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Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary

Indian context

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DOI: 10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002

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Research Article

Neighborhood spaces in residential

environments: Lessons for contemporary
Indian context
Ritu Gulati

Faculty of Architecture, Abdul Kalam Technical University, Uttar Pradesh, 226007, India

Received 18 May 2019; received in revised form 24 July 2019; accepted 9 October 2019

KEYWORDS Abstract The importance of open and unbuilt neighborhood spaces in residential develop-
B.V. Doshi; ments has been established by numerous scholars. Having a diverse nomenclature in varied
Charles Correa; contexts, these areas are indispensable yet often neglected and designated as leftovers in
Contemporary Indian contemporary planning practice. With their usefulness in the Indian context of socially active
housing; and sometimes even intrusive communities, such spaces are rapidly losing their place in
Raj Rewal; present-day residential environments due to the pressure of providing for the rapidly growing
Residential population coupled with mass migratory patterns. These neighborhood spaces that impart
neighborhoods; physical, psychological, and perceptual comfort to residents have been present in spontane-
Traditional Indian ously developed traditional Indian cities due to their inherent order and integrity. Moreover,
housing some contemporary housing environments by eminent designers have also utilized the virtues
of well-designed neighborhood environments. This study is a comparative analysis of three
selected projects, which aspire to devise suitable methods for contemporary Indian context
and achieve neighborhood comfort and an overall sense of belongingness among residents.
ª 2019 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of KeAi. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction indispensable yet often neglected and designated as left-

overs of the built form that constitutes major living areas.
Neighborhood spaces in a residential development are un- Numerous scholars have emphasized that these neighbor-
built, open or semiopen areas, which are in consonance hood spaces are crucial for the holistic development and
with built areas that serve as facilities for interaction, overall comfort of residents. In the Indian context, these
community bonding, and other supporting activities. Having spaces are important because socially active, sometimes
a diverse nomenclature in varied contexts, they are intrusive communities have lived, prayed, celebrated, and

E-mail address: gulati.ritu@foaaktu.ac.in.

Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
2095-2635/ª 2019 Higher Education Press Limited Company. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
2 R. Gulati

mourned together for years in an informal space arrange-

ment of spaces.
Majority of spontaneously developed residential settle-
ments in traditional cities have been able to maintain this
sense of balance and belonging by virtue of their inherent
integrity. However, due to rapidly growing populations
coupled with mass migration patterns and lack of concern
by builders, most contemporary housing projects do not
provide such environments, especially in small towns. Thus,
residents yearn for physical, psychological, and perceptual
comfort. Some projects by well-known architects of the
country have utilized the virtues of well-designed neigh-
borhood spaces by considering such concerns. Among these
projects, three have been selected for an in-depth analysis
to determine suitable methods for achieving neighborhood
comfort in residential environments, especially those of the Fig. 2 Asian Games Village: Varied degrees of interaction in
midrise scale in the Indian context. different spaces (by Author).

2. Method and case

The three selected projects, namely, Asian Games Village

at New Delhi by Raj Rewal, GSFC Housing at Vadodra by B.V.
Doshi, and Belapur Housing at Navi Mumbai by Charles
Correa, were designed by eminent architects with sensi-
tivity to the needs of residents regarding indoor and out-
door environments. After reviewing preceding scholarships,
the systematic mode of qualitative research was adopted
and conducted through participant observation, field notes,
conversation and informal surveys with residents, and
graphic sketches (Figs. 1e10), whereby the respondents
expressed their deep-seated thoughts. Moreover, an in-
depth study of spaces at macro to micro scale was per-
formed by analyzing extensive project drawings (Figs.
11e13) to ascertain suitable co-relationship attributes
that respond to identified factors and are conducive to
activity and usage patterns.

3. Significance of the study

A neighborhood can be literally explained as an “area sur-

rounding a place; person or object” (Oxford, 2012, 482).
Under this premise, a neighborhood space signifies unbuilt,
open or semiopen indispensable areas in consonance with

Fig. 3 Asian Games Village: Varied degrees of interaction in

different spaces (by Author).

built areas. Generally, a residential neighborhood is a

comprehensive whole that comprises housing units that
may be plotted, multistoried, rowed, or clustered, in
addition to associated facilities, such as community, com-
mercial, and convenient shopping areas. Infrastructural
facilities and services are required to support living in a
specific neighborhood unit. Hence, in addition to the open
areas, semiopen spaces are left for the smooth discharge of
such activities. These spaces may have a diverse nomen-
clature in varied contexts. While they have been regarded
as streets, squares, and transition areas in traditional set-
Fig. 1 Asian Games Village: Varied degrees of interaction in tlements, they constitute vehicular roads, pedestrian
different spaces (by Author). pathways, open green parks, road widening setbacks, and

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 3

Fig. 4 GSFC Housing: Different activity levels (by Author).

Fig. 7 Belapur Housing: Varied Interactive spaces (by

Author).

Fig. 5 GSFC Housing: Different activity levels (by Author).

Fig. 8 Belapur Housing: Varied Interactive spaces (by

Author).

4. Early precedents and contemporary

applicability in Indian context

Neighborhoods have been a much deliberated research

topic from as early as Jacobs (1961) call, which considered
social settings around homes, to Appleyard (1981) estab-
lishment of the expediency of livable streets as secure and
Fig. 6 GSFC Housing: Different activity levels (by Author). healthy places for playing and learning in residential envi-
ronments. Other studies include Newman’s (1972) quest for
even parking lots in modern developments. As a whole, defensible spaces in residential environments; Lynch (1981)
these neighborhood areas have been considered a crucial theory of a good city, which has settlements with five
part of a housing development and intrinsically open areas performance dimensions (vitality; sustenance; psychologi-
that include traditional spaces, such as parkland and play cal, social, and physical safety; and consonance); and
areas, service spaces, roads, walks, private gardens, and Marcus and Sarkissian (1986) emphasis on child-friendly
parking areas, which are meant to be used and experienced spaces in laying out aspirations from a built environment.
(Untermann and Small, 1977, The Compact Oxford The above works have been crucial in reiterating the value
Reference Dictionary, 2001). of neighborhood spaces in residential areas.

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
4 R. Gulati

should be designed for exceptional comfort and stimulation

for the physical and mental well-being of residents.
In the Indian context, gratifying neighborhood spaces
are especially imperative for the wholesome growth of so-
ciety. Socially active, even intrusive, Indians can be
generally defined as vociferous, warm-hearted, and vibrant
beings, for whom relationships amid community are vital.
Large extended families that live, pray, and fast together
are not merely signs of rituals but the attachment that
people share. Strategically comfortable locations in exist-
ing conventional residential neighborhoods have been
ascertained for routine activities because of an inherent
spatial character and response to the environment. Over
years of living and simultaneous growth, these spaces have
Fig. 9 Belapur Housing: Varied Interactive spaces (by acquired intrinsic qualities that are effective for the user
Author). communities to thrive and grow. However, transformations
have occurred due to migration and other growth-related
factors, and a yearning for similar comfort, belonging, and
identity are becoming increasingly evident in the behav-
ioral pattern of contemporary Indian community.

5. Indian contemporary housing: lack of

effective neighborhood spaces

India is a fast developing country where housing has been a

chief concern due to the rapidly growing population
coupled with surging urbanization. In pursuit of providing
sufficient numbers and as a result of wide-ranging negli-
gence, contemporary housing neighborhoods are non-
conducive to the well-being of inhabitants. Inspired from
initial western models to an extent, these housing schemes
Fig. 10 Belapur Housing: Varied Interactive spaces (by are being replicated in small towns without concern for
Author). their effect on the living patterns of a transforming Indian
society. Taylor and Thapar explicated how “the meta-
physics of space and the quest for serenity, recurrent
Similarly, Gehl (1987) pursuit of space usage depen- themes in Indian Architecture, are confronted with home-
dence between buildings on their proportions, Hillier (1996) less migrants and the frantic needs of an emerging middle-
theory of space configuration, Bonaiuto et al. (1999) income consumer society.” (Taylor and Thapar, 1992, 26).
observation on the sense of belonging as a relevant factor Numerous macro-level problems associated with
for neighborhood satisfaction, and Taylor and Harrell (1996) present-day housing environments include the lack of hi-
assertion of residents’ preference for an environment that erarchical open spaces and movement patterns, loss of
depends on social conditions besides safety and security enclosure and scale, nonsuitability of open spaces, absence
have all presented a substantiated role of neighborhoods. of informal character, indifference to prevailing climatic
Moreover, recent studies by Oktay and Rustemli (2010) and conditions, and missing visual relief and spatial character
Rashid et al. (2013) have echoed the relevance of satis- among others. As a result, in most housing schemes,
faction from neighborhoods in residential environments at neighborhood spaces and outdoor areas are mere leftover
present. negative spaces rather than purposely designed activity or
The functional attributes of such spaces have been well interaction areas. This phenomenon is not only visible in
explained in different settings by the aforementioned re- low-income housing but also starkly evident in high-end
searchers, who have highlighted the need for small, su- luxurious developments; the greater the expenditure, the
pervised spaces for toddlers; large grounds for teenagers; less livable the spaces. As a result, most Indian contem-
and traffic-free nonhazardous places to explore, relax, and porary housing projects do not have effective neighborhood
conduct social activities of different scales. However, a spaces for creating a wholesome and livable environment.
fulfilling neighborhood environment is not only about The aforementioned deficiencies are evident in modern
functionally efficient areas; it also depends on effective, housing arrangements, which should have individual
well-designed spaces that are conducive for different ac- dwelling units placed for efficient area management con-
tivities in a residential development. Human and environ- nected by wide vehicular roads and green spaces. However,
ment studies have reported that the physical form of an these rigid and alienating systems exhibit lack of hierarchy
environment evidently affects human perception and from private to public and absence of gradual transition,
behavior. A housing environment is where people spend with drastic transformations of spatial enclosure, pro-
most of their time consciously or subconsciously. Thus, it portions, and scale. Thus, the comfort level of residents is

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 5

Fig. 11 Layout Plan of selected cases. Developed by author from published drawings.

neglected. Furthermore, open-grid vehicular networks territoriality. In such undefined areas, most residents
designed to facilitate automobiles cause thoroughfares that remain impersonal without a feeling of belonging, leading
result in blurred pedestrian transition. In addition, vehicles to a lack of maintenance of the open areas and loss of
have also made these environments unsafe, even hazard- associated pride among inhabitants. Large open areas work
ous. The excessive visibility of packed parking lots is also an for planned, sometimes forced, formal activities, but they
unsightly view in residential developments. do not foster casual, informal, and social interaction, or
Moreover, this loss of defined small-scale neighborhood community relationships due to the lack of enclosure,
spaces has diminished the feeling of belonging and even nonhuman scale, and inappropriateness to tropical Indian
privacy, thereby causing a further loss of orientation and climate. In addition, the visual and spatial character of

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
6 R. Gulati

Fig. 12 Comparative attributes of the selected cases: Developed by author from published drawings.

most contemporary housing is monotonous and uninterest- convenience, and smooth discharge of facilities and tran-
ing. This housing neither relates with the sky nor with the sitions from one type of space to another. The psychological
ground, thereby resulting in a loss of visual relief. needs of individuals in residential environments comprise
privacy, safety, and territoriality. Given individual identity,
6. Factors affecting comfort in neighborhood visual pleasure and comfort form the most important fea-
tures of the perceptual needs of a human being from resi-
spaces
dential environments. Social needs, such as passive and
active modes of interaction, are also important for the
In residential environments, the quality and suitability of well-being of residents. A combined effect of all these as-
spaces emerge from human needs. Neighborhood areas pects contribute to making a fulfilling and wholesome
should provide comfort and a sense of belonging to occu- environment.
pants. A comprehensive review and synthesis of existing
scholarships by Lawrence (1987), Untermann and Small
(1977), a GLC study (1978) Alexander (1977), Lang (1987) 6.1. Physical comfort
Marcus and Sarkissian (1986), along with Vastu-Shilpa
Foundation (1988) among others, have ascertained that The physical comfort of residents is established by the
the resident’s satisfaction from a built environment de- climatic comfort of neighborhood spaces, and having
pends on physical, psychological, perceptual, social, and “pleasant indoor and outdoor living spaces suited to the
economic aspects. social conditions of inhabitants” is imperative (GLC, 54). In
The physical aspects primarily rely on the climatic the tropical Indian climate, heat, sunshine, and wind must
comfort of closed and open spaces, as well as accessibility, be managed depending on the region’s conditions.

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 7

Fig. 13 Comparative attributes of the selected cases: Developed by author from published drawings.

Accordingly, physical comfort depends on the form, plan- to spaces,” which means that no one bothers the resident
ning, and orientation of building blocks and open spaces or is even alone, and “controlling access to information,”
with respect to sun and prevailing winds. Moreover, stra- which denotes the aspect of overviewing (Lawrence, 1987,
tegically designed landscape, water bodies, vegetation, 163). Even though social interaction and contact with
and topography also improve the comfort conditions of neighbors are imperative for living, privacy is an essential
these spaces. Convenience is another important attribute component for mental and emotional well-being. Over
of physical comfort achieved by suitable accessibility and intrusion from adjoining neighbors, other residents or even
efficient conduct of activities. It includes transitions within passers-by can become a menace in an otherwise favorable
the dwelling units to its immediate environment, among environment. Thus, the need for a gradual evolution be-
each other, and even outside the premises. Issues of tween the public and private realms is validated. Further-
vehicular movement, ease of pedestrian transition, and more, the idea of safety in a residential neighborhood also
parking are integrated in this aspect. forms an important psychological prerequisite. Safety
broadly concerns the protection of children and elders
6.2. Psychological needs from vehicular movement and other hazards while simul-
taneously providing secure and enjoyable pedestrian
The psychological needs of inhabitants are also a prime movement in a neighborhood space. Notions of territori-
concern in a residential environment. These needs ality were explained by Lawrence as “taking possession or
encompass the issue of privacy and signify physical isola- defense of that area” (Lawrence, 1987, 150) along with
tion between the public and private domains for main- surveillance. Therefore, watching out for one another,
taining suitable relationships within the neighborhood. especially in outdoor areas, also constitute important
Roderick Lawrence described privacy as “controlling access psychological needs. However, “a delicate balance must be

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
8 R. Gulati

struck between designing for ease of surveillance and determine convenience, accessibility, and orientation.
designing for privacy” (Marcus, 1986, 271). Furthermore, the physical comfort of neighborhood spaces
further becomes dependent on the responses of the
6.3. Perceptual needs adjoining built form to macro- and microclimate conditions,
such as sun path, prevailing wind direction, water bodies,
Moreover, the prime perceptual need of residents from vegetation, and topography, of the site. Factors that affect
their living environment is individuality or distinct identity the perceptual and psychological comfort of these neigh-
within the prototype mass of dwelling units. Contemporary borhood spaces include their spatial hierarchy, enclosure
housing with similarly designed spaces and dwelling units and openness, proportion and scale, and effect of the built
should have a provision for shaping residents’ individual and mass character on the open space. Aspects that determine
group spaces based on their aspirations and requirements. the usability of these spaces include the relationship of the
In this manner, residents can feel satisfaction and pride. built form with open areas, the building edge treatment,
Additionally, visual stimulation and comfort derived from the location of the community areas, and their linkages.
the physical setting is a major contributing factor to the
sensory comfort of inhabitants. The need for spaces, which 7. Overview of housing neighborhoods through
arouse curiosity and sense of anticipation, can be satisfied history: an Insight into traditional Indian towns
by creating interesting volumes, avoiding monotony in
building blocks and street facades, negotiating with the sky
Ancient and medieval history indicates that even in primi-
and ground effectively, and varying visual experiences
tive cultures, the formation of villages or settlements is
within a residential environment.
based on the organization of individual dwelling units into
groups to enclose a community space and associated small
6.4. Social needs interaction spaces. As populations increased, these villages
became towns, and houses became further isolated from
Social needs are also important for an individual’s well- major public spaces. Secondary community spaces were
being. “The unavowed secret of man is that he wants to be developed in the form of pathways or streets leading to
confirmed in his being and existence by fellow men. not main interaction areas. Later, due to urbanization, some
merely in his family .. but also in the course of neighbourly towns became intensive concentrations of population, and
encounters” (Alexander, 1977, 94). Interactions between preconceived thought was required to plan these urbanized
fellow beings fulfill human needs of affiliation and cities. Thus, “the informal pattern of incremental growth
belonging while promoting individual growth and combating yielded to more formal large scale preconceptions of total
depression. These relationships and interaction, which are city organization” (Untermann and Small, 1977, 3). The
considered important in the Indian context, should be whole city started being planned in a rectilinear grid
fostered in conducive neighborhood spaces. Furthermore, pattern, which gave rise to blocks and clusters from which
“Social interactions occur more easily when people’s social settlements had started being governed by the rigidity of
needs are balanced by a sense of individual autonomy that the block. During the entire process, organic self-built
comes with privacy, whether obtained by reserve or neighborhood spaces transformed to nonflexible areas
through territorial control” (Lang, 1987, 160). Variables governed by the stiffness of the built forms.
that influence social interactions in a neighborhood space With the advent of industrial revolution and improved
include proximity and orientation of dwelling units with technology, new materials and inventions have changed the
respect to one another, their arrangement with respect to vocabulary of built forms. In addition, destruction due to
the site and open spaces, and their transition to streets and world wars required numerous housing projects within a
community spaces. short period of time, and unwarranted migration to cities
As a condensation of the aforementioned factors, while offered less space to build in. As a result, tall residential
physical needs are satiated by climatically comfortable and buildings, walk-up tenements, and apartments had a spurt
safe neighborhood spaces, psychological needs are in development. Consequently, users moved further up-
addressed by their privacy, safety, and territoriality. ward from the land, and their interaction with ground
Perceptual desires can be satisfied by individual identity, became limited. An increased lack of sensitivity for open
visual variety, and comfort, whereas social needs require areas by designers caused neighborhood spaces to become
informal interactions. However, within the premise of this mere leftover spaces according to the regulations and by-
study, variables associated with all of the above should be laws for movement and ventilation.
amalgamated because their combined influence leads to a Meanwhile, in the Indian subcontinent, a definite
fulfilling and wholesome residential environment. On response to neighborhood spaces has been observed since
juxtaposition of these aspects, the factors that affect the the primordial civilizations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa to
physical, perceptual, and psychological comfort conditions the spontaneously developed cities of Varanasi, Jodhpur
of a neighborhood space within a residential environment Ahmedabad, and Lucknow. Hierarchy, continuity, and
are the spatial organization and relationship of dwelling spatial character have been visible in neighborhood spaces
units with one another with respect to the site and their and have complemented built spaces. In the traditional
transition from public to private areas, and vice versa. Indian system, the caste groups and occupation initially and
Moreover, physical access to the site, transition of move- subsequently determined territorial segregation, respec-
ment, segregation of vehicular and pedestrian lanes, and tively. Social structure influenced the division of caste
linkages of the open spaces with respect to movement groups into neighborhoods, hamlets, or streets. For ages,

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 9

people have lived together on the basis of caste, creed, and human scale is always respected, and human comfort is
occupation, thereby signifying the need of humans to live in uncompromised.
familiar and like-minded surroundings.
“Indian towns over time were characterized by the 8. Condition of post-independent Indian
clustering of buildings, each juxtaposed with the other,
housing: several sensitive approaches
with balconies overlooking streets, and courtyards
providing public space within the house, and with a scatter
of terraces permitting yet another set of activities. Houses The contemporary form of housing in India has come a long
had both public and private space; yet in many ways this way since it was first envisaged.
space was different from that in the changing towns of the With no dearth of land and few populations, large stand-
present day” (Taylor and Thapar, 1992, 21). alone bungalows accommodated the elite, whereas com-
The religious city of Varanasi on the Ghaats of River moners resided in single- or double-storied settlements (as
Ganges is a spontaneous and organic organization of the structure permitted) grouped together. The first exis-
meandering streets and informal layering of form. The tence of multifloor apartments for housing government
narrow lanes widen at junctions and other places to form employees could be traced back to 1911 in Delhi when
squares. This hierarchical networking propels movement, British rulers founded it as their capital. However, after
pausing at important nodes, namely, the squares, whose independence, the Central Public Works Department,
scale and proportion are exemplary for comfort and relax- which was responsible for large-scale housing plans,
ation, having chabutras and platforms supporting the ac- distributed numerous multilevel housing units with basic
tivities. The two-to three-storied courtyard dwelling units amenities around the 1950s to the massive migrant popu-
clustered in an informal pattern naturally face hierarchical lation resultant of post-independent partition. The co-
streets and create a close sense of community. As such, the relation of these dwelling units to their neighborhood
opposing neighbors can contact one another at narrow context was not even deemed important because over-
sections. The gradual layering of space from the inside to riding attention focused on their ever-deficient numbers.
the outside is visible in the transition from the aangan In the early 1950s, varied development authorities were
(courtyard) to deodhi (external platform) and then the gulli entrusted the job of monitoring housing development in
(street) to the informal squares. large cities, thereby leading to increased sensitivity in the
Similarly, Ahmedabad, a medieval city in Gujarat, India, design of some residential neighborhoods. Architects also
also emerged through an additive growth process. Inhabi- collaborated with industrialists to plan neighborhood-
ted by migrants after the commercial revolution of the 16th oriented residential schemes. Among these schemes, the
and 17th centuries, it was modified by culture and context. Atira Low-Cost Housing, designed as a village with differ-
Safety and security were major issues, and the walled city ently scaled community spaces, was remarkable in its
was divided into puras and then pols. Ahmedabad re- approach. Around the same time, several other schemes
sembles a maze with winding narrow lanes, forming a series were also envisioned by pioneering architects, some of
of microneighborhoods, which are community-based orga- which remained unbuilt. The 1960s and 1970s saw the
nizations. Limited vehicular access through defined gate- initiation of some insightful approaches by GSFC Housing at
ways lends individuality, territoriality, and safety to Vadodara, French Embassy Quarters at Delhi, followed by
residents. A natural hierarchy from the internal courtyard the ECIL Housing at Hyderabad and Cablenager Township at
to the otla, street and then squares facilitates the transi- Kota Rajasthan; some of which were townships that set the
tion from private to public spaces. Varied spatial enclosure, stage for the emergence of further responsive
judicious mix of solids and voids, and climatic suitability neighborhoods.
provide visual variety and comfort in the neighborhood In later decades, the successful completion of the
spaces of these pol environments. Yamuna Apartments in 1981 as a cooperative group housing
Jodhpur, a geomorphic city of Rajasthan, revealing it- scheme at Delhi crossed a milestone, that is, simulta-
self in patterns of the terrain, is based on a stringent caste neously distinguishing itself from other housing de-
system with layers that house various caste groups based velopments in the city, due to its conceptualization as an
on their hierarchy and position with respect to the fort. urban village with inherent hierarchical systems. Subse-
The clustered dwellings of the city expose a close-knit quently, Aranya Housing at Indore, which involve a diverse
community who wants to be within proximity to members matrix of varied income groups, responded well to the
of the same caste and trade considerably that an outsider human scale of living. Meanwhile, the Sheikh Sarai Housing
might feel discomfort or estrangement in their domains. and Asian Games Village, New Delhi (1983) set new
Dwelling units, which are basically variations of the benchmarks for residential neighborhoods. Furthering the
courtyard houses, open up to the streets already pos- cause of low-rise high-density housing, the Belapur incre-
sessing a strong sense of privacy and territory. The tran- mental scheme (1985), which created hierarchical open
sition from the dwelling to outside is through the otla a courts following the concept of equity, was crucial in
verandah having a high plinth blurring the division of reinstating the significance of neighborhood responsive
outside and inside and forming the never-ending link to environments. The millennium’s end brought amplified
the ground of the entire city. Streets widen at junctions to deliberation for the unbuilt, although most power wielding
form large institutions and commercial spaces, creating a builders and promoters favored multiplying fortune in
natural hierarchical movement. Inherent spatial hierarchy terms of saleable areas. Jal Vayu Vihar Bangalore attemp-
is visible. Meanwhile, the close interweaved fabric creates ted to address the issues of scale, territoriality, informality,
enclosure in these gated housing communities where and interaction. Cidco Housing at Belapur Mumbai

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Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
10 R. Gulati

comprised spatial enclosures of varying degrees of lending conditions are analyzed to determine their efficacy in
informality. Udayan Housing Kolkatta displayed remarkable providing comfort and satisfaction to residents.
climate responsive neighborhood spaces even as Laburnum As one of the most important attributes, spatial orga-
Gurgaon incorporated inward-looking hierarchical spaces nization in a housing environment includes the arrangement
conducive for interaction. Vertical neighborhoods were of residential units with respect to site, one another,
conceived in Sumeru Apartments, Mumbai, whereas Ghar- streets, and enclosing open spaces. It also determines the
kul Khargar (also in Mumbai) facilitated common spaces in relationship of units to surroundings and their subsequent
its own territory. Even development authorities realized use by residents. Renowned author Christopher Alexander
the significance of neighborhood-sensitive environments stated that “People are different, and the way they want to
and began giving precedence to such design proposals. place their houses in a neighborhood is one of the most
basic kinds of difference” (Alexander, 1977, 193). Thus, the
location of units with respect to site and community areas
9. Analysis of selected examples establishes their level of social interaction and activity. In
addition, findings have indicated that the total number of
For a detailed analysis of the responses of built to neigh- units in a residential environment should be almost equally
borhood spaces in a residential environment, the three divided into the isolated quiet part, middle activity area,
selected examples are GSFC housing at Vadodra, Asian and in the hub of activity and busy streets. Moreover, the
Games Village, New Delhi, and Belapur incremental housing transition of built form to its immediate surroundings is also
at Mumbai. All the three examples cater to similar middle- significant and should be examined because it generates
income groups of the region, and they are avant-garde so- the desired level of activity.
lutions in their respective contexts of addressing concerns Scrutiny revealed that the spatial organization of the
from built forms to resultant neighborhoods. Being feats of dwelling units in the Asian Games Village is semiextroverted
contemporary Indian masters, the designs of built spaces and clustered and looped together by a peripheral vehicular
have been aimed as an integral part of their neighborhood road, which focused on the almost central community area;
environments and provide positive comfortable and useable a strong geometry is evident in the extroverted organiza-
spaces to their inhabitants. tion at GSFC, having housing clusters modularly configured
The GSFC Housing at Vadodara, built as a self-contained together, with diagonal roads converging to a central green
township on a 140-acre site, consists of 1800 dwelling units with an auditorium and water tower. Meanwhile, at Belapur
conceived in relation to the community as a whole. Housing, the principle of hierarchy was translated in the
“Inspired from the traditional Indian style of living the spatial organization of units. The inward-looking clustered
design responds to the overlapping uses of Indian life arrangements relate to one another through hierarchical
addressing the aspect of scale required for interaction in a open spaces that direct to the central community areas
housing setup. Also Doshi, here reveals his obsession with near the existing nallah. As such, the site is divided into
climatic and social features of the traditional courtyards almost half. Remarkably, in all three cases, unit clusters
and gates of old Indian towns” (Curtis, 1988, 68). By are linked to each other through varied scales of street and
contrast, the Asian Games Village in New Delhi, which was squares. Meanwhile, in the Asian Games Village, the linkage
conceptualized on the basis of urban streets and enclo- is due to the linear shifting of units inside or outside. At
sures, was built on a 32-acre site comprising 700 dwelling GSFC, the units linearly arranged along geometrical roads
units. The entire complex comprises two-to three-storied are open to intimate streets and courts in the rear. At
structures with eleven distinctly designed dwelling units. Belapur, the hierarchical nonrigid clustered arrangement
Its layout was described by Moniteur as recreating the North has similar results. In addition, the transition between units
Indian traditional urban morphology of “mohalla,” trans- to immediate open spaces at the Asian Games Village and
forming into a series of spaces interweaved with narrow GSFC is sequential, opening to the front through a yard and
mutually shaded pedestrian streets. (Moniteur, 1985). to the rear through parking and green areas. Meanwhile, at
Meanwhile, the most important feature of incremental Belapur, it is hierarchical through the personal court to the
housing at Belapur by Charles Correa was the spatial hier- interactive ones.
archy inherent in our traditional Indian system of living. In addition to spatial organization, built mass character
This low-rise high-density housing scheme comprising 550 and streetscape form important attributes for a visually
units built on 13.3 acres exhibits a strong spatial hierarchy, interesting characteristic of a housing neighborhood envi-
ranging from courtyards of the individual houses to com- ronment. Constituting similar, repetitive, and even
munity place, with the greatest public space being the monotonous prototypes, a residential neighborhood has to
maidan where primary schools and other similar facilities have suitable blocking, facade treatment, and negotiation
were located. with sky and ground to prevent disparity, discontinuity, and
All the three selected projects were examined in detail raucousness. Moreover, it should relate to human scale and
on the basis of the established factors that affect various proportion while addressing issues of individuality, spatial
levels of comfort and satisfaction to deduce conclusive definition, and visual relief. Such consideration is impera-
parameters. To this end, the selected cases were examined tive to create a desired street character of neighborhood
for their spatial organization, building blocking, street spaces. The examination of the three cases revealed that
facade and character, as well as approach and movement the built mass character at the Asian Games Village is an
systems. Moreover, the spatial hierarchy of neighborhood interesting play of solids and voids due to staggered units,
spaces, their degree of enclosure and openness, articula- projecting balconies, and terraces, whereas at GSFC the
tion of built edges, and response to existing climatic low-to midrise structures are given diversity by the

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 11

staircase blocks. The Belapur Housing uses its low-rise the vehicular, thereby creating suitable transition and
sloping built mass to contrast with the hilly backdrop. interesting interactive spaces. Belapur Housing exhibits a
Furthermore, the varying heights at the Asian Housing distinct segregation of vehicles and pedestrians by limiting
attempt to break the monotony by bringing the sky in; vehicular access and providing hierarchical interconnected
however, human scale is evidently compromised at some pedestrian courts that increase the walking distances in
places. At GSFC, focus is created by a tall central tank to certain cases. All the selected cases have well-distributed
address the issue of orientation and direction with tall parking lots with under 10% area allocated for them,
trees; thus, spatial ceiling and suitable human scale are although the distance between parking lots at Belapur is
created. The alternately changing slope at Belapur Housing significantly greater than the prescribed limits.
provides a varying skyline in which aspects of human scale
and proportions are also compliant. The traits of territori-
ality and individuality are responded to by gateways, door 9.1. Spatial hierarchy and enclosure
colors, and similar materials in the Asian Housing. At GSFC,
voids that define streets between dwelling units perform In response to the utility and scale of specific space, the
the same function. At Belapur Housing, incrementality hierarchy of an open space is a pattern-guiding movement
lends territoriality and uniqueness, whereas coherence is from the smallest to the largest space or vice versa in a
addressed by similar materials and a uniform color. smooth undisturbed manner. Moreover, “outdoors, people
Another attribute that is crucial for the environment of always try to find a spot where they can have their backs
the neighborhood space is the organization of movement in protected, looking out toward some larger opening, beyond
the vehicular and pedestrian domains. This attribute in- the space immediately in front of them” (Alexander, 1977,
cludes the distribution of vehicular roads on the site, their 558). At the level of the residential neighborhood, the
transition from external main roads to minor and then dwelling unit opens to a large open space, street, or
pedestrian walkways, as well as their hierarchical move- square, which forms a back to other large areas, culmi-
ment and segregation. As aptly stated by Alexander, “Cars nating into the most public squares and greens. “Also for
are dangerous to pedestrians; yet activities occur just interest tight spaces should be contrasted with the larger
where cars and pedestrians meet” (Alexander, 1977, 271). open areas. Contrast is a basic principle in medium density
On this basis, although maximum interactions occur at the design; that is, making each area identifiable” (Untermann
juncture of vehicular and pedestrian movement, making and Small, 1977, 227). At the Asian Games Village, a
pedestrian areas safe and user friendly is unnecessary. In distinct hierarchy exists in the open spaces where the
addition, the location, division, screening, and integration contrast between streets and squares and the small and
of parking within the housing developments also form a key large courts define a spontaneous progression between
issue in the movement system. Studies have affirmed that public and private domains. At GSFC, the strongly bound
open parking lots should not occupy more than 9% of the private courts have narrow-framed vistas that open to large
total site area for optimal neighborhood comfort that courts and then to the largest spaces, thus exhibiting hi-
should be distributed in small pockets screened from view erarchical transition. At Belapur, spatial hierarchy is most
and integrated with the residential areas. Favorable dis- distinctly visible where small private enclosed/semi-
tances between these lots should be within a 35 m range. enclosed courts open to large ones and then to community
The scale, transition, and visual character of movement, spaces of public use.
along with the edge treatment, also decide network In addition to hierarchy, appropriate spatial enclosure is
efficiency. important for the stimulation of human spaces. The spatial
In this regard, the Asian Games Village, having a clear quality of each area, be it large or small, low or high, wide
perpendicular transition from the external road, utilizes a or narrow, has discernible characteristics relatable to
peripheral vehicular road as a basic perimeter spine with no feelings and reactions of human beings (Greater London
thoroughfare maintaining the character of neighborhood Council GLC and Department of Architecture and Civic
intact. GSFC Housing achieves the same with defined road Design, 1978). The most important aspect creating the
networks by segregating the housing zone using a perimeter feeling of intimacy, protection, and security, as well as the
loop that is led off by geometrical secondary roads ending definition of the residents’ territorial boundary, is the de-
in cul-de-sacs. Then, Belapur Housing prevents thorough- gree of spatial enclosure and openness. It should neither be
fares in this scheme through a hierarchical movement sys- completely loose nor rigidly enclosed. The space should
tem, with a peripheral spine culminating in large cul-de- only be partially enclosed with paths or with some leading
sacs, which house the parking lots. These diverse strategies to other areas (Greater London Council GLC and
allow the three residential neighborhoods to be relatively Department of Architecture and Civic Design, 1978). The
car free while simultaneously reducing walking distances series of enclosures are most noteworthy in the Asian
from parking to front doors. In all cases, the roads are Games Village, where the space within the housing cluster
sufficiently short, having curves of small turning radii, creates a strong sense of location, privacy, and territory
narrow entrances, and reduced visibility. Thus, the speed facilitating neighbourly surveillance and social contact,
of moving cars is reduced, and integration with surrounding thereby effectively reducing vandalism. Here, primary el-
landscape and vegetation is suitable. The transition be- ements are predominantly used to create an enclosure,
tween the vehicular and pedestrian domains is achieved at whereas secondary elements, such as landscape, enhance
the Asian Games Village by providing gateways and tapering and soften the degree of enclosures.
road widths. Meanwhile, at GSFC, the pedestrian circula- At GSFC Housing, streets between dwelling units lead
tion forms a second orthogonal network perpendicular to the highly enclosed intimate courts to rear open greens

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
12 R. Gulati

giving vistas within hundred feet. As such, the sense of alcoves in streets between units at GSFC impart corners for
enclosure is maintained. In other places, secondary ele- informal activity, whereas articulation in the built form at
ments, such as trees, screens, and boundary walls, are Belapur Housing presents opportunities for everyday
utilized to strengthen the feeling of enclosure. At Belapur encounters.
Housing, the spatial relationships of open spaces are well
defined. Particularly, the tight and highly enclosed spaces 9.3. Response of neighborhood spaces to climatic
between units suitably contrast with large, open, semi- factors especially the sun
enclosed areas, thus creating identity and interest. More-
over, the movement from the private to the public realm is In areas with tropical climates, heat is a predominant issue,
strongly hierarchical with the enclosing elements primarily especially in outdoor areas where their location with
becoming secondary in the transition to open areas. respect to the sun, wind, and light determines the comfort
levels at different times of the day and year. The semibuilt
and unbuilt spaces in residential environments are signifi-
9.2. Scale, proportion, and character of built edges
cant in the Indian context because the multifaceted ex-
pressions of built form in warm to hot climates open up to a
As stated by Ching, “Proportion refers to mathematical varying degree of enclosures in contrast to the cold cli-
relationships among the real dimensions of a form or space mates of the western world. As one moves out of the built
whereas scale refers to how we perceive the size of a form, it opens to a verandah leading to a courtyard and
building element or space relative to other forms” (Ching, then a tree onto a terrace and so on to different definitions
1979, 296). Evidently, comfort in open spaces is deter- of spaces (Khan, 1987). Traditional living environments
mined by the proportion and scale of enclosures and the have responded to such conditions by providing mutual
effect of built mass on human scale. In addition, all types of shading in compact organizations oriented to favorable
spaces, which include streets, squares, transition areas, wind directions. Provision of shaded courtyards, verandahs,
and large community spaces, have diverse scales and pro- chabutras, and streets among other elements has mitigated
portions, thereby inducing varying feelings of protection, the harshness of the climatic conditions in many cases.
privacy, interaction, and territoriality. A height-to-width The examination of the selected cases in terms of their
ratio for linear spaces can range from 1:1 to 1:2.5, as sug- response to respective climatic conditions shows that the
gested by a GLC study (1978). Less or more of this ratio Asian Games Village, which is set within the composite
would make that space either claustrophobic or having a climate of New Delhi, utilizes linear clusters and courts of
low feeling of enclosure, respectively. Lynch and Hack, in varied scale to counter the fierce heat in summers. As such,
their book Site Planning, mentioned that an external ventilation and sunny spots are provided during humid
enclosure is most comfortable when its walls are one half or months and for winter afternoons, respectively. Although
one third as high as the width of enclosed space, whereas not successful at all spaces within the site, most areas can
the space ceases to be enclosed if the ratio falls below one- mitigate the effects of heat by suitable mutual shading.
fourth” (Lynch and Hack, 1984, 158). The GSFC Housing at Vadodara utilizes similar elements in a
All the three selected cases were examined on the basis different manner, where “The thick brick walls, brick paved
of the aforementioned parameters. The results show that streets, pedestrian ways, courtyards, balconies and ter-
at Asian Housing, the scale and proportions of the intimate races give overall impression of substance and shade”
cluster courts vary between 1:2 to 1:3, which is within the (Curtis, 1988, 73). In addition, the narrow streets within the
optimum comfort limits. However, enclosures under gate- clusters funnel wind, whereas vegetation is the primary
ways give the greatest human scale definition. Moreover, source of respite for the large areas. Meanwhile, at Mum-
the aesthetic play of volumes, terraces and grooves on bai, heat is one less problem, and Belapur housing mitigates
cladded facades accentuates the impression of human the effects of intense radiation by successful mutual
scale. Although the large courtyards exhibit large pro- shading in the intimate clusters. The central water stream
portions (1:7), they are enhanced by secondary elements. also alters the microclimate and creates comfortable out-
GSFC Housing is notable for its recreation of a scale that is door spaces, although wind movement is effective mostly
similar to that of conventional pol houses, which have on terraces and upper floors.
intimate courtyards that respond well to human scale and
gradually change in the narrow streets. Such courtyards
offer numerous encounters. Proportions change from 1:1 to 10. Conclusions and recommendations
1:9, but the use of secondary elements perceptually com-
pensates the difference. At Belapur, the changing scale of The previous segment already established the significance
courtyards define the activity areas, and the most intimate of well-planned neighborhood spaces in a residential envi-
scale of 1:1.2 is evident near the residential units that ronment for the overall holistic comfort of inhabitants. The
progresses to 1:4 within clusters and 1:6 in the large open need for such environments in the contemporary context
spaces. In such spaces, tall trees create a spatial ceiling has also been stressed with the growing population and
that effectively mitigates the lack of enclosures. mass migration patterns, which lead to poorly planned
In addition to scale and proportion, the built form edges, residential neighborhoods. Although traditional Indian set-
which result in the neighborhood spaces of these environ- tlements can respond to these issues in an effective
ments, are conducive to activity and interaction. There- manner, contemporary examples are sometimes insuffi-
fore, the built edges at the Asian Games Village are more cient due to rapidly growing numbers, widespread negli-
than 6 ft deep, thereby favoring contact. Furthermore, the gence, and lack of concern. Resident comfort comprising

Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002
 + MODEL
Lessons for contemporary Indian context 13

physical, perceptual, psychological, and social issues must 12. The edges of the built form in all examples are arti-
be addressed; thus, three contemporary examples by well- culated with alcoves and niches, favoring informal
known designers are analyzed to devise useful strategies in interaction, connectivity, and dialogue.
the present day contexts. This analysis leads to the for- 13. Despite being located in diverse climates, all the
mation of the following recommendations and guidelines: housing environments respond suitably to existing
climatic conditions by providing mutual shading,
1. Residential environments are not just about built suitable wind movement, and multiactivity spaces for
habitable functional spaces. They must be equally changing seasons and weather.
sensitive to the unbuilt, which has a larger role to 14. None of these cases merit replication even in iden-
play in the comfort of residents and users compared tical settings. This study directs the relevance of
with the built. neighborhood spaces in residential environments and
2. Factors affecting comfort in such environments range the diverse tools and strategies used by well-known
from the physical to psychological and perceptual, designers in creating habitable conditions to pro-
along with the social needs of dwellers. mote a sense of belonging and wellbeing, especially
3. Physical aspects are dependent on climatic comfort, in the Indian context.
accessibility, and convenience suitable to the
discharge of activities and effective transition from
one place to another.
4. Psychological and perceptual attributes must respond Conflict of interest statement
to privacy, safety, and territoriality, as well as indi-
vidual identity, visual pleasure, and comfort of There is no conflict of interest.
inhabitants.
5. Social needs must also be satiated by passive and
active interaction, as well as a sense of well-being. References
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Please cite this article as: Gulati, R., Neighborhood spaces in residential environments: Lessons for contemporary Indian context,
Frontiers of Architectural Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.10.002

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