added Experimental Farm of the National Institute of Crop Science,
for texture, but baking powder is only used for Musimanju Rural Development Administration (Korea) in 2016/2017 on
of Japan (Huang and Miskelly 2016). 50% clay/loam soil. The seeds were sown in late October,
Steamed bread is used as the staple food in northern and each plot consisted of three 4-m rows spaced 25-cm
China, the main wheat producing region, and served as apart. These plots were combine-harvested in mid-June
warm meal (Huang and Miskelly 2016). Protein content is for 2 yr. Prior to sowing, fertilizer in the ratio of 5:7:5 kg
different according to grain hard types, hard and soft type per 1 000 m2 (N:P:K) was applied, while weeds, insects,
wheat (Issarny et al. 2017). Generally, soft type wheat is and disease were stringently controlled. No supplemental
suitable for cookies and low level protein, about 8–10%, irrigation was applied. Grains from each plot were dried
while hard type wheat is suitable for bread and high level using forced-air dryers and bulked from replications to
of protein, about 10–14% (Huebner et al. 1999; Park provide grains for milling.
et al. 2006; Delcour et al. 2012; Issarny et al. 2017). The
appropriate wheat flour for northern-style Chinese steamed 2.2. Analytical methods
bread (NSCSB) is known to have 10% of protein content
and medium gluten strength (Lin et al. 1990). The research Wheat grain was milled using a Bühler experimental mill,
for improvement of NSCSB quality is actively underway not based on the American Association of Cereal Chemists
only in China, the main wheat consumer, but also in the International (AACCI) Approved Method 26–31.01 (AACCI
USA, Canada, and Australia, the major countries exporting 2010). A total of 2 kg of wheat grain was tempered to 15%
wheat to China. The additional mixing for dough, unlike moisture prior to milling for 12 h and milled with a feed rate
conventional dough mixing for NSCSB, has recently been of 100 g min–1 and with roll settings of 8 and 5 in break rolls
proposed to improve the smoothness and brightness of and 4 and 2 in reduction rolls. Moisture, ash content, protein
surface of steamed bread (Huang et al. 2015). content and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation
Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) is being consumed test of wheat flour were determined according to AACCI
as snack during winter, and the main ingredients are dough Approved methods 44–15.02, 08–01.01, 46–30.01 and 56–
stuffed with one of red bean paste, vegetable and meat, and 70.01, respectively (AACCI 2010). The SDS sedimentation
yeast and chemical inflating agent are used for the dough volume of flour was determined both on a constant flour
making (Kim et al. 2001). KSSB is good to have white weight (3 g) basis and on a constant protein (300 mg) basis.
and glossy surface and soft inner texture and not to have Amylose and damaged starch contents were determined
cohesiveness or stickiness (Kim et al. 2001). KSSB reacts using the methods described by Gibson et al. (1992, 1997),
so sensitively to flour property and fermentation condition respectively, using enzymatic assay kits (Megazyme, Bray,
that the phenomenon falling in or having wrinkles occurs Ireland). Flour particle size distribution was measured with
often. Generally, it is known that the more steamed bread an LS13320 multi-wavelength laser particle size analyzer
has protein content, the more these phenomena happen. (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA, USA) according to AACCI
The recent research for KSSB is being focused on the Approved Method 55–40.01 (AACCI 2010). Flour color was
improvement of physiochemical properties, antioxidant measured with a colorimeter (CM-2002, Minolta Camera,
activity and shelf life by addition of supplementary materials. Osaka, Japan) using an 11-mm measurement aperture.
KSSB has been produced at random according to the Whiteness index was calculated according to Nguimbou
experience of the manufacturer and the situation because et al. (2012).
the quality standard of flour suitable for KSSB or the method Solvent retention capacity (SRC) tests were conducted
of manufacturing for KSSB is not specifically provided (Kim according to the AACCI Approved Method 56–11.01 using
et al. 2001). The purpose of this study was to investigate the 5% lactic acid, 5% sodium carbonate and 50% sucrose
effect of wheat flour characteristics on the characteristics of solutions, and distilled water (AACCI 2010).
steamed bread, NSCSB and KSSB, made from 11 different Dough mixing properties were determined using a 10-g
Korean wheat cultivars and to understand the major factors Mixograph (National Mfg. Co., USA) following AACCI
affecting the manufacture and quality of steamed bread. Approved Method 54–40.02 (AACCI 2010). Starch was
fractionated from flour (100 g, dry base, db) according to
2. Materials and methods the method described by Czuchajowska and Pomeranz
(1993). Briefly, starch separated from gluten was purified by
2.1. Materials multiple washing with distilled water. The purified starch was
air-dried at 24°C for 3 d and ground with a cyclone sample
Eleven Korean wheat cultivars were sown in randomized mill (Udy, Fort Collins, Co., USA) fitted with a perforated
2654 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

screen with 0.25-mm openings. Pasting properties of starch 2.4. Steamed bread
were determined with a Micro Visco-Amylo-Graph device
(Brabender, Duisburg, Germany). Starch (10.0 g, db) was Steamed bread making was conducted in two different
suspended in 0.1% AgNO3 solution (100 mL) and heated styles, KSBS and NSCSB. There were two differences
from 30 to 95°C at a rate of 7.5°C min–1, held at 95°C for between the two kinds of steamed bread, formulation and
5 min, cooled to 50°C at a rate of 5°C min–1, and held at 50°C steaming time (Fig. 1). Steamed bread was prepared
for 2 min under constant stirring (110 r min–1). Viscosity was according to the procedure of Choi et al. (2011) and Ma and
expressed in Brabender units. Viscosities (peak and final) Baik (2016) with a minor modification. The ingredients of
and holding strength of starch were recorded. Breakdown making KSSB formula consisted of 100.0 g (14% moisture
was calculated by subtracting the holding strength from the basis, mb) of flour, 8.0 g of sugar, 5.0 g of shortening, 1 g of
peak and final viscosities. Temperature at peak viscosity salt, 1.5 g of instant yeast (Lesaffre Yeast Co., Milwaukee,
WI, USA), 1.0 g of baking powder (Jenico Foods Co., Ltd.,
was also determined.
Seoul, Korea) and distilled water. But, the ingredients of
NSCSB were 100.0 g of flour (14% mb), 1.5 g of instant
2.3. Allelic variations
yeast and distilled water. The different optimum water
absorption was used for making steamed bread, that 100%
Genomic DNA was extracted from young leaf tissue
of Mixograph absorption was used for making KSSB but
(100 mg) using the Genomic DNA Prep Kit (Solgent Co.,
80% of Mixograph absorption was used for NSCSB. Dough
Korea) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. PCR
mixing was divided into two steps, of which the initial mixing
was conducted with primers for Glu-1 allele-specific markers
was conducted with a 3/4 of Mixograph mixing time and the
according to the methods illustrated in Liu et al. (2008) for
rest of the mixing time was continued in the second mixing.
Glu-A1 allele, Lei et al. (2006) for Glu-B1 allele, and Liu The amount of distilled water based on the Mixograph mixing
et al. (2008) and DeBustos et al. (2001) for Glu-D1 allele, time minus 2 mL was used in the initial mixing and 2 mL of
respectively. PCR was conducted with primers for Glu-3 distilled water was used in the second mixing. For the initial
allele-specific markers according to the methods presented mixing, 90 g of flour and other ingredients were mixed in a
in Wang et al. (2010) for Glu-A3 allele and Wang et al. (2009) pin mixer (National Mfg. Co., USA) with 102 r min–1. Dough
for Glu-B3 allele. The allelic variations for puroindolines was fermented for 60 min at 32°C and 85% relative humidity
were evaluated by the procedure described by Gautier et al. in a proofing cabinet (Daeyoung Bakery Machinery Co.,
(1994). Amplified PCR fragments were separated on 1.5% Ltd., Seoul, Korea). After the second mixing, the dough
agarose gels, stained with ethidium bromide, and visualized was sheeted by passing through the rolls of a 7-mm gap
using UV light. 20 times in a dough sheeter (Daeyoung Bakery Machinery

Fig. 1 Procedure for steamed bread making of Korean style steamed bread (A) and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (B).
 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 2655

Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea). After the dough sheeting, the 3. Results
dough was rounded to a dome shape of 5.5 cm height and
proofed for 15 min in a proofing cabinet (32°C, 85% relative 3.1. Flour characteristics
humidity). The proofed dough was steamed for 15 min for
KSSB and for 20 min for NSCSB and cooled for 15 min at Flour characteristics and allelic variations of 11 Korean
24°C before analysis. wheat cultivars were summarized in Table 1 (Appendix A for
each Korean wheat cultivar), Table 2 and Fig. 2. Range of
2.5. Quality evaluation of steamed bread ash and damaged starch content, averages of particle size
and whiteness index of flour were 0.37–0.47%, 2.8–9.0%,
Quality of two types of steamed bread was evaluated
54.4–85.8 μm and 85.6–89.6, and ranges of protein content,
according to the method described by Ma and Baik
SDS sedimentation volume based on constant flour and
(2016). Steamed bread was cooled for 15 min at 24°C
protein weight (SDSSF and SDSSP) were 8.5–16.3%,
after preparation and then was weighed with an analytical
23.0–78.5 mL and 17.5–55.5 mL, respectively. Particle size
balance. Diameter and height of steamed bread was
of flour, damaged starch and protein content, and SDSSF
measured, and volume of steamed bread was determined
of six Korean wheat cultivars with hard kernel texture,
with the rapeseed displacement method. Both surface
carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-D1b alleles (80.2 μm, 7.0%,
and crumb colors of steamed bread were determined with
12.1%, 54.7 mL, respectively), were higher than those of
a colorimeter (CM-2002, Minolta Camera, Osaka, Japan)
five Korean wheat cultivars with soft kernel texture, carrying
using an 11-mm measurement aperture. Whiteness index
Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a alleles (62.0 μm, 4.1%, 10.0%,
was calculated according to Nguimbou et al. (2012).
33.1 mL, respectively). Average of particle size of flour and
Hardness of crumb was determined with a TA-XT2 Texture
damaged starch content of Korean wheat cultivars carrying
Analyser (Stable Micro Systems, England) according to
the method described by Ma and Baik (2016). A 28-mm
thick, horizontal-cut slice of steamed bread was obtained Table 1 Flour characteristics of 11 Korean wheat cultivars
from the center part of steamed bread with an electric Characteristics Korean wheat cultivars
knife. The slice was placed on a flat metal plate and Physico-chemical properties of flour
Ash (%) 0.41±0.03 (0.37–0.47)
compressed to 50% of its original thickness at a speed
Average particle size (μm) 71.9±11.8 (54.4–85.8)
of 1.0 mm s–1 using a 3.6-cm diameter cylindrical acrylic Damaged starch (%) 5.7±2.1 (2.8–9.0)
probe; the compression was paused for 4 s after 50% Whiteness index of flour 87.8±1.2 (85.6–89.6)
compression, and then the probe was returned to its Protein (%) 11.1±2.1 (8.5–16.3)
initial position. The force required to compress 50% of a SDS-sedimentation volume with 44.9±17.2 (23.0–78.5)
flour (mL)1)
steamed bread slice and the force after the 4 s pause with
SDS-sedimentation volume with 38.2±9.7 (17.5–55.5)
50% compression were recorded as peak force 1 (P1) and protein (mL)2)
compression force 2 (P2), respectively. Stress relaxation Solvent retention capacity
was calculated from the two compression forces (P1 and Distilled water 59.8±5.1 (53.6–66.7)
5% sodium carbonate 76.7±3.8 (69.9–82.7)
P2) with the following eq.: Stress relaxation=(P1–P2)/
5% lactic acid 112.0±17.2 (93.6–157.2)
P1×100, according to the method described by Ma and
50% sucrose 108.2±9.4 (96.1–119.9)
Baik (2016). Dough rheology
Water absorption of Mixograph (%) 60.2±2.7 (57.8–67.0)
2.6. Statistical analysis Mixing time of Mixograph (min) 2.9±0.9 (1.6–5.0)
Maximum height of dough (mm) 12.3±3.9 (6.0–20.3)
Pasting properties of starch
Statistical analysis of the data was performed by R free
Amylose (%) 27.4±1.0 (25.8–29.0)
software (The R Project for Statistical Computing, R version Peak viscosity (BU) 101.7±27.9 (71.7–160.3)
3.4.4 from https://www.r-project.org) using Fisher’s least Holding strength (BU) 64.3±19.2 (39.3–102.7)
significant difference procedure (LSD), analysis of variance Final viscosity (BU) 224.8±47.3 (163.7–339.7)
(ANOVA), and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Sources of Breakdown (BU) 37.4±16.2 (20.3–73.7)
Setback (BU) 160.5±34.1 (111.7–237.0)
variation in the model were considered to be fixed effects. 1)
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test conducted on
Regression equation was formulated with the optimum a constant flour weight (3 g).
2)
model excluding non-significant variations based on the SDS sedimentation test conducted on a constant protein weight
(300 mg).
highest R2 value. All measurements were performed at Data are average±standard deviation, ranges from Korean wheat
least in triplicate and all were averaged. cultivars described within parentheses.
2656 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

Table 2 Allelic compositions of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GSs), low molecular weight glutenin subunits
(LMW-GSs), and puroindolines in 11 Korean wheat cultivars
HMW-GSs1) LMW-GSs2) Puroindolines3)
Cultivar
Glu-A1 Glu-B1 Glu-D1 Glu-A3 Glu-B3 Pina-D1 Pinb-D1
Baekjoong b f f c d a a
Goso b b f d d a a
Hojoong b b f c d a a
Joa b b f d a a a
Jojoong c f f c d a b
Jokyung a b d c h a b
Joongmo 2008 c i d c d a b
Keumkang b b d c h a b
Suan b b f c i a b
Uri c b f d d a a
Younbaek b f f c d b a
1)
Nomenclature according to Payne and Lawrence (1983).
2)
Nomenclature according to Gupta and Shepherd (1990).
3)
Nomenclature according to Gautier et al. (1994).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
A

bp Glu-A1a Glu-A1c
Glu-A1a
500

bp
500 Glu-B1b Glu-B1i
Glu-B1f

bp
500 Glu-D1af
Glu-D1d
B
Glu-A3d
bp
500 Glu-A3c

bp
Glu-B3a Glu-B3h
1 000
Glu-B3d Glu-B3i
500
C
bp
500 PinA-D1a PinA-D1b
bp
500
PinB-D1a
PinB-D1b

Fig. 2 Agarose gel electrophoresis of PCR amplified Glu-1 (A), Glu-3 (B) and Pin-D1 (C). M, molecular size marker; Line 1–11,
Korean wheat cultivars. 1, Baekjoong; 2, Goso; 3, Hojoong; 4, Joa; 5, Jojoong; 6, Jokyung; 7, Joongmo 2008; 8, Keumkang; 9,
Suan; 10, Uri; 11, Younbaek.

Glu-A3c allele (77.9 and 6.6%, respectively) were higher that of Korean wheat cultivars with Glu-D1f allele (10.3%).
than those of wheat cultivars with Glu-A3d allele (56.0 and Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i or Glu-D1d allele
3.7%, respectively), but there was no significant difference showed higher average of SDSSF and SDSSP than their
on other loci. Average of protein content of Korean wheat counterpart alleles, Glu-B1b, Glu-B1f or Glu-D1f allele.
cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele (13.3%) was higher than Ranges of SRC values were 53.6–66.7 in distilled water
 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 2657

SRC (WSRC), 69.9–82.7 in sucrose SRC (SucSRC), Table 3 Differences in steamed bread quality attributes of
93.6–157.2 in lactic acid SRC (LASRC), and 96.1–119.9 in Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and northern-style Chinese
steamed bread (NSCSB) prepared from Korean wheat cultivars
sodium carbonate SRC (SCSRC) (Table 1). WSRC value
Characteristics KSSB NSCSB
of Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-A3c allele (61.8)
Bread properties
was higher than that of Korean wheat cultivars with Glu- Diameter (mm) 139.8±6.0 a 103.2±5.2 b
A3d allele (54.6). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-A1c (133.6–151.0) (93.0–110.0)
allele showed higher SCSRC value (80.3) than cultivars Height (mm) 60.0±4.8 b 63.6±3.5 a
(50.5–65.2) (58.5–69.4)
with Glu-A1a or Glu-A1b allele (77.0 and 75.3, respectively).
Volume (mL) 688.6±41.6 a 475.0±32.1 b
Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i allele showed (612.5–762.5) (375.0–475.0)
higher LASRC value (157.2) than Glu-B1b and Glu-B1f Whiteness index of surface 75.9±2.7 a 76.8±2.0 a
allele (108.3 and 105.4, respectively). Averages of SucSRC (71.4–79.7) (72.7–80.1)
values in Glu-A1c and Glu-A3d alleles were higher than their Whiteness index of crumb 69.5±2.0 b 74.9±2.1 a
(65.2–72.2) (70.8–78.4)
counterpart alleles, but there were no significant differences
Textures properties
for SRC values between Pin-1, Glu-D1 and Glu-B3 alleles. Stress relaxation (%) 20.3±1.5 a 17.7±1.7 b
(18.5–22.8) (15.5–21.8)
3.2. Dough and pasting properties Hardness (N) 7.1±1.1 b 15.0±4.4 a
(5.3–8.8) (8.9–22.2)
Data are average±standard deviation, ranges from Korean wheat
Range of water absorption, mixing time and tolerance of cultivars described within parentheses. Values followed by same
Mixograph was 57.8–67.0%, 1.6–5.0 min and 6.0–20.3 mm, letters within same characteristic are not significantly different at
respectively (Table 1). Their averages were 60.2%, 2.9 min P<0.05.

and 12.3 mm, respectively. Water absorption of Mixograph

in Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B1i allele (67.0%) (7.1 N) of crumb than those of NSCSB (17.7% and 15.0 N,
was higher than that of Korean wheat cultivars with Glu-B1b respectively).
or Glu-B1f allele (59.5 and 59.6%, respectively). Korean Surface and crumb structure of two types of steamed
wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele showed longer bread, KSSB and NSCSB are shown in Fig. 3. KSSB
mixing time of Mixograph (3.8 min) than cultivars with Glu- showed a larger reduction in volume than NSCSB when
D1f allele (2.5 min). Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu- it is taken out of the steamer, although KSSB had larger
B3h allele showed longer mixing time (4.0 min) and higher bread loaf volume than NSCSB due to the higher water
mixing tolerance (16.3 mm) than its counterpart allele, absorption and different ingredients. KSSB also showed
lower than 2.8 min and 12.8 mm, respectively. Korean higher stress relaxation and softer texture of crumb and more
wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B3h allele produced a higher porous of crumb structure than NSCSB because Korean
maximum dough height because they also possess the Glu- consumers prefer soft texture. Jojoong and Jokyung are the
D1d allele (Table 2). There were no significant differences in most suitable cultivars for NSCSB and KSSB, respectively,
parameters of Mixograph between Pin-1, Glu-A1 and Glu-A3 because of smoothness of surface, uniform structure of
alleles. In pasting properties of starch, ranges of amylose crumb and high volume. Hojoong, a partial waxy wheat
content, peak viscosity, holding strength, final viscosity, cultivar showed softer texture than other cultivars regardless
breakdown, and setback were 25.8–29.0%, 71.7–160.3 BU, of NSCSB or KSSB, but a lot of inappropriate bubbles
39.3–102.7 BU, 163.7–339.7 BU, 20.3–73.7 BU, and found on surface of KSSB and lower height and unsuitable
111.7–237.0 BU, respectively (Table 1). crumb structure in NSCSB. Joongmo 2008, a Korean
wheat cultivar with high protein content was unsuitable for
3.3. Steamed bread quality steamed bread because of squashed surface, unsuitable
crumb structure, low bread loaf volume and harder texture
Differences of steam bread quality attributes of two types of of steamed bread.
steamed bread are summarized in Table 3 (Appendix B for Correlations between flour characteristics and two types
each Korean wheat cultivar). KSSB showed higher diameter steamed bread quality are summarized in Table 4. Diameter
(139.8 mm) and volume (688.6 mL) than those of NSCSB of KSSB was correlated with mixing time, final viscosity and
(103.2 mm and 475.0 mL, respectively). NSCSB showed setback while diameter of NSCSB was correlated with SDS
higher height (63.6 mm) and whiteness index of crumb sedimentation volumes. Height of KSSB was correlated
(74.9) than those of KSSB (60.0 mm and 69.5, respectively). with average of particle size of wheat flour, damaged starch
There was no significant difference in whiteness index content, mixing time and mixing tolerance of Mixograph,
of surface between two types of steamed bread. KSSB final viscosity and setback while height of NSCSB was
showed higher stress relaxation (20.3%) and lower hardness correlated with only protein content. Volume of KSSB was
2658 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

A Jokyung Hojoong Joongmo 2008 B Jojoong Hojoong Joongmo 2008

C D

Fig. 3 Comparison of surface and crumb structure of steamed bread made from Korean wheat cultivars, Jojoong, Jokyung,
Hojoong and Joongmo 2008. Top surface (A) and crumb structure (C) of Korean style steamed bread, and top surface (B) and
crumb structure (D) of northern-style Chinese steamed bread.

Table 4 Correlation coefficients for two types of steamed bread quality prepared from 11 Korean wheat cultivars
Korean style steamed bread2) Northern-style Chinese steamed bread2)
Parameter1)
DIA HT VOL WIS WIC SR HD DIA HT VOL WIS WIC SR HD
Physico-chemical properties of flour
Ash –0.08 –0.01 –0.04 –0.16 –0.46 0.48 0.18 –0.15 –0.05 –0.14 –0.74** –0.24 –0.23 0.03
PSI –0.27 0.71* 0.57 0.71 0.59 –0.39 –0.50 0.42 –0.14 0.38 –0.11 0.07 –0.44 –0.38
DS –0.40 0.68* 0.33 0.49 0.40 –0.20 –0.21 0.23 0.29 0.34 –0.03 0.11 –0.54 –0.41
WIF 0.15 –0.35 –0.38 –0.37 –0.35 0.13 0.37 –0.48 0.20 –0.29 0.52 0.27 0.46 0.49
Protein 0.46 0.08 0.89*** 0.54 0.57 –0.76** –0.68* 0.52 –0.61* 0.51 0.44 0.42 –0.26 –0.34
SDSSF 0.12 0.35 0.74** 0.77** 0.85** –0.75** –0.78** 0.73* –0.58 0.56 0.31 0.11 –0.22 –0.43
SDSSP –0.36 0.58 0.28 0.65* 0.79** –0.33 –0.68* 0.74** –0.32 0.44 –0.06 –0.43 –0.27 –0.30
Amylose –0.06 –0.07 –0.31 –0.11 –0.55 0.59 0.51 –0.49 0.07 –0.24 0.01 0.40 0.03 0.29
Solvent retention capacity
WSRC –0.32 0.59 0.44 0.53 0.40 –0.09 –0.25 0.28 0.03 0.34 –0.03 0.13 –0.68* –0.45
SucSRC 0.41 –0.55 –0.16 –0.40 –0.29 0.11 0.36 –0.31 0.16 –0.17 0.40 0.34 0.29 0.16
LASRC 0.25 0.23 0.62* 0.59 0.58 –0.56 –0.47 0.41 –0.32 0.50 0.67* 0.60* –0.24 –0.28
SCSRC –0.44 0.34 –0.41 –0.06 –0.14 0.45 0.44 –0.50 0.61* –0.28 0.26 0.30 –0.07 0.28
Dough rheology
MABS 0.41 0.10 0.79** 0.53 0.64* –0.66* –0.57 0.54 –0.42 0.51 0.42 0.46 –0.29 –0.47
MTIME –0.52 0.65 *
0.04 0.56 0.58 –0.06 –0.57 0.45 –0.36 0.15 –0.12 –0.47 –0.12 0.11
MTOL –0.72* 0.72* –0.29 0.35 0.41 0.19 –0.22 0.18 0.13 –0.03 –0.15 –0.40 –0.13 0.13
Pasting properties of starch
PV 0.59 –0.42 0.18 –0.31 0.09 –0.12 –0.17 0.40 0.01 0.36 0.27 0.22 –0.30 –0.36
HS 0.44 –0.36 0.02 –0.51 –0.11 0.02 –0.04 0.28 0.26 0.32 0.17 0.15 –0.45 –0.34
FV 0.68* –0.62* 0.11 –0.47 –0.06 –0.10 –0.07 0.37 0.05 0.37 0.25 0.18 –0.25 –0.40
BRD 0.49 –0.30 0.28 0.06 0.28 –0.23 –0.25 0.36 –0.29 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.01 –0.22
SB 0.70* –0.65* 0.14 –0.37 –0.03 –0.15 –0.07 0.36 –0.07 0.33 0.25 0.17 –0.10 –0.36
1)
PSI, average of particle size of flour; DS, damaged starch; WIF, whiteness index of flour; SDSSF, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)
sedimentation test conducted on a constant flour weight; SDSSP, SDS sedimentation test conducted on a constant protein weight;
WSRC, water solvent retention capacity (SRC); SucSRC, sucrose SRC; LASRC, lactic acid SRC; SCSRC, sodium carbonate SRC;
MABS, water absorption of Mixograph; MTIME, mixing time of Mixograph; MTOL, mixing tolerance of Mixograph; PV, peak viscosity;
HS, holding strength; FV, final viscosity; BRD, breakdown; SB, setback.
2)
DIA, diameter; HT, height; VOL, volume; WIS, whiteness index of surface; WIC, whiteness index of crumb; SR, stress relaxation; HD,
hardness.
* **
, and ***, significant at P<0.05, P<0.01 and P<0.001, respectively.

positively correlated with protein content (r=0.89***), SDS Whiteness indexes of surface and crumb were positively
sedimentation volume in flour (r=0.74**), lactic acid SRC correlated with SDS sedimentation volumes in KSSB and
(r=0.62*), and water absorption in Mixograph (r=0.79**). No were correlated with LASRC in NSCSB. Optimum water
significant correlation between volume of steamed bread absorption of Mixograph was correlated with whiteness
and flour characteristics was found in NSCSB. indexes of crumb in KSSB and ash content was correlated
 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 2659

with whiteness indexes of surface in NSCSB. Stress (5.7 N) in KSSB. Glu-A3c allele produced higher volume
relaxation and hardness of KSSB showed negative (704.7 mL) and softer texture of crumb (6.7 N) than Glu-A3d
correlation with protein content (r=–0.76** and r=–0.68**, allele (645.8 mL and 8.3 N, respectively) in KSSB while Glu-
respectively) and SDS sedimentation volume based on A3c allele showed higher diameter (105.3 mm) than Glu-A3d
flour weight (r=–0.75** and r=–0.78**, respectively). Stress allele (97.4 mm) in NSCSB. Glu-B3i allele showed softer
relaxation was negatively correlated with optimum water texture of crumb (8.9 N) than other alleles and Glu-B3a allele
absorption of Mixograph in KSSB (r=–0.66*) and WSRC produced harder texture (22.2 N) than others but Glu-B3d
in NSCSB (r=–0.68*). Hardness of KSSB was negatively and Glu-B3h alleles (14.7 and 15.4 N, respectively) were not
correlated with SDS sedimentation volume based on protein different in NSCSB. Hard wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1b or
weight (r=–0.68*), but there was no significant correlation Pinb-D1b allele produced higher height (62.8 mm) and volume
between hardness and flour characteristics in NSCSB. of steamed bread (712.5 mL), and lower stress relaxation
Multiple regression analyses were conducted for quality (21.3%) and hardness of crumb (6.5 N) than soft wheat
attributes for KSSB and NSCSB (Table 5). Diameter, cultivars carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a allele, (56.6 mm,
height, volume of steamed bread could be predicted by 660.0 mL, 19.5% and 7.8 N, respectively) in KSSB, although
flour characteristics in KSSB, but only height of bread there were no differences in these parameters according to
was available in NSCSB. However, crumb properties, variations of glutenin and puroindoline as kernel hardness
stress relaxation, and hardness, and whiteness index in NSCSB.
of surface and crumb were difficult to predict with flour
characteristics evaluated in this study. Mixing tolerance of 4. Discussion
Mixograph and SucSRC had strong influences on diameter
and height of KSSB. Pasting properties, peak viscosity 4.1. Effect of allelic composition on flour
and final viscosity, also influenced diameter and height of characteristics
KSSB. These parameters can predict diameter of KSSB
(R2=0.70). The height of KSSB could be predicted by Flour characteristics of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were
adding these characteristics and average of particle size evaluated. The values of physico-chemical properties of the
of flour and WSRC (R2=0.91). However, height of NSCSB Korean wheat flour were similar to the results of previous
can be expected from protein content, mixing time, SDS study with Korean wheat cultivars (Kang et al. 2014; Kim
sedimentation volume based on flour weight and SCSRC et al. 2017). The different physicochemical properties of
(R2=0.84). Volume of KSSB can be predicted from average flour, particle size, damaged starch and protein content,
of particle size of flour, protein content, LASRC, and SucSRC and SDSSF according to kernel hardness as hard and
(R2=0.89). soft type among Korean wheat cultivars are consistent
The effects of glutenin compositions and kernel hardness with previous results of Korean wheat cultivars (Park et al.
on quality of steamed bread are presented in Table 6. 2010). Variation of particle size of flour and damaged starch
Variation of Glu-A1 allele had no significant influences on content of Korean wheat cultivars were determined by the
quality of both KSSB and NSCSB. Korean wheat cultivars effect of Glu-1, Glu-3, and Pin-D1 alleles, and glutenin and
carrying Glu-B1i allele showed lower height (58.5 mm) of puroindolines significantly affected the variation of protein
steamed bread than Glu-B1f allele (66.5 mm) in NSCSB. content and SDSSF (Shin et al. 2012). SDSSF is generally
Cultivars carrying Glu-D1f allele had higher height (65.3 mm) influenced by protein content and quality, and SDSSP is
than Glu-D1d allele (60.0 mm) in NSCSB and Glu-D1f allele used to determine protein quality independent of protein
produced harder texture of crumb (7.6 N) than Glu-D1d allele content. Glu-B1b and Glu-D1b alleles of Chinese wheat

Table 5 Regression equations for prediction of steamed bread quality attributes of Korean style steamed bread (KSSB) and
northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB)
Parameter Equation1) R2 Probability>F
KSSB
Diameter (DIA) DIA=–1.21×MTOL+0.13×PV–0.20×SucSRC+163.32 0.70 <0.01
Height (HT) HT=0.39×PSI+0.82×MTOL–0.05×FV+0.36×SucSRC–0.15×WSRC+1.66 0.91 <0.01
Volume (VOL) VOL=2.08×PSI+24.41×Protein–1.67×LASRC+1.96×SucSRC+241.91 0.89 <0.01
NSCSB
Height (HT) HT=0.81×SCSRC–2.40×Protein–3.62×MTIME+0.30×SDSSF+25.54 0.84 <0.01
1)
MTOL, mixing tolerance of Mixograph; PV, peak viscosity; SucSRC, sucrose solvent retention capacity (SRC); PSI, average of particle
size of flour; FV, final viscosity; WSRC, water SRC; LASRC, lactic acid SRC; SCSRC, sodium carbonate SRC; MTIME, mixing time of
Mixograph; SDSSF, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test conducted on a constant flour weight.
2660 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

Table 6 The difference of two types of steamed bread quality prepared from Korean wheat cultivars representing diverse allelic
variations in glutenin subunits composition and grain hardness
Korean style steamed bread Northern-style Chinese steamed bread
Cultivar Stress Stress
Locus Diameter Height Volume Hardness Diameter Height Volume Hardness
no. Relaxation Relaxation
(mm) (mm) (mL) (N) (mm) (mm) (mL) (N)
(%) (%)
Glu-A1
a 1 133.6 a 65.1 a 687.5 a 19.7 a 5.3 a 107.3 a 60.0 a 450.0 a 18.1 a 19.3 a
b 7 140.5 a 58.7 a 685.7 a 20.4 a 7.4 a 102.1 a 63.8 a 441.1 a 18.2 a 15.1 a
c 3 140.3 a 61.4 a 695.8 a 20.3 a 7.1 a 104.3 a 65.2 a 470.8 a 16.5 a 13.4 a
Glu-B1
b 7 140.4 a 58.3 a 680.4 a 20.2 a 7.2 a 103.1 a 63.5 ab 448.2 a 18.2 a 15.4 a
f 3 136.8 a 63.2 a 683.3 a 21.0 a 7.5 a 101.6 a 66.5 a 445.8 a 16.8 a 14.4 a
i 1 145.2 a 62.1 a 762.5 a 18.7 a 5.4 a 108.1 a 58.5 b 475.0 a 17.1 a 14.0 a
Glu-D1
d 3 139.3 a 63.3 a 720.8 a 19.0 a 5.7 b 107.6 a 60.0 b 466.7 a 17.8 a 15.0 a
f 8 140.0 a 58.8 a 676.6 a 20.8 a 7.6 a 101.5 a 65.3 a 443.8 a 17.7 a 15.0 a
Glu-A3
c 8 139.9 a 61.1 a 704.7 a 19.9 a 6.7 b 105.3 a 63.4 a 460.9 a 17.2 a 13.5 a
d 3 139.7 a 57.0 a 645.8 b 21.5 a 8.3 a 97.4 b 65.1 a 420.8 a 19.3 a 19.1 a
Glu-B3
a 1 149.0 a 51.9 a 687.5 a 20.8 a 7.6 a 96.9 a 60.4 a 425.0 a 19.2 a 22.2 a
d 7 139.5 a 60.2 a 680.4 a 20.7 a 7.3 a 102.7 a 65.1 a 446.4 a 17.6 a 14.7 ab
h 2 136.4 a 63.9 a 700.0 a 19.1 a 5.9 a 107.4 a 60.7 a 462.5 a 18.1 a 15.4 ab
i 1 139.5 a 58.9 a 725.0 a 19.6 a 7.4 a 104.9 a 64.5 a 475.0 a 16.4 a 8.9 b
Pin-D11)
Soft 5 141.0 a 56.6 b 660.0 b 21.3 a 7.8 a 100.7 a 64.5 a 432.5 a 18.3 a 16.3 a
Hard 6 138.8 a 62.8 a 712.5 a 19.5 b 6.5 b 105.2 a 63.3 a 464.6 a 17.3 a 13.9 a
1)
Soft means wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a, hard means wheat cultivars carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-D1b.
Means followed by different letters are significantly different within each allelic variation group at P<0.05.

were associated with a higher SDSSF than other alleles hard wheat, except for SucSRC value (Hammed et al. 2015).
at Glu-B1 and D1 (He et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2005). In this
study, Glu-B1i or -D1d affected SDSSF and SDSSP more 4.2. Effect of allelic composition on dough and
than Glu-B1b, -B1f, or -D1f allele. pasting properties
The SRC test is used to predict the functional contribution
of each individual flour component, in which SRC test The evaluated values of dough and pasting properties
conducted in 5% lactic acid (LASRC) is for glutenin of Korean wheat cultivars were consistent with previous
characteristics, SRC conducted with 5% sodium carbonate results of Korean wheat cultivars which showed higher water
(SCSRC) is for damaged starch content, SRC conducted absorption, shorter mixing time and lower mixing tolerance
with 50% sucrose solutions (SucSRC) is for arabinoxylan compared to imported and commercial wheat flours with
content and SRC conducted with distilled water (WSRC) similar protein content (Park et al. 2006; Cho et al. 2018).
is related to water retention capacity (Kweon et al. 2011). It was identified that Glu-B1 alleles affect the variation of
The results of SRC test of 11 Korean wheat cultivars were water absorption, Glu-D1 alleles affect the variation of mixing
similar to those of previous report (Kang et al. 2014). It was time, and Glu-B1 alleles affect the variation of mixing time
identified that Glu-A3 alleles affect WSRC, Glu-A1 alleles and mixing tolerance in this study. Glutenin compositions,
affect SCSRC, and Glu-B1 alleles affect LASRC in this except for Glu-A1 and Glu-D3 alleles, mainly explained the
study. Glu-1 allelic variations were only related to LASRC variation in optimum water absorption and mixing time of
value and other SRC values were not in deletion lines of Mixograph in our previous report (Shin et al. 2012). Korean
Chinese wheat cultivar background (Zhang et al. 2018). wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d and Glu-B3h alleles
Chinese wheat germplasms carrying Glu-A3b and Glu-A3f exhibited a longer mixing time and higher water absorption
alleles showed higher LASRC and SucSRC values than than their counterpart alleles (Shin et al. 2012). Our results
other Glu-A3 alleles (Li et al. 2015). SRC values increased are consistent with the previous results.
with increasing protein content and wet gluten content, and Glu-A1a/b, Glu-B1b/i and Glu-D1d alleles have stronger
also were positively correlated with kernel hardness in U.S. influences on gluten strength than other alleles at Glu-1 loci
 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663 2661

(Shewry et al. 1992). Glu-D1 allele accounts for mixing showed the same tendency to the correlation in this study.
properties in Chinese bread wheat genotypes, and Glu-D1d However, KSSB showed positive correlation between
induces a longer mixing time than Glu-D1a (Liu et al. 2005). optimum water absorption of Mixograph and whiteness
Chinese and CIMMYT wheat genotypes carrying Glu-B3d index of crumb. NSCSB showed negative correlation
also exhibited a longer mixing time than those carrying other between stress relaxation and WSRC, which was also
alleles (He et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2005). It was identified that found in NSCSB made from whole wheat flour (Wu et al.
six of seven Korean wheat cultivars carrying Glu-B3d allele 2012), while KSSB showed negative correlation between
also carried Glu-D1f allele, and they have a shorter mixing stress relaxation and water absorption in Mixograph. The
time than wheat cultivars carrying Glu-D1d allele in this difference of correlations between two different styles of
study. Unique mixing properties of Korean wheat cultivars steamed bread, KSSB and NSCSB was because of different
could be influenced by the narrow genetic background and procedure for making steamed bread. Furthermore, no
high frequency of specific glutenin compositions, which relationship in this study may be due to the hardness of
especially are related to weak gluten strength, such as Glu- Korean wheat cultivars, of which five cultivars showed soft
A1c, Glu-D1f, Glu-A3c and Glu-B1h alleles (Park et al. 2006; kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1a and Pinb-D1a, and six
Shin et al. 2012; Cho et al. 2018). Protein characteristics cultivars had hard kernel texture, carrying Pina-D1b or Pinb-
and the proportion of gluten in Korean wheat cultivars are D1b (Table 2). Addo et al. (1991) reported that volume of
between those of Australian standard white and hard wheats steamed bread is positively correlated with protein content
(Cho et al. 2018). in soft type wheat, but no correlation is found in hard type
In pasting properties of starch, the measured values in wheat. Protein content and quality have influence on volume
this study were similar to the results of previous studies of NSCSB made from Chinese wheat cultivars and U.S. soft
with Korean wheat cultivars, and there was no difference in wheat (He et al. 2003; Ma and Baik 2016).
Korean wheats (Kang et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2017). Hojoong
showed lower amylose content and higher viscosity than 4.4. Quality attributes of steamed bread
other Korean wheat cultivars due to the Wx-B1b allele
(Kim et al. 2017). Partial waxy wheat reduces amylose Glutenin and puroindolines compositions could be closely
content and exhibits higher peak viscosity than wild-type at related to quality of NSCSB, although there was no report
the waxy (Wx) protein, which is known as granule-bound on the effect of these genetic compositions on KSSB. Glu-1
starch synthase I (GBSS I; EC 2.4.1.21) controlling amylose alleles could account for about 62% of quality of NSCSB
content (Graybosch et al. 2003). Reduced amylose content prepared from Chinese and Canadian wheat cultivars
and higher viscosity generally improve the texture quality of (Lukow et al. 1990). Wheats carrying Glu-D1d allele might
noodles and shelf-life of bread during storage (Graybosch be associated with better NSCSB quality than wheats with
et al. 2003). Glu-D1a allele (Zhu et al. 2001). Wheat line with Glu-A1a,
Glu-B1c, Glu-D1a, Glu-A3e, Glu-B3b and Glu-D3c had the
4.3. Relation between flour characteristics and highest total score of NSCSB in 25 near-isogenic lines with
quality of steamed bread different Glu-1 and Glu-3 alleles (Jin et al. 2013). Hard
wheat deletions at Glu-B1y and/or Glu-D1y loci produce
The differences of diameter, volume, height, whiteness good dough properties for NSCSB (Zhang et al. 2014). Glu-
index of crumb, and stress relaxation according to steamed A1a or b, Glu-B1al and Glu-D1d alleles might be desirable
bread making styles seem to be due to the differences in two for improving dough strength and quality of NSCSB from
types of steamed bread preferred by each country and the soft red winter wheats (Ma and Baik 2016). The relationship
resulting differences in ingredients. Higher optimum water between genetic variations and steamed bread quality could
absorption and additive ingredients, such as shortening and be useful to improve quality of both NSCSB and KSSB,
baking powder are required for making KSSB compared to although limited wheat cultivars were evaluated in this study.
NSCSB because of the preference for soft and less sticky
texture in Korea (Kim et al. 2001). Quality attributes of 5. Conclusion
steamed bread was influenced by procedure for steamed
bread making (Lin et al. 1990). This study was performed to identify relationship between
In correlation between flour characteristics and quality of physicochemical characteristics and quality attributes of
steamed bread, the correlation showed difference according steamed bread. Quality attributes of two different styles
to KSSB and NSCSB. Lin et al. (1990) and Huang et al. of steamed bread, Korean style steamed bread (KSSB)
(1996) reported that ash content was correlated with and northern-style Chinese steamed bread (NSCSB) were
whiteness index of surface in NSCSB. This correlation evaluated based on flour characteristics of Korean wheat
2662 Ji-Eun Kim et al. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 2019, 18(11): 2652–2663

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Executive Editor-in-Chief WANG Qiang

Managing editor WENG Ling-yun