EFW 2203 CBD Forests On Page 27 Zimbabwe Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
EFW 2203 CBD Forests On Page 27 Zimbabwe Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
EFW 2203 CBD Forests On Page 27 Zimbabwe Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
Page
1. BACKGROUND TO THE COUNTRY STUDY
1.1 Contextual framework I
1.2 General considerations 1
1.3 Human population 3
1.4 Infrastructuredevelopment 5
1.5 Theurban environment 6
1.6 Land tenure, property rights and general land use systems 6
1.7 Macro-economic structureandpolicies 7
1.8 Social andcultural issues 8
1.9 Environmental education/awareness 8
1.10 Politicalfactors 10
1.11 Government position on the Biodiversity Convention 10
2.1 Introduction 13
2.1.1 Whatisbiodiversity? 13
2.1.2 Biodiversity conservation strategies 13
2.1.3 Whyworryaboutbiodiversity 13
2.1.4 Organisation and thrust of the biodiversity status report 15
2.2 Forestry 17
2.2.1 Status and trends in forest biodiversity 17
2.2.1.1 Forest ecosystems 17
2.2.1.2 Species diversity 18
2.2.1.3 Geneticdiversityin indigenoustree species 25
2.2.1.4 Relevant micro-organisms (fungi and bacteria) 28
2.2.2 Causes of forest biodiversity decline, increase or maintenance 29
2.2.2.1 Abiotic factors 29
2.2.2.2 Biotic factors 30
2.2.2.3 Cultural and ethnic value factors 33
2.2.2.4 Effects of technology on biodiversity 33
2.2.3 Conservationand sustainableuse measures 34
2.2.3.1 Status of monitoring approaches 34
2.2.3.2 In-sim conservation 36
2.2.3.3 Ex-situ conservation 37
2.2.3.4 Access to biological and genetic resources 39
2.2.4 Legislative and policy frameworks 40
2.2.5 Institutional framework, sectoral linkages and the human
resource base 43
2.2.5.1 Institutional framework 43
2.2.5.2 Crosssectoral linkages 44
2.2.5.3 Human resources 45
2.2.6 Economic factors 45
i
2.2.6.1 Valuation of forest biodiversity 45
2.2.6.2 Economic incentives and disincentives for conservation of forest
biodiversity 47
2.3 Wildlife 49
2.3.1 Status and trends of wildlife biodiversity 49
2.3.1.1 Relevant ecosystems 49
2.3.1.2 Vertebrates 49
2.3.1.3 Invertebrates 51
2.3.1.4 Identificationof trends in wildlifediversity 53
2.3.2 Causes of wildlife biodiversity decline, increase or maintenance 55
2.3.2.1 Abiotic factors 55
2.3.2.2 Biotic factors 56
2.3.2.3 Effects of technology on biodiversity 57
2.3.3 Conservationand sustainableuse measures 58
2.3.3.1 Status of monitoring approaches 58
2.3.3.2 In-situ conservation 58
2.3.3.3 Access to biological and genetic resources 59
2.3.3.4 Local participation 60
2.3.4 Legislative and policy frameworks 61
2.3.5 Institutional framework, sectoral linkages and the human
resource base 63
2.3.5.1 Institutional framework and cross sectoral linkages 63
2.3.5.2 Human resources 64
2.3.6 Economic factors 64
2.3.6.1 Valuationof wildlifebiodiversity 64
2.3.6.2 Economic incentives and perverse incentives 65
ii
2.4.5.1 Institutional framework and cross-sectoral linkages 78
2.4.5.2 Human resources 79
2.4.6 Economic factors 79
2.4.6,1 Valuationof aquaticbiodiversity 79
2.4.6.2 Economicincentivesand perverse incentives 80
2.5 Agriculture 82
2.5.1 Statusandtrendsin agriculturaldiversity 82
2.5.1.1 Agro-ecosystems 82
2.5.1.2 Plant genetic diversity 83
2.5.1.3 Animal genetic diversity 86
2.5.1.4 Relevant micro-organisms (fungi and bacteria) 88
2.5.1.5 Dryland cropping 89
2.5.1.6 Irrigated cropping 91
2.5.1.7 Livestock production 92
2.5.1.8 Game ranching 94
2.5.2 Causes of agro-biodiversity decline, increase or maintenance 95
2.5.2.1 Effectsoflanddegradation 95
2.5.2.2 Culturalandsocio-economic factors 96
2.5.2.3 Effects of technology on biodiversity 96
2.5.3 Conservation and sustainable use measures 97
2.5.3.1 Statusof monitoring approaches 97
2.5.3.2 In-sim conservation 98
2.5.3,3 Ex-situ conservation 99
2.5.3.4 Access to biological and genetic resources and property rights 101
2.5.3.5 Local participation, indigenous knowledge systems and gender 102
2.5.4 Legislation andpolicy 102
2.5.5 Institutional framework, cross sectoral linkages and the
human resource base 103
2.5.5.1 Institutional framework and cross sectoral linkages 103
2.5.5.2 Human resources 104
2.5.6 Economic factors 105
2.5.6.1 Valuation of agro-biodiversity 105
2.5.6.2 Economic incentives and perverse incentives 105
iii
3.3.1 Conservationof wildlifebiodiversity 115
3.3.2 Equitable sharing of benefits from wildlife biodiversity conservation 115
3.6 Inter-sectoral
issues 119
5 REFERENCES 133
6 ANNEXES 138
iv
LIST OF TABLES
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1.3.1 Population density and natural resources exploitation by natural region in
selected districtsinZimbabwe 5
2.1.1 Areas under various land use systems in Zimbabwe 14
2.2.1 Common indigenous fruit trees found in natural woodlands in Zimbabwe 26
2.2.2 Uapaca kirkiana fruit characteristics 27
2.2.3 Information on Strict Natural Reserves established between 1992 and 1995 28
2.2.4 Weight of 1000 seeds and germination % for P. angolensis seeds 28
2.2.5 Hosts of A. glaber in Zimbabwe 31
2.2.6 Listof gazettedforestareasin Zimbabwe 38
2.2.7 Roundwood consumption by plant type in 1995/96 46
2.3.1 The diversityof mammalspeciesin Zimbabwe 50
2.3.2 The diversity of reptiles in Southern Africa and in Zimbabwe 50
2.3.3 Speciallyprotected mammal species in Zimbabwe 53
2.3.4 Specially protected birds in Zimbabwe 54
2.3.5 Comparison of species richness of woody plants, birds, ants, mantises in
intactand elephantimpactedwoodlandsites 56
2.3.6 National parks and other protected areas 59
2.4.1 FishcatchrecordsinLakeKariba 71
2.4.2 Fish catch records for Lake Chivero, Lake Mutirikwi and Darwendale Dam 72
2.5.1 Land use classification by sector and natural region in Zimbabwe 82
2.5.2 Domesticated animal population in Zimbabwe: 1980-1996 87
2.5.3 Rhizobia and Bradyrhizobia strains kept at Grasslands Research Station 89
2.5.4 Bacterial strains found in the rumen of cattle, sheep and goats 90
2.5.5 Summary of mean area planted and yield by crop and sector: 1987/88 -
1990/91 90
2.5.6 Productivity coefficients for beef production by farming sector 93
2.5.7 Distribution of communal area grazing schemes by natural region: 1993 94
2.5.8 Some germplasm stored at plant breeding institutions in Zimbabwe 100
2.5.9 List of vegetable crops collected by the Horticulture Research Institute 101
2.5.10 Estimated crop production values for 1997 by sector 105
2.6.1 Nominal Zimbabwe government expenditure on issues related to
biodiversity conservation: 1987/88 to 1997/98 110
4.1 Action plans for Zimbabwe's biodiversity strategies 124
LIST OF FIGURES
V
LIST OF ANNEXES
vi
ACRONYMS
vii
SPGRC Southern African Development Community Plant Genetic
Resources Centre
TRIPS Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights Regime
SIRDC Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNSCO United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USA United States of America
USS United States Dollars
VegRIS Vegetation Resources Information System
WTO World Trade Organisation
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
WWW World Wide Web
ZBC Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
ZERO Regional Environment Organisation
ZIANA Zimbabwe Inter-Africa News Agency
ZINATHA Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association
ZIS Zimbabwe Information Service
Z$ Zimbabwe Dollars
viii
FOREWORD
Zimbabwe is a signatory to several important international and national policy frameworks for
sustainable resource use, the majority of which emerged from the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. These include the
Convention on Climate Change, the Convention to Combat Desertification, the Montreal Protocol
and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna.
With respect to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Government of Zimbabwe obtained
funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) through the United Nations Development
Programme, to develop a Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), which is the subject of
this document. The preparation of this BSAP placed a lot of emphasis on stakeholder consultation
at various levels. About 400 people including environmentalists, academics, administrators,
politicians, traditional healers, traditional leaders, church leaders, business leaders and journalists
from government and non-governmental orgauisations participated in this exercise through
national and provincial workshops.
This document highlights the importance of biodiversity to the social and economic development
of Zimbabwe at both the local and national levels. The majority of our population directly depends
on a range of biological resources for subsistence and income generation. However, the country's
biodiversity is under threat from a number of factors which include conflicting economic policies,
rapid population growth rates, restrictive land tenure systems, recurrent droughts, the erosion of
cultural values and inadequate incentives for the rural folk who "live with" the biodiversity.
Furthermore, government expenditures on biodiversity conservation have declined over time in
real terms.
Finally, it is important to recognise that apart from submitting this document to the Conference
of Parties as our obligation to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Zimbabwe has a
responsibility to ensure that its findings are implemented in order to conserve our biological
heritage for present and future generations. To this end, my ministry will keep the BSAP Secretariat
Office functional for this purpose. Furthermore, given the multi-sectoral nature of the potential
biodiversity projects, an inter-sectoral committee to coordinate resource mobilization and to
monitor project implementation will be established.
ix
1. BACKGROUND TO THE COUNTRY STUDY
The Convention on Biological Diversity of which Zimbabwe is among the over 172
signatories, places the primary decision making for the conservation and sustainable
use of biological resources at the national level. Thus, in response to the Government
of Zimbabwe's request for support to prepare a National Biodiversity Strategy and
Action Plan (BSAP), the Global Environment Facility (GEF) approved a project
document ZlM/96/G3 l/A/1 G/99 to provide funding of about USS 300 000 through
the local office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The BSAP
is intended to build upon and reinforce other existing national strategies and plans
such as the Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
(CAMPFIRE) which have been quite successful. The Project enables Zimbabwe to
meet its obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity by facilitating the
preparation of a country study on the status of biodiversity and the development of a
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.
This document presents the status of biodiversity in Zimbabwe; the unmet needs in
biodiversity conservation and sustainable use; and a National B!odiversity Strategy
and Action Plan.
The climatic and edaphic conditions of Zimbabwe support a varied range of flora
and fauna which play a critical role in the social, economic and ecological well being
of the country. These and other related issues are presented in this section.
Zimbabwe's location
Zimbabwe is a land locked country covering some 39 million hectares. Its neighbours
are South Africa in the south, Mozambique in the east and northeast, Zambia in the
north and Botswana in the south west. The country lies between 15 ° 40¢and 22 ° 30¢
S and 25 ° 15¢and 33 ° 05¢E latitudes and is bounded by the Zambezi river in the
north and the Limpopo river in the south.
Although, well within the tropics, Zimbabwe's climate is sub-tropical being moderated
by altitude. Eighty percent of the country is above 600m, while the remainder is
below this height. An outstanding feature of the country's landscape is the central
plateau known as the highveld, which is about 650km long and 30km wide. On either
side of this is the middleveld, which is between 600 and 1200m above sea level. The
lowveld is below 600m and consists of a narrow strip in the Zambezi Valley and a
broader tract between the Limpopo and the Save rivers.
Climate
Rainfall is the major climatic factor that influences the performance of sectors such
as agriculture, forestry, wildlife and aquatic life in Zimbabwe. The rainy season
stretches from November to March, while the dry cool season is between May and
August. Frost is not uncommon during the winter season while October and November
are the hottest months.
Annual rainfall varies from an average of below 400mm in the low lying areas to
900mm over the central watershed and 1 500mm in parts of the eastern highlands.
The country is divided into five natural regions (NRs) largely based on annual rainfall
as shown in Figure 1.1. Annual rainfall in the Natural Regions (NRs) is as follows:
NR 1, over 1000mm; NR II, 800-1000mm; NR m, 650-800mm; NR IV, 450-650mm;
and NR V, less 450mm (Vincent & Thomas, 1960). Recommended land use systems
in the NRs are summarised below:
NR I is suitable for afforestation, agriculture and intensive livestock production.
Crops such as tea and coffee are grown in frost free areas.
NR II is suitable for intensive crop and pasture production and accounts for about
90% of the country's annual crop output.
NR III is recommended for livestock based production systems supplemented by
short season crops.
NR IV is suitable for livestock ranching and wildlife management and utilisation.
NR V is suitable for extensive cattle and game ranching.
About 70% of Zimbabwe's soils are derived from granite and are often sandy, light
textured and of limited inherent agricultural potential (Grant, 1981). There is,
however, a significant development of soils with a heavier clay content in various
parts of the country. Such soils are derived from basic igneous intrusions and have
excellent cropping potential due to their inherent fertility. The extreme west of the
country has large tracts of deep Kalahari sandy soils which have very low agricultural
potential.
Water resources
Zimbabwe has few perennial rivers and no natural lakes. Water storage development
is therefore dependent on run-off accumulated during the rainy season (November to
March). There are over 8 000 dams in the country with a storage capacity of about
4 900 million cubic metres.
Underground sources are usually the most economical and reliable for small to medium
water supplies, particularly in the drier areas of the country. Such water is available
at less than 40 metres and has a potential yield of 2000 million cubic metres per
annum.
According to the 1992 census, Zimbabwe's population was 10.4 million and was
estimated to be 12.2 million people in 1997 at an annual growth rate of 3.2%. A
decline in infant mortality rate has been largely credited for the rapid increase in the
country's population over the years although the effect of the Acquired Immuno
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) pandemic on population growth still remains to be
seen.
The 1997 male to female population ratio was 1:1.05 with 47% of the people being
under 15 years of age. Such a growing population structure poses great challenges to
the country' s biodiversity as the demand for natural resources will continue to increase
into the next millennium. This is worsened by the fact that about 66% of the country's
population resides in rural areas, where, because of poverty, people tend to rely on'
natural resources for their survival. As is the case in other developing countries,
Zimbabwe has very high poverty levels. For example, the 1995 poverty assessment
study showed that 61% of the country's households are poor with 45% of them living
in absolute poverty as they can hardly afford basic food requirements. Furthermore,
the majority of such poor households are headed by women. There are more people
per unit area in the wetter (e.g. NR I and II) than in the drier areas (NR III to V) of the
country (Table 1.3.1). This has led to greater exploitation of natural resources through
opening of large tracts of land for cultivation and increased demand on forest goods
and services in the former natural regions. Similar negative impacts of population
concentrations on biodiversity occur in areas around urban and rural service centres.
The resultant land degradation is contributing to the siltation of the major water
sources, such as the Save river.
3
4_
MOZAMBIQUE
LEGEND
NATURALREGIONS
_I_ Specialisedand
Semilntensive
Semi
Intonsive
Extensive
Lake intensive
extensive
Kanba
farming
farming
farming
farming
diversified
region
region
region
region
farmingrngl°n
· Town
N
A
_t
A
pra_a_byVegRIS,
r-mestry
Oeparm_nt
ofb_e
Ccra_.ar*ion,
Survey_
I-basra
Genara
BOTSWANA
SOUTH AFRICA
Figure 1.1 The Natural Regions of Zimbabwe
Table 1.3.1 Population density and natural resource exploitation by natural region
in selected districts of Zimbabwe
Population % of areaunder:
density
District Natural Region (people/km2) Cultivation Woodland
Chipinge I 65 47 39
Mutasa I 65 41 26
Goromonzi II 59 44 38
Chegutu II 30 37 35
Tsholotsho IV 15 25 64
Chiredzi V 11 11 65
Gwanda V 11 26 59
The rapid population growth and the related urbanisation is exerting pressure on
habitats and ecosystems surrounding cities, towns and rural service centres through
the provision of infrastructural services such as houses, factories and roads. This is
compounded by the current drive by government to attract foreign investment with
tourism, agriculture and mining being the most lucrative sectors. Such investments
could result in infrastructural development which could crowd out various biological
species from their habitats. For example, unless developments in the Victoria Falls
area are controlled, they could destroy the ecosystem on which the very existence of
the tourism industry depends. Furthermore. there is a need to put in place systems
that adequately and continuously monitor the effects of nationally important
developments such as the Zambezi Water Project and the Pungwe Pipeline Project
on existing and potential biodiversity.
Given that Zimbabwe is generally marginal for agricultural production, there has
been considerable investment in dam constructions for irrigation purposes. Apart
from submerging ecosystems, dam construction introduces new ecosystems within
and in the surrounding areas. For example, in addition to bringing in new aquatic life
forms, dams have modified land use systems in their areas of influence such as
providing sufficient water to grow cash crops, which require a higher level of chemical
inputs. If improperly used, such chemicals can pollute surface and ground water and
negatively impact on aquatic ecosystems.
As a way of minimising the adverse effects of infrastmctural development on the
environment, government has instituted an Environmental Impact Assessment policy.
Under this policy, projects with potentially adverse environmental effects are
prescribed, making them subject to environmental audits.
The urban environment has three major components namely, the built up areas;
physical attributes such as soil, water and air; and biological issues of flora and fauna.
Most of Zimbabwe's urban settlements are concentrated around areas of economic
activity such as mining, industrial operations, manufacturing and retailing. Given
the nature of these activities and the associated high human population concentrations,
environmental degradation in these areas is unavoidable. Pressure is therefore being
exerted on the land, water and atmosphere resulting in the accumulation of biological
and chemical pollutants which have undesirable effects on people, other living
organisms and the physical environment. Effects of such pollution in Zimbabwe are
evident around or near fertiliser and chemical plants and other water bodies where
the vegetation and aquatic life has suffered. Furthermore, the carbon dioxide produced
by the various pollution sources contributes to global wanning. On the positive side,
urban households contribute to biodiversity conservation through the establishment
of gardens and ponds that support a diversity of plant and animal life.
1.6. Land tenure, property rights and general land use systems
The land holding rights and obligations in Zimbabwe find their expression in the
country's four main systems of land tenure. These are the freehold (private), state
land, communal and leasehold (resettlement)tenure systems. The tenure systems
impact and shape the property rights and natural resource access regimes that exist
today. With the exception of the resettlement tenure system, the tenure systems are
largely a part of the country's colonial heritage.
The freehold tenure system is prevalent in the commercial farming sector which
consists of large scale and small scale commercial farmers and occupy about 32% of
the country's land area. This sector is characterised by individual ownership of land
by virtue of a title deed issued under the Deeds Registry Act. The registered land
owner has exclusive property rights and full control and responsibility over the land
and everything attached to it except to the extent that ownership and exclusive control
over the land and some natural resources may be limited by statutory provision. Such
limitations relate to changes in land use, controls over public water courses, felling
of indigenous timber resources and controls in wildlife. It is often argued that freehold
tenure provides land owners with incentives to conserve and improve the natural
resource base.
The communal land tenure system is governed by the Communal Lands Act and is
applicable to 42% of Zimbabwe' s land area, where approximately 66% of the country' s
population resides. Furthermore, 74% of the communal sector is located in NRs III
to V while the bulk of the large scale commercial sector is in high rainfall areas.
According to the Communal Land Act, all communal land is vested in the State
6
President who has powers to permit its occupation and utilisation in accordance with
the Act. Communal area inhabitants thus have usufructory rights over communal
land. While Rural District Councils have a dispensation to allocate land to qualified
persons on behalf of the state. Resettlement areas cover 10% of the country and are a
product of the post independence period targeted at relieving population pressure in
communal areas and have no title. It is often argued that the communal land tenure
system is a disincentive to long term investment in agriculture and other key natural
resources. To address these land tenure related problems, government set up a Land
Tenure Commission in 1994 to review the current land tenure systems and make
appropriate recommendations (Land Tenure Commission Report, 1995). However,
some of the key recommendations related to the communal land tenure system have
not yet been implemented.
The state also set aside 15% of the country as gazetted/protected forests and national
parks. These offer good examples of the in-situ conservation and sustainable use of
Zimbabwe's biological heritage.
Zimbabwe's economy has been undergoing some changes during the last six or so
years due to the implementation of economic reform programmes. The seven major
policy objectives of the reform programmes are:
· trade and investment liberalisation;
removal of trade restrictions;
deregulation of financial and labour markets;
removal of price controls;
attainment of a 5% annual growth in GDP;
reduction in the national budget deficit; and
reform of public enterprises and the rationalisation of the civil service.
While the first four objectives have been largely met, the last three have been more
difficult to achieve due to a number of constraints. These include, persistent droughts,
government's assumption of parastatal debts, delayed disbursement of external
financial support for reform programmes and increased social expenditures on issues
_Thisfigure is significantly higher than previous estimates published by the World Bank, World Resources Institute
and FAO. The reason is that in recently released national statistics by the Central Statistical Office, estimates of
GDP from the informal sector were included. This has increased official GDP per capita figures by almost 60
percent over previous values.
7
such as the AIDS pandemic. Furthermore, the current economic structural adjustment
programme is putting considerable pressure on biological resources as more people
turn to them in response to declining real incomes from fiscal and monetary policy
changes.
The rural to urban push in search of employment opportunities has led to the migration
of the male population to urban centres leaving their families in the rural areas. Such
an arrangement guarantees the family social security in the event of loss of a job or
retirement. This "dual economy" system gives indigenous people the right to a piece
of land in the communal area even if they are gainfully employed elsewhere. It is
often argued that such an arrangement leads to serious competition for limited
resources as more people may claim pieces of land for cultivation and grazing rights
for security and not for productive purposes.
Families are patrilineal among the dominant population groups. In the event of a
marriage, men pay a bride price to the family of the prospective wife. This gives the
man uxorial rights to that woman for as long as the couple is married. Furthermore,
the traditional land tenure system does not allow women to own land. These factors
tend to adversely affect the status of women in society. Notwithstanding, the situation
is changing as the crucial role of women in the various spheres of economic life
including natural resource conservation and sustainable use is being recognised.
There are also a number of traditional values that have assisted in the sustainable use
of natural resources in Zimbabwe. These include:
· Traditional rules and regulations that forbid the cutting of fruit trees and other
"sacred" tree species for uses such as fuelwood and construction and;
The use of one side and position of a tree to harvest roots or bark for traditional
medicines. This deterred people from exploiting the same tree before it had
sufficiently regenerated.
The importance of environmental education derives from the fact that communities
are the custodians and users of a nation's biological heritage. Considerable effort has
been put into developing conservation skills and attitudes in the youth by incorporating
social and environmental science into the primary school curriculum but this is not
8
yet the case in secondary schools which have largely remained academic. On the
other hand, although environmental education is not central in the curricula of most
tertiary education institutions, it is included in primary teachers colleges. Furthermore,
both public and private universities in the country have recently introduced new or
amended existing teaching and research programmes to include greater focus on
environmental management. These initiatives include undergraduate programmes in
natural resources and agriculture at Africa University; research activities of the Centre
for Applied Social Studies and the Institute of Environmental Studies; and the Masters
degree programme in Tropical Resource Ecology and in Environmental Policy and
Planning in the Department of Biological Sciences and Geography respectively.
9
1.10. Political factors
Parliament
Provincial Organs
Each of the country's eight provinces has a Provincial Council responsible for co-
ordinating various activities in the province. The membership of the provincial councils
which are chaired by a Provincial Govemor and Resident Minister consists of
chairpersons from Rural Development Committees and Urban Councils, a
representative each from chiefs, women, youth and experienced politicians.
Parliamentarians from the province are allowed to attend provincial council meetings,
but have no voting rights. Provincial Development Committees are responsible for
co-ordinating the provinces' development activities and consists of civil servants
and the chief executive officers of rural and urban councils.
District Organs
Rural District Councils (RDCs) are local planning authorities for community level
projects in the country's 55 rural districts. RDCs consist of elected councillors,
traditional chiefs and people representing interest groups such as farm and mine
workers. RDCs are advised by the Rural District Development Committees which
consist of Councillors elected on the voters' role and civil servants. RDCs are
responsible for land allocation, a function previously performed by traditional leaders.
This has considerably weakened the traditional leadership structure and the traditional
systems of natural resource conservation and use in communal areas.
l0
In 1987 the country prepared a National Conservation Strategy based on the World
Conservation Strategy. The main objective of this strategy was to ensure that natural
resources are used on a sustained yield basis. Unfortunately, the Strategy failed to be
an official document as it was not presented in Parliament; was not integrated into
the First Five Year National Development Plan of Zimbabwe (1986-1990); and did
not identify accountable agencies and their respective responsibilities. As such, the
strategy became a reference document instead of a guidebook for sustainable
development in Zimbabwe.
However, significant progress has been made in the area of environmental policy
and planning since 1987. In late 1992, the then Ministry of Environment and Tourism
held a national conference to merge national and global (post-Rio) environmental
and development priorities. The conference report contained a matrix of issues,
objectives and responsible agencies, which upon reflection indicates that many of
the objectives have been addressed. For example, the Ministry of Mines, Environment
and Tourism has developed a national Environment Impact Assessment policy. The
Ministry is also leading a law reform process to deal with the problems associated
with the administration of at least 18 pieces of legislation on the environment which
are housed in nine different ministries and departments. Furthermore, the country
has adopted the District Environmental Action Plan (DEAP), in order to integrate
environmental conservation issues into the development planning process at the local
level.
The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by over 150 governments at the
close of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in June
1992. As of November 1994, the Convention had been signed by 172 countries and
ratified and/or acceded by 102 countries plus the European Community. Zimbabwe
has been an active member of the Convention since 1994.
The Convention's stated objectives are the conservation of biodiversity and the
sustainable use of its components, coupled with the equitable sharing of benefits
from the use of the genetic resources. The Convention stresses the need to promote
international, regional and global cooperation on these issues. In addition, it requires
parties to co-operate on matters of "mutual interest" related to biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use. It also establishes an international structure for
continued co-operative research, technology transfer, information exchange assistance
as well as monitoring and assessing the implementation of the Convention. The
Convention further requires developed countries to provide financial support for the
implementation of the Convention by developing countries. A funding mechanism,
the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has been established and is administered by
the World Bank and UNDP on behalf of donor countries.
The first stage in the development of a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan is the preparation of a Country Study document which presents the status of
biodiversity in a country. It also evaluates the importance of biodiversity to the national
economy and highlights the various threats to biodiversity and their significance.
This is followed by extensive stakeholder consultations during which the strategy
and action plan is formulated.
12
2. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity refers to the life support systems and natural resources upon which
mankind depends. It has been variously described as "the variation between
ecosystems and habitats; the variation between different species; and the genetic
variation existing within individual species" (Convention on Biological Diversity,
1992). Stuart et al. (1990) looks at genetic diversity as a measure of the heritable
variation within and between populations; species diversity as a measure of the total
number of species within a given area; and, ecosystem diversity as a measure of the
component species and how they interact to form an ecosystem.
The foregoing definitions highlight the fact that biodiversity is a complex concept
that cuts across biological species, ecosystems and economic sectors.
· Although forests provide a wide range of timber and non timber forest products
and services to the majority of Zimbabwe's population, they are being lost at an
alarming rate. It is estimated that about 70 000ha of Zimbabwe's forests are lost to
agriculture each year. Furthermore, although about 66% of the country is still
covered by woody vegetation, the cover in some districts such as Chivi now stand
at only 30%.
13
· Wildlife is an important source of meat especially in rural areas. Consequently,
the increasing human population numbers are imposing tremendous pressure on
this important natural resource. For example, it is now extremely difficult to "sight"
wildlife species such as the "rabbit" in most communal areas! Furthermore, the
international commodification of wildlife threatens the survival of species such as
the rhino.
Areas under some of the above land uses in Zimbabwe are presented in Table 2.1.1.
Sixty six percent of the country's land area is under various forest types compared to
27% which is under cultivation. The heaviest concentrations of forests occur in the
gazetted state forest areas, national parks areas, the eastern highlands and large scale
commercial farms. Exotic plantations occupy about 156 000ha of which over 90% is
in the eastern districts. Also found in the latter are the unique tropical rain forests
occupying some 11 500ha.
14
2.1.4. Organisation and thrust of the biodiversity report.
For purposes of breaking biodiversity into manageable units, the sector and ecosystem
options were considered. Notwithstanding its inability to capture synergies and
contradictions that occur across sectors, the sector approach was adopted because of
the following reasons:
The government is structured along sectoral lines and the formulation and
implementation of policies that affect biodiversity is done within a sector context;
and,
International conventions are generally formulated and implemented along sectoral
lines.
The four sectors considered are forestry; wildlife; aquatic flora and fauna; and
agriculture. Elements considered for each sector were:
the status and trends of biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels;
the causes of biodiversity changes;
biodiversity conservation and sustainable use measures
pertinent legislative, policy and institutional issues; and,
the economics of biodiversity conservation.
With respect to the format of the report, forestry is discussed first followed by wildlife,
aquatic life and agriculture. This is in recognition of the fact that forests provide and
shape habitats for the various forms of life while agriculture and other economic
activities are gradually replacing pristine forests with other forms of biodiversity.
For example, Zimbabwe's agricultural development during the last 80 years has
resulted in major losses of habitats for wild flora, fauna, insects and micro-organisms
including the wild relatives of domesticated plants and animals. The increasing
emphasis on a few crop varieties, monocropping, continuous cropping and use of
external inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides is reducing the resilience of agricultural
systems to changing environmental conditions and new pest and disease challenges.
Furthermore, the loss of soil organic matter, the drainage of wetlands and the
15
elimination of trees from agricultural systems diminishes carbon sequestration and
contributes to global warming. The foregoing eco-system wide impacts of agriculture
on biodiversity can be mitigated by the adoption of sustainable production practices
and land use patterns hence the central role of agriculture in the biodiversity debate.
Cross cutting issues such as the benefits and costs of biodiversity conservation are
pulled together at the end of Chapter 2, while the unmet needs in biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use are presented as Chapter 3. Zimbabwe's National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is presented in Chapter 4.
16
FII)IrlKSTIrY
2.2. FORESTRY
The Southern Africa region is dominated by six phyto-regions called the Flora
Zambeziaca, Karoo-Namib, Cape Floristic, Afromontane, Indian Ocean Coastal Belt
and the Kalahari-Highveld transitional zone (Beentje, 1996). The Flora Zambeziaca
region is the richest in terms of species and dominates most of Zimbabwe. The eastern
highlands of the country form part of the Afromontane region and has the largest
level of endemism notably in the Chimanimani mountains, Nyanga and Chirinda
Forest. Vegetation characteristics of the Cape Floristic region such as fynbos (fire
bush) occur in the Nyanga mountains. Although the other three phyto-regions do not
extend into Zimbabwe, remnant species are not uncommon.
Afromontane phyto-region
Exotic plantations
Zimbabwe has a well established plantation forest resource base covering some
155 853ha. About 90% of the plantations are located in the eastern districts. This
area is characterised by high altitudes (700 to 2 200 metres above sea level) and high
rainfall (average of 1 000mm/annum). About 71% of the planted area is under
17
softwoods (pines), 13% under hardwoods (eucalyptus) and 16% under wattle. With
respect to plantation ownership pattern, about 42% belong to the State, 54% to private
companies and the remainder to small private growers who include cooperatives.
Species diversity in Zimbabwe is described within the context of the five woodland
types of the Zambeziaca phyto-region; the four vegetation types of the Afromontane
phyto-region; and the exotic plantations (Figure 2.1).
The five woodland types under the Zambeziaca phyto-region are Minmbo, Mopane,
Teak, Acacia and Terminalia/Combretum.
Miombo woodlands
The Miombo woodlands, locally known as the "musasa or munondo" are the most
extensive woodland type covering most parts of the central watershed of the country.
A number of sub-types are found within this woodland based on the dominant species.
The most common is the Brachystegia spiciformis type, found in association with
Julbernardia globifiora and B. boehmii. Other tree species found in association are
Faurea saligna, Combretum rnolle, Uapaca kirkiana, Pterocarpus angolensis, Albizia
antunesiana, Strychnos spinosa, S. pungens, Monotes glaber and Gardenia
spatulifolia. On the Kalahari sands, B. spiciformis is often associated with Baikiaea
plurijuga and P. angolensis. The second type is B. boehmii which commonly occurs
on escarpments at higher altitudes. Common tree associates under warm and drier
conditions include, Pilostigma thonningii, Combretum spp., Afzelia quanzensis,
Diospyros mespiliforrnis, Peltophorurn africanum, Kirkia acuminata and Acacia
spp. The sub-type often merges with mopane woodlands at lower altitudes. The third
type is J. globifiora which is adapted to wide altitudinal ranges. It is often found as
pure stands, but occurs in association with C. mopane, K. acuminata and Sclerocarya
birrea at lower altitudes. The fourth type is Parinari curateUifolia occurring as pure
unstratified stands on sandy soils with a high water table. Rattray (1962), postulated
that the whole central plateau was once covered with P. curatellifolia and was invaded
by Brachystegia spp. in the east and B. plurijuga in the west. This woodland type is
now very limited in extent and has generally been degraded to grasslands and savanna
as a result of clearing and burning. The fifth type is Uapaca kirkiana which occurs as
pure stands limited in extend and generally situated on well drained soils in frost free
areas.
Miombo woodlands have diverse uses, ranging from watershed protection, provision
of soil fertility (through leaf litter), grazing and browsing, firewood, edible fruits,
mushrooms, caterpillars and timber. Thickets of miombo woodland hold little
merchantable timber except for small areas in demarcated forests such as Mafungabusi
Forest Reserve. Furthermore, most of the forests have been converted into intensive
agricultural areas, hence it is difficult to locate pristine woodlands.
18
MOZAMBIQUE
ZAMBIA
Legend
'_ Mo._..w_,a.da..,ava...
_ _c,a
Miornbo woodland and savanna _ Terminalia-Combretum
Teakforestandwoodland [_ Other
19
Teak or Baikiaea woodlands
Mopane woodlands
Mopane woodlands are quite widespread in Zimbabwe and are often associated with
low altitudes and hot areas with sodic or alluvial soils. The woodlands can be divided
into; the dry early deciduous (in north and west Zimbabwe); the dry deciduous (in
Save Valley and Upper Limpopo); and the dry early deciduous shrubs (on basalt
soils in southern Zimbabwe). The woodlands are often adjacent to the miombo or
lowland woodlands dominated by Combreturn or Terminalia spp. and are known for
their low alpha diversity (fewer number of associated species). Colophospermum
mopane is the dominant species. The following sub-types of mopane are recognised;
Colophospermum alone - Eragrostis grass (Kalahari, Permian); Colophosperrnum -
Brachystegia boehmii -Aristida (Kalahari); Colophospermum -Acacia - Combreturn
- Cenchrus (Basalt); Colophospermurn - Commiphora-Adansonia -Aristida (several
soil types). The associated tree species typical across the mopane woodland range
include Acacia nigrescens, A. nilotica, Adansonia digitata, Albizia harveyii, Balinites
spp., Combretum spp., Comrniphora spp., Dalbergia melanoxylon, Sclerocarya birrea,
Terminalia prunoides, T. stuhlmanii, Ziziphus mucronata and other shrub species
such as Combretum elaeagnoides, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia spp. and Xirnenia
africana.
Acacia woodlands
In Zimbabwe, Acacia woodlands occupy sizeable tracts of land especially in the dry
areas and grow on eutrophic soils. Available woodland sub-types include: Acacia
erioloba on the Kalahari sands; A. nilotica on black clays; A. gerradii on the basement
schists in association with A. karroo and A. tortilis on the colluvial sands of the
Zambezi Valley; A. albida (syn. Faidherbia albida) on alluvial soils in the major
20
river systems in the lowveld areas; and A. nigrescens on the Permian sands of the
Save valley.
Tree species associate_t with Acacia woodlands are quite varied. The common
associated species found on the basement schist include, Cornbretumapiculatum, C.
hereroense, Sclerocarya birrea and Peltophorum africanum. Because of their soil
enriching properties, Acacia woodlands are often associated with a rich grass under-
storey. Common grass species include Heteropogon contortus, Cymbopogon
plurinodis, Eragrostis spp., and Panicum maximum. Such woodlands are therefore
important in pastoral systems as the trees provide browse (leaves, flowers and pods)
and grasses are used for grazing.
TerrninallalCombretum woodlands
Four distinct vegetation types have been described for the Afromontane phyto-region
based on the following altitude zones: high to medium (1 400 to 1 800m); medium to
high (1 350 to 1 650m); medium to low (1 000m); and low (<1 000m).
Six sub-zones are readily recognised mainly in the Nyanga and Chimanimani
mountains and the fringing rain forests and streams in the rain shadow areas.
Sub- zone I forest is dominated by Syzigium masukuense accounting for almost
two thirds of the canopy cover. It is found on the Nyangani massive. The canopy
is usually 10 to 12 m in height with a few emergents, increasing the height to
15 m. Because of the high altitude, there is little activity and the forest is still
intact.
The medium to high altitude forests can be considered as an eeo-tonal zone consisting
of a mixture of montane and medium altitude tree species. The following four forest
types can be distinguished.
Type I forest is the mesic type found mainly in the Chimanimani and Vumba
Mountains. Syzigium spp. dominate the canopy in association with other species
such as C. malosana, Nuxia congesta, Oricia buchmannii, Podocarpus latilifolius,
R. melanophloeos, Chrysopyllum gorungosanum and Croton sylvaticus.
Type II forest is called Craiba brevicaudata forest which is fairly rare and found
between 1400 and 1600 m confined to granite boulder screes. The canopy consists
of C. brevicaudata in association with C. malosana, Cassipourea gummifiua and
pioneer species such as Albiza schirnperiana, Macaranga rnellifera and Polycias
fulva
22
Type III forest is that dominated by Albiza schimperiana and A. gummifera -
species indicative of a regenerating forest. The canopy height is about 40 m with
emergent Albizias reaching up to 50 m.
The fourth type is found on the driest part of the rainforest and borders with the
miombo woodlands. The commonest species is A. schimperiana which occupies
the driest parts and as moisture increases A. gummifera tends to dominate.
Chirinda Forest, a gazetted forest situated 30 km south east of Chipinge town is the
best example of a medium to low altitude rain forest remaining in Zimbabwe. The
forest is about 905 ha in extent, of which 606 ha is the true rainforest and the rest is
woodland (Timberlake and Shaw, 1994). The forest is still in the near pristine state
and contains the full array of species typical of medium altitude forests. Dominant
species include Chrysophyllum gorungosanum, Craiba brevicaudata and Trichilia
dregeana; Other common species include Newtonia buchananii, Maranthes goetziana,
Khaya anthotheca, Ficus chirindensis and Lovoa swynnertonii. Two species only
found in Chirinda are Celtis mildbraedii and Strychnos mellodora. Canopy height
can reach 60 m.
The remaining lowland rain forest is found in the Risitu valley covering about two
square kilometres. The dominant species are N. buchananii, M. goetzeniana, Xylopia
aethopica, K. anthotheca, Erythrophleum suaveolens, Futumia africana, Aporrhiza
nitida, Blighia unijugata and Uapaca guineensis. Small outliers of rain forests are
also found on the windward gullies on a number of mountains located on the southern
side of the central watershed. These include the Nyoni Range (which contains the
only population of Bivinia jalbertii in Zimbabwe), Wedza, Bikita and Buchwa
Mountains.
The Tree Breeding Programme in Zimbabwe has been principally concerned with
the introduction and development of exotic tree species for industrial and domestic
use. The main genera introduced are Pinus and Eucalyptus and a number of
ornamentally important species. The presence of this exotic forest biodiversity has
made it possible for Zimbabwe to develop a forestry industry which contributes about
3% of the Gross Domestic Product. Conservation of exotic forest biodiversity in
Zimbabwe therefore provides genes for infusion in the breeding populations and
contributes to global forest diversity conservation.
23
The genetic diversity of exotic tree species in Zimbabwe has been extensively studied
by the Research and Development Division of the Forestry Commission. Exotic
species were and are still being systematically introduced for evaluation for growth
potential and use for production of wood. The original introductions of most
commercial species came as bulk seed for plantation establishments. Plus trees were
then selected in the commercial stands forming the progenitors of the sub-populations
now available in the tree improvement programme. For pines and eucalypts, the sub-
populations are created on the basis of adaptability to specific sites, resistance to
drought and pests, and end use (timber, pulp, poles, firewood etc.). Some sub-
populations were created for breeding purposes such as mating experiments, flowering
studies and for maintaining resource banks.
Pinus species
The introduction of Pinus species into Zimbabwe may have started around 1903
when seed requirements were met by imports from South Africa. By 1937, P. elliottii
and P. taeda were the major species at Stapleford. P. patula was first introduced in
1919 when 909g of seed was obtained from Mexico through the United States.
Subsequent seedlots were introduced in 1928/29 from South Africa. Local seed
collection started in 1930 and seed requirements were met from plantations established
from the original consignment of 1919.
The second commercially important pine species is P. elliottii with ten sub-populations
(4 from Zimbabwean selections, 1 from South Africa, 1 from Malawi, 3 from the
USA and 1 from Queensland in Australia). The species is adapted to lower altitudes
of the eastern highlands. The third species is P. teada which is adapted to the better
sites over a wide range of altitudes in the eastern highlands. The breeding status of
the species consist of two Zimbabwean selections, two from the USA and one from
Malawi. The fourth species is P. kesiya which has shown potential on marginal sites.
It is represented by seven populations from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Madagascar, Thailand,
China, Vietnam and the Philippines.
Two promising pine species have been introduced afld these are P. tecunumanii (with
four populations from Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and South Africa) and P.
maximinoi. For the latter species a comprehensive provenance trial has been
established and all the best performing families will be grouped into one sub-
24
population. Other important pine species introduced into Zimbabwe are P. caribaea,
P. chiapensis, P. pseudostrobus and P. greggii.
Eucalyptus species.
Eucalypts were introduced into the country to meet the demand for hardwood timber,
poles and firewood. The major species are E. grandis, E. camaldulensis and E.
tereticornis. E. grandis which originally came from Eastern Australia, has proved to
be a versatile species in eastern Zimbabwe and in the highveld. The second important
species is E. camaldulensis which is regarded as the most reliable species for the
drier pans of the country. The diversity of the species in Zimbabwe is very broad and
includes material from Australia and Zimbabwean landraces (selections from
commercial stands). E. tereticornis is also well represented in the country with
populations from Australia.
Australian acacias
Other than eucalypts and pines, Australian acacias form an important component of
exotic introductions into Zimbabwe. Acacia mearnsii is an important commercial
tree species for the production of tannin and charcoal. Research programmes with
the lesser known Australian acacia species began in 1985 with seed being procured
from Australia through the Australian Council for International Agricultural Research
(ACIAR). The species being tested are A. holosericia, A. auriculiformis, A. cowleana
and A. turnida.
A whole range of other exotic species were introduced for various uses ranging from
ornamental to medicinal and have changed the tree landscape of the country. Most of
the original vegetation in urban centres has been removed and replaced by exotic
species. For example, Jacaranda mimosifolia, which came from Brazil, now
dominates the streets of Harare.
Genetic diversity or variation at the gene level has not been extensively studied for
most indigenous tree species in Zimbabwe. However, emphasis is now being placed
on determining the geographical and morphological variation of key commercial
species for improvement purposes in the case of indigenous fruit trees such as Uapaca
kirkiana and Sclerocarya birrea and for genetic conservation in the case of
Pterocarpus angolensis and Colophospermum mopane. This section presents results
from two case studies, in order to illustrate the potential genetic diversity in the
natural woodlands.
The miombo woodlands have the greatest diversity in terms of indigenous fruit trees
and a list of some of the fruit trees commonly found in this woodland is given in
25
Table 2.2.1. The gathering and consumption of fruits from wild tree species has
always been part of Zimbabwe's rural culture. The fruits are important sources of
food in fresh or processed forms and a ready source of cash when sold on the road
side or in urban markets. Such fruits include Uapaca kirkiana, Ziziphus mauritiana
and Adansonia digitata. There is also considerable potential of adding value to such
fruits through further processing. However, there is need to increase the productivity
of the trees both in-sim and ex-situ if this potential is to be realised.
Annonasenegalensis Maroro/Ububese
Azanza garckeana Matohwe/Uxakuxaku
Flacourtia india Nhunguru, Matudza/Umthunduluka
Mimusopszeyheri Chechet_/Umbumbulu
Parinari curatellifolia Hacha/Umkhuna
Strychnosspp. Matamba/Umtamba
Syzigiurnguineense Hute
Tamarindusindica Musika
Uapaca kirkiana Mazhanje, mashuku/Umhobohobo
Vangueriainfausta Matufu, Nzviru/Umthofu, Umviyo
Vitexpayos Tsubvu/Umtshwankela
Ximeniacaffra Nhengeni/Umthunduluka
The Murewa provenance had the biggest fruit and a high pulp to rind weight ratio
whilst the Mutarazi provenance had the lowest. Generally fruits from the eastern
highlands were smaller compared to those from highveld areas. Murewa also had
the sweetest fruit. There was however, little variation in fruit colour and number of
seeds per fruit. This variation in fruit characteristics could be attributed to the wide
geographic distribution of the species and presents an opportunity for productivity
improvement through selection and genetic manipulation.
26
Table 2.2.2. Uapaca kirkiana fruit characteristics
The Teak woodlands found on the Kalahari sand formations have a number of
commercially important timber species which include Baikiaea plurijuga, Pterocarpus
angolensis and Guibourtia coleosperma. Since specimens of good form are targeted
during harvesting leaving poor trees, logging leads to general genetic impoverishment
with the removal of the best phenotypes. In order to protect the gene pool, a number
of Strict Natural Reserves (SNR) were established in areas where commercial
harvesting takes place (Table 2.2.3.). The SNRs are like 'witness' stands, although
the genetic variation of the species is unknown. There is, therefore a need to determine
the genetic variation of the targeted species if their in-sim conservation is to be
strengthened. The level of genetic variation will then determine the number and size
of the SNRs. For example, if a species shows narrow genetic variation, then only a
smaller population will need to be conserved in-sim, and if the variation is big then a
large number of SNRs will have to be established.
27
Table 2.2.3. Information on Strict Natural Reserves established between
1992 and 1995.
Gokwe 191.6 88
Chimanimani 168.7 93
Chinyika (Rusape) 157.7 87
Mtao Forest Reserve 153.5 87
Matopos 154.4 95
Nyamandlovhu 159.5 86 I
Mzola Forest Reserve 230.9 92
Ngamo Forest Reserve 194.6 99
Fuller Forest Reserve 340.7 94
Gwampa Forest Reserve 171.4 86
Mycorrhizal fungi are associated with a wide range of exotic and indigenous tree
species found in Zimbabwe. These fungi improve tree growth by increasing the
absorbing surface of the root system; by selectively absorbing and accumulating
nutrients such as phosphorus; and, by making feeder roots more resistant to infection
by fungi such as Phytophthora, Pythium and Fusarium. Ectomycorrhizae (mostly
produced by mushrooms) and endomycorrbizae (mostly produced by phycomycetes
of the genera Endogone and Glomus) are often associated with miombo and kalahari
tree species respectively. Unfortunately, very little work has been done on these fungi.
With respect to Pinus plantations, mycorrhizal fungi (mushrooms) that have been
28
identified include: Thelephora terrestris, Amanita muscaria, Suillus granulatus and
Boletus edulis. With increasing deforestation, most of the mycorrhizal fungi are lost.
This has adverse effects on tree planting efforts targeted at reafforesting degraded
areas.
Trees also associate with certain species of bacteria in a symbiotic fashion. For
example, the bacterial genus Rhizobium, infects roots of leguminous tree species
such as Leucaena leucocephala and several species of Acacias. In such relationships,
the bacteria obtains nutrients in the form of sugars from the tree and fixes and avails
atmospheric nitrogen in organic form to the tree. However, the taxonomic position
of nitrogen fixing bacteria in Zimbabwe's forests is not well known and no efforts
have been made to collect, characterise and conserve beneficial strains.
About 70% of the country's 12.2 million people live in communal areas and depend
directly on forests for firewood, construction timber, food and fodder. However, the
open access to forests in these areas results in their over exploitation due to lack of
accountability. This is worsened by poverty; lack of alternatives; poor enforcement
of the Communal Lands Forest Produce Act and the appropriate Rural District Council
by-laws; and the breaking down of traditional social structures and local customs
which facilitated the control of access to forest resources. On the contrary, there is
better biodiversity conservation in the large scale commercial farms which are privately
owned. With respect to gazetted forests, biodiversity conservation is being threatened
by neighbouring communities who illegally obtain timber and non timber forest
products from them. Plans are now under way to replace the colonial protectionist
approach to conserving these forests to one which considers communities living on
the "forest edge" as parmers in the conservation, management and utilisation of the
forests through Resource Sharing Committee schemes.
The opening up of forest land for agricultural expansion is the major reason for the
loss of forest biodiversity. It is estimated that 70 000ha of forest land is lost to
agriculture each year. In fact it is now difficult to find pristine miombo woodlands on
the central watershed of Zimbabwe as most have disappeared to give way to cropping
and grazing land. The growth of the tobacco industry has also increased the demand
for fuelwood for tobacco curing.
Effect of fires
The effect of fires on other woodland types has not been extensively studied since
fires are uncommon and are not used as management tools. However, the fires that
occur in the wattle jungles of the eastern highlands promote seed germination and
regeneration of the species and have significantly contributed to its spread.
Miombo woodlands are considered the richest and most productive in terms of
biodiversity. However, some of the key species are threatened by die-back and deaths
due to a scale insect called Aspidoproctus glaber Linderger (Homptera:
Margarodidae) recorded since 1985 (Mazodze, 1995; Mushongahande, 1997). The
scale insects are actually sedentary females that attach themselves to tree stems and
camouflage themselves by mimicking bark colour and form. In some cases they have
been seen mimicking spine form on Acacia species. The occurrence of scale insects
is widespread in the Hurungwe district and has also been reported in Makonde East,
Mutare, Kwekwe and Sanyati with a total area of 115 000ha having been affected.
The sap-sucking insect attacks twigs, branches and the main stems of a number of
miombo trees with the preferred ones being Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Acacia
species, (Table 2.2.5). Affected trees show defoliation followed by tip die - back,
bark splitting, die-back of branches and stems and eventual death of the whole tree.
The recommended control measures include avoiding transfer of affected logs to
other areas and general "sanitary" silviculture.
Mukwa die-back
30
Table 2.2.5. Hosts of Aspidoproctus glaber in Zimbabwe
Magnificent baobab (Adansonia digitata) trees especially in the Chipinge and Victoria
Falls areas are attacked by brown cork warts which are later colonised by sooty
mould. The attacks start off on the twigs and trunks and the pre-disposing factors
include drought, extensive bark stripping for basket and mat making and road
construction activities. Affected trees usually turn black and later crumble into a
pulpy heap. A number of fungi associated with this "condition" have been isolated
and include Antenulariella, Hyphomylete, Aureobasidium and Botryodiplodia (Pierce
et. al, 1994; Mushongahande, 1996).
31
Habitat loss to alien species
Exotic species introduced for commercial or ornamental purposes have escaped from
target areas and replaced the original tree biodiversity. Specific examples are Acacia
mearnsii in the eastern highlands, Pinus patula in the Nyanga National Park and
Psidium cattlensis in Chirinda Forest. Some indigenous species such as Acacia nilotica
and Dichostrychus cinerea have been reported to invade degraded sites and pasture
lands swamping the natural vegetation.
Commercial timber species found in the Teak forests are selectively cut on the basis
of diameter (minimum 30 cm) and stem form. This tends to "cream off' the best
phenotypes leaving poorly formed trees. If the good phenotypic traits are under
genetic control, this leads to gradual genetic impoverishment as superior trees are
removed. In addition, selective logging affects species recruitment and dominance.
For example, Baikiaea plurijuga tends to become the dominant species after logging
in teak forests. In other woodland types, selective logging for wood carving leads to
a decline in the preferred species such as Dalbergia melanoxylon in miombo
woodlands.
The selective extraction of trees for various uses by local communities also leads to
over exploitation. For example, Warburgia salutaris (muranga), which is well known
for its medicinal properties in the Chipinge area is almost extinct as a result of over-
harvesting. Bivinia jalbertii, a species which yields a pole that can last for many
years, and endemic to the Nyoni Hills near Ngundu in Masvingo Province is also
under threat. In addition, harvesting of fruit trees such as Uapaca kirkiana for urban
markets leads to the removal of potential propagules (seeds) from their natural habitat,
thus breaking the regeneration cycle which can lead to some biodiversity loss.
32
2.2.2.3. Cultural and ethnic value factors
Most cultural and ethnic values of local communities had the effect of maintaining or
increasing forest biodiversity. These are largely related to selective harvesting of
trees and non use of certain species. Traditionally, there was selective tree harvesting
through felling of old and dying trees. In situations where healthy trees were cut this
was done in such a way that rapid coppicing would occur. African tradition also
prohibited the cutting of certain tree species such as Parinari curatellifolia,
Julbernardia globifiora and Warburgia salutaris which were considered "sacred".
Certain indigenous fruit tree species such as Strychnos and Uapaca could not be cut
under any circumstances. People were also prohibited from cutting trees growing
around grave yards as they were considered to be sacred groves. Unfortunately, the
erosion of the powers of the traditional leaders, loss of cultural values and economic
hardships have led to the breakdown of some of these positive biodiversity conserving
practices.
With respect to agriculture, local people practised agroforestry which involved growing
annual crops in fields with "standing trees". This practice reduced the extent of
deforestation associated with agriculture. However, the extension of "modem"
agricultural production technologies which encourage monocropping has led to the
wholesale removal of trees to give way to agriculture.
Although there have been considerable attempts to encourage the planting of trees in
communal areas for purposes such as fuelwood and fruit supply, such efforts have
had a biodiversity enhancement effect. For example, the Forestry Commission has
been implementing the rural afforestation programme since 1983. Seedling production
was identified as a key activity during the first phase of the programme and resulted
in the establishment of 78 centralised nurseries of eucalypts seedlings which were
then distributed and sold to interested farmers, communities, schools and local
authorities. However, the concept of "centralised nurseries" proved expensive and
the nurseries were thus handed over to interested local groups and individuals in the
second phase of the programme. Local communities were encouraged to establish
their own "satellite nurseries" in which they would raise seedlings of their own choice.
33
This resulted in the diversification of the seedling mix from eucalypts alone to include
fruit and indigenous tree species. Such efforts by the Forestry Commission and other
organisations have contributed to increasing forest biodiversity in most deforested
communal areas.
Forestry Commission
The Forestry Commission has put in place the Strict Natural Reserves (SNRs) concept
in gazetted forests as discussed in Section 2.2.1.3. Eleven SNRs have been established
so far and the species being conserved are P. angolensis, B. plurijugal G.
coleospermum, C. mopane and E. caudatum. Growth dynamics and genetic variation
studies are being carried out in the SNRs. The Commission has also been implementing
34
a Vegetation Resources Information System (VegRIS) project since 1993. The project,
which utilises remote sensing and geographical information systems technology, has
produced national woody cover maps at 1:250 000 and 1:1 000 000. Work on the
development of methodologies for monitoring vegetation changes and woody biomass
estimation activities are currently under way.
The National Herbarium and Botanical Garden has carded out a number of vegetation
inventories which include:
A vegetation survey covering communal areas of the Zambezi and part of the
Mazowe drainage basins. As described for the IRIS project under the Department
of Natural Resources, the vegetation was divided into eight physiognomic~floristic
classes and 37 vegetation types. Mapping was done at 1: 250 000 and 1: 500 000;
and
A botanical survey of the rain forest of the eastern highlands was produced at
1:250 000. Twelve vegetation types including their environmental interactions
were described.
It is important to note that the foregoing surveys form valuable benchmarks for
monitoring forest biodiversity changes in the country.
35
2.2.3.2. In-sim conservation
ln-situ conservation of forest biodiversity occurs in the gazetted areas, national parks
and other protected areas. These areas are shown in Figure 2.2.
The Forest Act gazetted the establishment of forest areas for the sustainable extraction
of timber; to act as reservoirs of wildlife and water catchment areas; and, for the
conservation of biological diversity. These forest areas total about 800 000ha (about
2% of the country's land area) and are located on Kalahari Sands in the north western
part of the country (Table 2.2.6 and Figure 2.2.). Major commercial timber species
found in these forests include B.plurijuga, P. angolensis, G. coleosperma and Afzelia
quanzensis. Timber harvesting, repeated forest fires, intensive grazing and
deforestation for agriculture and settlement purposes are unfortunately converting
parts of these forests into low shrubs and grasslands.
A network of national parks, safari areas, sanctuaries, botanical reserves and protected
areas gazetted under the National Parks and Wildlife Act and the Natural Resources
Act form a strong basis for the conservation of flora and fauna in Zimbabwe.
National Parks offer the best example of in-sim conservation of some vegetation
types in the country. Although large National Park areas such as Hwange and
Gonarezhou are located in the dry parts of the country, the available vegetation protects
the soil and provides browse and fodder to wildlife. In fact in areas like Hwange, the
forests are under pressure from browsing by large animals such as elephants and the
vegetation is also changing from forest to shrubland. A number of Botanical reserves
were also set up to conserve unusual areas of special interest.
Areas under botanical reserves, sanctuaries, national parks, recreational parks, safari
areas and world heritage sites are summarised in Table 2.3.6 (see Section 2.3.3) and
cover about 13% of the country.
36
Table 2.2.6. List of gazetted forest areas in Zimbabwe
Chesa 14250
Inseze 8400
Umgusa 32 200
Gwaai 144 230
Ngamo 102 900
Nyamandlovhu 7 420
Mbembesi 55 100
Lake Alice 39 000
Gwampa 47 000
Mzola 67200
Sukumi 54 400
Kazuma 24 000
Fuller 23 300
Panda-Masui 35 500
Kavira 28 200
Sijarira 25600
Molo 2 900
Umzibane 2 471
Mvutu 2 100
Mafungautsi 82 100
Ungwe 567
Mudzongwe l 420
Total (22) 800 258
The establishment of Tree Seed Banks involves the collection of genetic resources in
the field and their subsequent storage. Scientific principles are applied during seed
collection expeditions to ensure that a population is adequately sampled and conserved.
Such seed banks also provide operational planting material.
The Seed Centre of the Forestry Commission currently holds over 23 000 accessions
mainly consisting of seeds of species collected from natural stands, research trials
and other seed centres world wide. The material is kept in cold rooms to ensure long
term seed viability. Information kept on the seed lots include; species name, date of
collection and origin details such as location, latitude, soil type and climatic
information. Growth performance data is also gathered and stored.
37
Oo
Fig 2.2 BIODIVE RS ITY C O NSERVATION
AREAS IN ZIMBABWE
LEGEND
Ill I_C _.AllO_0_ _K
I INDIGENOUSFORESTLAND
I pLANTAI_N FORESTI.AND
0 STRICT f_.TURAJ__RVE
· TC_n
_ _ FOr _ C_.n_nrloa
Chlmlnlmm114ount_r_
Hy_aglmMounbl_
10 BIr,_ _ F_
11 Pll_lal Hll_
t2 m i_aKh_t
13 _Bu_
N
A
I
NoYl_,_lber 15_7
i'_ __.,_
_wm_m
m
Resource conservation stands
Resource conservation stands are established for species that are threatened by over
exploitation and those whose population structure is heavily fragmented. Such species
include Chlorophora excelsa which has a few trees left in Gonarezhou National Park,
Bivinia jalbertii with a relic population left in the Ngundu Hills and Warburgia
salutaris in the Chipinge area. However, for species that do not survive if planted
outside their natural range, enrichment planting is being encouraged. In some cases,
such sites are gazetted as special conservation areas in order to ensure the continuation
of the species. To this end, 27 sites have been gazetted under the Natural Resources
Act as special areas of endermism or representatives of certain vegetation/species
types on privately owned land (see Figure 2.2.).
Botanical gardens
A 68 hectare Botanical Garden was established in Harare in 1962 with the objective
of building a comprehensive collection of plants found in Zimbabwe and the Southern
African region. To date, 1 060 plants representing 82% of the 1 230 woody plants
found in Zimbabwe have been established in the garden. Such collections contribute
towards conservation through authentic plant identification; and education and
awareness campaigns. However, because of space constraints botanical gardens do
not contribute much to the physical conservation of forest genetic resources because
only one or two plants can be grown to represent a species.
Property rights over and access to forest resources are closely linked to the land
tenure category on which the forest resource is found. It is important to note however,
that land and tree tenure are not always synonymous and hence overlapping tenurial
niches in forestry can be expected (Nhira and Fortman, 1993). The Forest Act and
the Communal Lands Forest Produce Act (CLFPA) bring to bear two main property
rights regimes, namely state and private property regimes. The large forest estate is
vested in the State. The Forest Estate clearly constitutes state property to which access
is gained through a system of permits, licences, agreements and concessions or in
terms of a right granted to inhabitants of communal land. Communal land strictly
speaking, is state land which has been designated as such. The land and resources
thereon are vested in the state. Inhabitants have usufructuary rights over the resources.
Forest and woodland resources are communal property. The legislation in place gives
the State wide and sweeping regulatory powers as well as a broad discretion in terms
of the type, location and amount of forest produce that may be harvested by any
person to whom an authority has been granted. An authority to exploit forest resources
guarantees a fairly secure resource tenure system, provided that the conditions of the
authority are complied with for the duration of the permit. The Forestry commission
may further regulate the taking of indigenous timber resources outside the forest
estate and has overriding power to issue concessions for the exploitation of these.
Further, the legislation gives Rural District Councils control over forest resources in
39
communal areas and thereby empowers them to alienate any produce occurring in
the forest through a system of concessions.
Forest resources in the communal areas are accessible to communal land dwellers
only for the purpose of"own use" and any commercial exploitation of these resources
is prohibited by the CLFPA. This failure to allow inhabitants to benefit economically
does not take into account current realities whereby commercial exploitation of forest
resources, particularly wild fruits and honey, is a widely practised additional income
generating activity for many rural households. The State retains the right to grant
authority to exploit communal forest produce to any person and does not enjoin the
State functionary to consult the residents of communal areas for whom the resources
have historically constituted common property resources.
Forest resources on alienated (private) land is held under a private property regime
with owners or occupiers of such land having exclusive property rights save to the
extent to which the Forest Act and Natural Resources Act may place limitations on
the exploitation or destruction of the forest resource, particularly indigenous timber.
Access to exotic forest genetic resources in the country is through the Forestry
Commission' s Tree Seed Centre, which is responsible for distributing genetic material
at cost or on a free issue basis in the case of experimental material. However, _ccess
to improved genetic experimental material might become an issue once forestry
companies opt for clonal propagation and thus require elite cloning material. This
would require a change in the policy on access to forest genetic resources for research
purposes. Such changes could include the introduction of access charges that
incorporate intrinsic value; and the introduction of agreements or contracts for profit
sharing offering rights to access on tender.
The Forest Act and the Communal Lands Forest Produce Act (CLFPA) are the
principal pieces of legislation that govern the exploitation and protection of forest
and woodland resources in Zimbabwe. This is achieved through the establishment of
conditions for and regulation of the magnitude to which forest produce may be utilised.
Despite post independence amendments, the two Acts largely retain the colonial
approach to natural resources management based on racially determined principles.
As is evident from its short title, the CLFPA finds its application in the communal
areas, which were assigned for African occupation. Typically, this Act imposes a
rather strict regulatory framework which is highly state interventionist. On the other
hand, the Forest Act, whilst seeking to be broad in its coverage of forest resources
throughout the country, finds its primary focus on state forests and on forest resources
occurring on private lands, most of which comprise the former European areas. The
controls over private forests under the Act are less strict and provide a somewhat self
regulatory control mechanism for the management of private forest resources by
their owners.
40
The Forest Act provides for the establishment of demarcated forest areas and
establishes a Commission to serve as the state authority mandated with the dual
responsibility of providing policy advice to the Minister responsible for the
administration of the Act and of performing regulatory functions. The regulatory
functions deal with the control, management and exploitation of state forests,
plantations and forest nurseries belonging to the state and any other land as may be
acquired by the state for forestry purposes. With regard to forests occurring on private
lands, the Act provides for their protection where the owner or occupier applies to
the Minister for such protection. An application may only be made where the owner
or occupier of the private land in question places all or part of the land under a system
of forest management approved by the Commission. The Minister has a discretion
to declare the private forest a protected forest if such a declaration is in public interest.
The Minister may in the same manner revoke the declaration of protection, where the
private land no longer falls under an approved system of forest.
The Minister is empowered to declare any species of tree or any forest produce
occurring in a state forest and on any other state land which has been declared a
demarcated forest to be specially reserved. The Minister's powers do not include
trees or produce occurring in the Parks and Wildlife Estate, plantations and communal
land. This power vests in the State President. The protection, control and management
of state and private forests is sought to be achieved through the establishment of a
range of prohibited activities and offences. It is an offence to harvest or damage any
forest produce on state and private protected forests without the written authorisation
of the Minister. Harvesting of and damage to any protected tree or any tree in any
forest or plantation which the President has declared to be protected is further
prohibited, except where this is carried out in accordance with regulations or the
permission or direction of the Commission.
The forest act is directed primarily at exploitation of the forest resource rather than
one of sustainable management. It has not been suitably modified to reflect the forest
policy and current trends in forest management. The Act came into force in 1948
initially to control and regulate the mining industry which had hitherto conducted
unregulated timber extraction for some 50 years. The supremacy of the Mines and
Minerals Act over all other resource use legislation meant that most of the indigenous
forests of the country had been heavily logged by miners and their contracts at the
time the Forest Act was passed (Scoones and Matose, 1993). The Act however remains
partial to the mining industry as is the case with all other natural resources legislation
in the country. It maintains the tacit assumption prevalent in all the Zimbabwean
natural resource legislation that mine development is the pre-eminent land use and
that minerals may be mined wherever they occur (Henly, 1990). However, the Act
provides for the formation of a Mining Timber Permit Board (MTB) which considers
applications for permits for the extraction of timber for mining purposes.
The Forest Act prima facie prohibits the harvesting, injury or destruction of any
indigenous trees or timber from private forests and forest produce from any state
land except in terms of a valid mining timber permit issued with the consent of the
41
appropriate authority for the land. A miner does not however require a permit for the
clearance of forest land where an access road to the mining claim is sought to be
established or, where boundary roads are marked, and in instances where a part of
the forest interferes with his mining activities. This general assumption may however
be withdrawn by the MTB where it is satisfied that the miner is cutting, felling or
removing forest produce, trees or timber in such a manner resulting in undue damage
to the locality concerned. Other criteria for the refusal to issue a mining timber permit
include the situation where the taking of timber would adversely affect the timber
supplies in that locality or Zimbabwe as a whole or where suitable alternative supplies
of timber are available to the applicant for the timber permit.
The Communal Land Forest Product Act (CLFPA) vests the administration of
exploitation of all communal area forest produce with the Minister. However, a range
of authorities are provided for, and these cover licences, agreements and permits.
Exploitation of forest produce by communal area inhabitants is restricted to "own
use" and the sale or supply of any forest produce to any other person is prohibited.
Furthermore, an inhabitant may not exploit forest produce in a protected forest, a
reserved tree, or any produce over which an authority to exploit has been granted to
any person and where a plantation has been established by any person other than the
inhabitant. However, these may be exploited in the course of clearing land for
residential and cropping purposes, where rights of occupation and use under the
Communal Land Act have been granted.
The Act empowers the Minister to set aside areas of natural forests occurring in the
CAs as protected forests. The Minister may further declare any tree to be a reserved
tree and such a tree may not be exploited except in terms of a special licence or
permit. Some sixty trees fall into this category and are depicted in Annex 6.2.2.
Special permits and licences authorise a holder to exploit reserved trees outside a
protected forest and in the case of an inhabitant, authorise him to exploit reserved
trees in a protected forest area in which he is resident. Thus the CLFPA effectively
removes the management of natural forest resources from the inhabitants of its area
of application. Firstly, the Minster is vested with authority to exploit the forest resource
on behalf of the state. In cases where a forest fails within the jurisdiction of a local
authority, control over the resources therein lies with the appropriate Rural District
Council, which has the fight to grant concessions to outsiders to utilise forest products
for commercial purposes.
In exercising his powers under the Act, the Minister is required to consult the local
authority that may be affected by the e.xercise of his power. However, no consultation
mechanism exists for the inhabitants, as the law assumes the local authority is a
representative of all interests of affected persons under its jurisdiction. The Minister
is however required to have due regard to the interests of present and future inhabitants
of communal lands that may be affected by the exercise of his powers. The concept is
however not well supported by the Act, as it does not require the Minister to prepare
inventories of forest produce existing and exploited for his guidance in issuing permits.
The limitation of the right for inhabitants to exploit forest produce for "own use"
42
prevents local level initiatives for resource sharing or exchange of resources and falls
to acknowledge the centrality of woodland resources within the rural economy
(Mohamed-Katerere, 1996).
2.2.5. Institutional framework, cross seetoral linkages and the human resource
base.
The Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism, through its line departments (the
Forestry Commission, the Department of Natural Resources, and the Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Management) is the major player in forest biodiversity
management. Other sectors such as agriculture, construction and water have both
direct and indirect impacts on forest resources
The Forestry Commission, in its capacity as the state forest authority, is responsible
for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of forest biodiversity and the Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Management is in charge of the wildlife component.
The Department of Natural Resources is responsible for regulating and enforcing
broader environmental issues, while the Department of Rural and Urban Planning
formulates local by-laws for resource conservation with the involvement of Rural
District Councils, who are closer to the natural resources. Other important government
institutions are:
The Ministry of Transport and Energy which is responsible for developing the
national biomass energy strategy and for road construction;
The Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, formulates agricultural policies and
strategies and reviews land tenure legislation;
The Ministry of Rural Resources and Water Development, whose activities directly
impact on forest biodiversity;
The Mines component of the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism whose
Mines and Minerals Act overrides all other Acts in natural resource exploitation;
The National Herbarium which has a comprehensive collection of botanical
specimens and carries out taxonomic identifications and field explorations;
The National Museums and Monuments, gazettes areas of cultural significance.
Such sites often contain considerable tree diversity; and,
The Department of the Surveyor General, provides a full range of surveying and
mapping services critical for forest inventories and biodiversity monitoring.
The Woodland Management Group which consists of four local environmental Non
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) viz ENDA-Zimbabwe, ZERO, SAFFIRE and
BUN, is very active in forest matters and plays key advocacy and lobbying roles in
43
forest biodlversity conservation, while NGOs such as IUCN, The Zambezi Society
and WWF perform important financing and lobbying roles.
The Forestry Commission's operations are guided by the Forest Act of 1948 which
gives it the authority to protect forests and woodlands and to govern the exploitation
of forest resources. The Commission interacts with other government departments
and a plethora of NGOs, in the performance of its tasks. However, despite the
complementarity of its work with that of NGOs, there is considerable mistrust among
these players.
The Natural Resource Act of 1942 governs the functions of the Department of Natural
Resources and covers all natural resources including forests, water, soil, air and
minerals. The department's functions generally involve monitoring, regulation and
enforcement of roles on environmental conservation. However, the distinction between
its regulatory functions and those of the Forestry Commission in forestry matters is
not clear.
Although forests provide crop nutrients through leaf litter and regulate water flow
and infiltration, the role of trees and woodlands in agriculture is not clearly articulated
in Zimbabwe' s agricultural policy. This has contributed to rather poor positive linkages
between agriculture and forestry. The Draft National Energy Policy of the Ministry
of Transport and Energy focuses on the utilisation of wood for fuel with emphasis on
localised fuelwood deficits in many districts of the country. It also highlights the
need for alternative and affordable sources of energy in rural areas in order to r_duce
deforestation.
Most demarcated forests in Zimbabwe were gazetted for the purpose of protecting
the water catchment areas. It is however disappointing to note that there is very little
linkage between the forestry and water sectors. The Save catchment area provides a
paradigm where a multi-sectoral approach to resolving land degradation could
successfully be adopted.
44
2.2.5.3. Human resources
Forest biodiversity (both indigenous and exotic) plays an integral role in the social
and economic development of Zimbabwe through the provision of various goods
and services.
The wood supply and demand picture in exotic plantations is mixed (Arnold, et, al,
1993). Average annual timber consumption in the sector was 656 000m 3 between
1987 and 1990 and 541 333m 3 between 1989 and 1991. However, the actual volume
of roundwood harvested compared to that consumed is somewhat clouded by fibre
imports as 51% of the fibre requirements for pulp and paper products and reconstituted
panel products are imported. Furthermore, chips from sawlog production are used to
manufacture pulp and paper and reconstituted panel products. When the most
optimistic wood supply scenario of low economic growth, expanded plantation areas
and high yields is used, no timber deficits are projected for both pine and eucalypts
up to the year 2020. The most pessimistic scenario of high economic growth, no
expansion of plantation areas and low growth and yield would result in serious wood
supply deficits over the same period. However, the most likely scenario lies between
the two extremes.
l
45
Table 2.2.7 Roundwood consumption by industry (plant) type in 1995/96
Zimbabwe's natural forests generate a wide range of timber and non-timber products
and services. The products include: fuelwood for charcoal making, sawn timber and
pulpwood, building materials, wood for small artisinal crafts, fodder, fruits, honey,
mushrooms, insects, bark for rope, medicines, leaf litter and gum. The services include
watershed conservation; carbon fixation; and the provision of windbreaks, shade,
soil stability and wildlife habitat. No accurate economic value has been established
for these goods and services, but specific studies can produce some point estimates.
For example, a modified contingent valuation study that estimated the mean direct
and indirect values of a range of timber and non-timber products in miombo woodlands
gave an average value of Z$200/ha per year (Campbell, et al. 1991). Based on this
figure (and mindful of many caveats about extrapolating the very specific Campbell
results), the total stock value of indigenous woodlands (21 million ha) can be estimated
at Z$4.2 billion per year.
46
2.2.6.2. Economic incentives and disincentives for the conservation of forest
biodiversity
At the micro-level, economic disincentives such as low stumpage price may contribute
to poor conservation practices especially for indigenous woodlands. For example,
stumpage rates for mukwa and teak in government forests in 1992 were Z$155 and
Z$115 per cubic metre of standing timber respectively. However, it is difficult to
assess the appropriateness of these rates due to lack of data on final product revenue
and the associated costs of replanting and maintaining a new forest of teak or mukwa.
Direct incentives include cash incentives, such as fines to deter timber poaching or
improper harvesting methods; compensation for damage to community forests from
wildlife or development projects; compensation to people living adjacent to state
forests who are excluded from using the woodlands; and subsidies for forest
management such as free seedlings.
With respect to communal forests, the Communal Land Forest Produce Act allows
communal area inhabitants to exploit timber for personal use within certain limits
free of charge, while licences are issued for commercial exploitation of the forest
resource. Where forest damage occurs, costs of ameliorating the damage may be
imposed by the State. For example, the maximum fine imposed for improper
conservation under the Natural Resources Act is Z$1,000. However, such provisions
are fairly broad and do not appear to neither deter poor conservation practices, nor
encourage sound resource management in communal areas.
47
Direct subsidies in the form of free or low-cost seedlings is a common practice in
Zimbabwe. In 1983, the Forestry Commission initiated the Rural Afforestation
Programme to boost the production of seedlings (through central nurseries) for
distribution at little or no cost to schools, communities, farmers and local authorities
(Remme, 1995). However, in 1989, seedling production was decentralised to satellite
nurseries under the management of local authorities, communities, interested NGOs,
schools and farmers. These efforts and those of non governmental organisations,
have contributed to tree planting initiatives in communal areas. Indirect incentives
include subsidies to shift rural people from woodfuel to alternative fuel sources such
as the solar technology for cooking purposes; and promoting community development
programmes which are tied to improved conservation practices.
48
WILII)LIFIK
2.3. WILDLIFE
In this chapter, wildlife refers to terrestial vertebrates (mammals, birds and reptiles)
and terrestial invertebrates (insects and arachnids)
Zimbabwe has three major forest ecosystems that are described in detail in Section
2.2.1.1. These are the Zambeziaca phyto-region (consisting of miombo, teak, mopane,
acacia and terminalia/combretum woodlands), the Afromontane phyto-region and
Exotic plantations. These diverse forest ecosystems provide a wide range of habitats
for wildlife.
2.3.1.2. Vertebrates
Mammals
About 337 species of mammals are found in Southern Africa and 175 of these occur
in Zimbabwe and belong to 12 orders (Table 2.3.1). The orders with large numbers
of species in the country are the Chiroptera (51 species), the Rodentia (40 species),
the Carnivora (31 species), the Artiodactyla (26 species) and the Insectivora (16
species). Most species belonging to the Bovidea (e.g. buffalo, kudu, bushbuck, sable,
antelope, water buck, reedbuck and impala); Insectivora; Chiroptera; Lagomorpha;
and Rodentia have very wide geographical distributions. The population status of
some of the common species of mammals found in Zimbabwe is presented in Annex
6.3.1. and is well above minimum viable levels.
Birds
Southern Africa has a very high bird diversity, consisting of about 900 species of
which 133 are endemic. Over 600 of these species occur in Zimbabwe. The families
with the largest numbers of species are: the Sylvidae (warblers) with 53 species; the
Charadridae (plovers, tumstones) with 34 species; the Ploceidae (queleas) with 27
49
species; the Estrildidae (finches) with 22 species; the Himndidae (swallows, martins)
with 20 species; the Turdidae (thrushes, chats, robins) with 20 species; and the
Lonnidae (stikes) with 20 species; and the Ardeidae (herons, egrets) with 17 species.
The large number of bird species found in Zimbabwe are due to the high habitat
diversity. The richest bird habitats are the bushveld (various types of deciduous,
small tree woodland and mixed bush varieties) and the woodland (Newman, 1983).
However, there is a general decline in the population status of birds due to habitat
loss.
Insectivora 4 40 16
Chiroptera 10 73 5l
Primates 2 7 5
Pholidota 1 1 1
Lagomorpha 1 6 2
Rodentia 8 74 40
Carnivora 6 36 31
Tubulidentata 1 1 1
Proboscidae 1 1 1
Hyracoidea 1 4 1
Artiodactyla 6 40 26
Perissodactyla 2 5 4
Reptiles
Southern Africa has about 400 species of reptiles of which a considerable number
occurs in this country (Table 2.3.2.). The families with large numbers of species are
the Boaedontinae (with 12 species), the Gekkonidae (with 10 species), the Corylinae
sub family (with 9 species), the Calubrinae sub family (with 9 species), the
Atractaspidinae (with 9 species) and the Najinae (with 10 species). However, with
the exception of the crocodile, the population of reptiles has not been monitored
regularly.
Chelonii 6 20 6
Squamata 11 68 64
Amphisbeania (suborder) 1 12 7
Sauria (sub-order) 7 229 186
Crocodilians 1 1 1
50
2.3.1.3 Invertebrates
Insects
Within the invertebrate group, insects are numerically the most abundant. Estimates
of insect species richness (largely based on extrapolations from ratios of temperate to
tropical species numbers) vary from 5 million to 80 million world wide (Gullan and
Cranston, 1994). Of the 29 insect orders, beetles, true flies, bees and wasps have the
most species. However, this could be a reflecfon of collector preferences, as there
are no comprehensive inventories of all insect orders in most countries.
Zimbabwe still lacks a systematic inventory and monitoring system for insect species.
However, indications from the Natural History Museum (Bulawayo) and the insect
collection at the Plant Protection Research Institute (Harare) are that the country has
a rich diversity of insects and all the 29 insect orders have been reported. Most
collections are of beetles, where 128 genera have been recorded in the carabid family
alone. The scarab beetles are also widely distributed and have been well documented
(Gardiner, 1995).
Nine families of butterflies have been recorded with well over 400 species mostly
collected from the eastern highlands (Cooper, 1973). The abundance of butterflies is
generally seasonal, with greater numbers occurring during the rainy season, when
there is ample vegetation. Dry season forms of butterflies are duller than the wet-
season ones. Of the butterflies indigenous to Zimbabwe, most are found in the Vumba
Mountains and Chirinda forests. For example, the flame bordered charaxes is very
scarce and has been only recorded in Chirinda and Burma Valley. While the extremely
local Vumba fritillary has a restricted flight period, being limited to the rainy season.
The largest butterfly, the Emperor Swallowtail (128 mm), is found exclusively in the
rain forests of the eastern highlands.
Moths have some of the most studied species, mainly because their larval stages are
economic pests. Most of the defoliators, borers and bollworms belong to the noctuid
moths and over 300 genera have been recorded. Most species are widely distributed
and may have several generations a year. The more specialised feeders such as the
pink and red bollworms and the maize stalkborer over winter in crop stover as they
do not have alternate hosts in the dry season.
True bugs have been well-documented largely because of their pest status. Twelve
genera of these sound-producing insects have about 21 species recorded mostly from
the eastern districts and other tourist areas and more occur in other parts of the country.
51
Scale insects have been mainly collected from fruit trees and the Plant Protection
Research Institute Museum has a collection believed to be the largest in Southern
Africa.
Of the other insect orders that have been collected, the most important ones are the
mosquitoes and tsetse flies. Of the 22 species of tsetse fly recorded in Africa, only
three are found in Zimbabwe and are known to transmit the sleeping sickness parasites,
especially to livestock. The distribution of the fly is limited to altitudes below
1 000m in northern and south-eastern Zimbabwe. The highest densities of the pest
occur below the Zambezi escarpment in the Dande-Kanyemba communal areas,
Chewore and Mana Pools. Medium densities occur South of Lake Kariba in
Matusadonha National Park, Gache-Gache and Charara. Omay, Kanyati and
Hurungwe have low densities of the fly. One particular species of tsetse fly has been
recorded in the Honde Valley only and re-invasions are believed to come from
Mozambique.
More that 1 600 species of mosquitoes have been recorded world-wide and Zimbabwe
has only one genus (Anopheles) which is important for being the intermediary host
of the malarial parasite. The other (Culex) is a carrier of a parasite causing elephantiasis,
although in Zimbabwe it only tends to be a nuisance pest rather than a health hazard.
The malarial vector mosquito occurs throughout the year in the lowveld, especially
in the Zambezi Valley, Chiredzi and Beit Bridge. Elsewhere in the middleveld and
highveld, this mosquito tends to be seasonal.
The foregoing discussion has shown that insects are very diverse and because of
their small size, they can occupy more niches than the larger organisms. Furthermore,
unlike other arthropods, most insects are winged hence are able to disperse rapidly.
In the case of mites, which are wingless their associations with other living organisms
increase their chance of survival. Other factors that encourage insect diversity are the
sophistication of their sensory and neuro-motor systems as well as their ability to
exist in different life forms such as the egg, larval, pupal and the adult stages. All
these stages have different requirements and niches.
Arachnids
Other invertebrates include centipedes and millipedes from various parts of the country
which are in the Museum, but most have not been identified. This also applies to
pseudoscorpions, crustaceans and molluscs.
52
2.3.1.4. Identification of trends in wildlife diversity.
Mammals
The most widely monitored mammals are those of some economic importance.
Population status data of 19 species exists with the elephant being the most surveyed
species especially in the Hwange National Park. Other large mammals counted during
elephant surveys include buffalo, eland, giraffe, kudu, waterbuck, zebra, roan, antelope
and sable. The population of the elephant currently stands at twice the ecological
requirement and threatens habitats of many species and biodiversity in general. White
and black rhino numbers are also increasing following the establishment of four
Intensive Protection Zones in response to heavy poaching of these mammals in the
1980s. The population of cats, sable and antelope is on the increase, while that of
buffalo has been decreasing in the Hwange National Park. However, it is not clear
whether buffalo populations in other parts of the country are also on the decline.
Table 2.3.3. shows animal species that have had to be specifically protected through
international protocols such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) and through local legislation in order to arrest their decline in
numbers. The wild dog (Lycaona pictus) should be placed in this category of specially
protected animals because of rapidly declining numbers resulting from conflicts with
people.
Birds
Total bird numbers fluctuate within and across years due to intra-Africa, Palaearctic
and local migrations. On a local scale such migrations are due to variations in
temperature, rainfall, drought etc. Notwithstanding, there is a general decline in bird
populations with the disappearance of their specialised habitats. This has given impetus
to the need to protect a number of bird species which are depicted in Table 2.3.4.
Information on bird species found in the country is presented in Annex 6.3.2.
Localname Scientificname
53
Table 2.3.4. Specially protected birds in Zimbabwe
Reptiles
The population of reptiles has not been monitored on a regular basis hence it is difficult
to discern population trends. The crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is the only reptile
that has been extensively studied due to its economic importance, while the python
(Python sebae) is the only protected reptile in the country. Snakes have the highest
number of species (61) while there is only one species of crocodile in Zimbabwe.
Invertebrates
Data available on invertebrates are very scanty and do not allow for any meaningful
trend analysis. However, the general trend is that the population of many invertebrates
is declining due to human activities such as agriculture which have led to the
destruction of many habitats.
54
2.3.2. Causes of wildlife biodiversity decline, increase or maintenance
The physical environment, particularly soils, slope and climatic factors such as rainfall
and temperature influence wildlife richness and abundance through their effect on
the quality, quantity, structure and productivity of the vegetation. Changes in the
status of the physical environment may either increase the rate of stochastic extinctions
or may facilitate coexistence of species and in the process promote conservation of
biodiversity. Some of these issues are discussed in this section
The severe and prolonged drought of the early 1990s in Zimbabwe led to reduced
capacity of the savanna vegetation to support wildlife and domestic animals resulting
in widespread animal deaths. Species which had relatively low populations such as
the hippopotamus, buffalo, warthog and red hartebeest had their populations further
reduced. Severe frost, which is common in the sand ecosystems, can alter plant species
composition which in turn affect habitat diversity. For example the frost of 1980 in
Hwange killed more trees than the elephants.
Fire
The effect of fire on the structure and composition of vegetation was partly described
in Section 2.2.2.1. Mismanaged and heavy fires negatively impact on habitats as
they kill individual organisms, damage unprotected living tissues, modify growth
and reproductive rates, change the availability and use of resources and alter the
competitive balance between organisms. In the long term such changes may alter the
productivity and population structure ora species and the composition of communities.
Fire can reduce habitat diversity by promoting grasslands in better watered areas
with fertile soils or by destroying the perennial grasses to promote thicket formation
and accelerated erosion in situations of low rainfall and infertile soils.
55
2.3.2.2. Biotic factors
At high density, elephants can radically modify habitats by reducing both faunal and
floral species diversity as has been the case in Zimbabwe's major national parks. For
example, the decline in the population of buffalo, roan and bushbuck in the Hwange
National Park could partly be due to a reduction in tree density caused by elephant
destruction (Wilson, 1997). During the 1974 to 1978 period, they caused a 4% per
year reduction in woodland cover in the Sengwe area. While in Chizarira National
Park, elephants reduced a well developed Julbernardia globifiora savanna woodland
to virtual grassland within a decade (Thompson, 1975). A comparison of floral and
faunal species diversity in an elephant impacted woodland on a parks estate along
the Zambezi escarpment and on a non impacted woodland in an adjacent communal
area showed lower species diversity in the former woodland where elephant density
was higher (Table 2.3.5).
Table 2.3.5 Comparison of species richness of woody plants, birds, ants and
mantises in intact and elephant impacted woodland sites
I
Group or Taxon Intact woodland Impacted woodland
56
The positive impact of elephants at medium and low density.
Mining activities involving the digging up of earth, creating roads, piling of mine
dumps, noise and gas pollution and the discharge of chemicals during the purification
of ores have either direct or indirect effects on wildlife biodiversity. At present there
are conflicts between mining and conservation of biodiversity in most national parks
areas despite the environmental impact assessments (EIAs) carried out before mining.
Similarly, tourist related activities such as the development of accommodation
facilities and roads, the movement of cars and people and the disposal of waste, if not
properly controlled and monitored, can have adverse effects on biodiversity. On the
other hand, dam construction disrupts habitats and corridors for the traditional
movement of wildlife. For example, the environmental impact assessment on the
construction of the Batoka dam on the Zambezi river identified problems of flooding
Acacia albida communities and key habitats of some birds.
57
2.3.3. Conservation and sustainable use measures
Other species of economic importance being monitored include the buffalo, sable,
antelope, kudu, lion, leopard and the white and black rhino. Monitoring approaches
used in gazetted indigenous forests, safari areas, recreational parks, botanical reserves
and botanical gardens, as they relate to forest biodiversity are presented in Section
2.2.3.1.
The crucial issue in wildlife conservation today is the uncontrolled human population
growth leading to the shrinkage of habitats at the cost of the environment and wildlife.
In response to this threat, protected areas have been set up to protect habitats and
wildlife. However, these areas axe often not the ideal habitat, having been selected
because they are marginal for agriculture. Furthermore, they restrict wildlife to small
areas in comparison to the original situation when habitats were large and wildlife
performed extensive migrations. In addition, although the preservation of fauna and
flora has been the main justification for setting up protected areas, the need to: protect
specific geological formations (e.g. the Victoria Falls): promote tourism; and preserve
areas of particular natural excellence and human appeal (e.g. recreational parks) have
also been factored into the selection of such areas (Child and Heath, 1992).
Thirteen percent of the country's land area has been set aside as the parks and wild
life estate under the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management
(DNPWLM). About 7% of this area consists of National Parks, while the remainder
comprise of Safari Areas, Recreational Parks, Botanical Gardens and Botanical
Reserves (Table 2.3.6 and Figure 2.2.). In addition to the 13% under the parks and
wildlife estate, another 2% of the country is set aside as gazetted indigenous forests
under the Forestry Commission (see Table 2.2.7). The latter harbours considerable
wildlife biodiversity.
58
Table 2.3.6. National Parks and other protected areas.
2.3.3.3. Access to biological and genetic resources and property rights issues
59
initiatives such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Conservation
Strategy and the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
The Parks and Wildlife Act gives privileges to owners or occupiers of private land
and Rural District Councils in the case of communal areas to utilise and exploit
plants and animals on their land. Such an arrangement has given these communities
incentives to sustalfiably'manage these natural resources through the formation of
conservancies/game parks on private land hnd participation in the CAMPFIRE
programme in communal areas.
With respect to conservancies on private land, the domestic stock predators such as
lion, cheetah and leopard which were being eradicated to safeguard domestic stock
before the legislation and policy changes were put in place, have now started to
increase in numbers. For example, surveys on 206 game and game/cattle ranches
carried out in 1985 and 1996 showed that the leopard population had increased from
1 050 to 1 550, while cheetah monitored on 37 ranches increased from 220 to 700
over the ten year period (Heath, 1990). Conservancies are mostly located in areas of
low agricultural potential where wildlife is the only viable and sustainable form of
land use.
60
The Centre for Applied Sciences at the University of Zimbabwe conducts socio-
economic, institutional and policy research on CAMPFIRE;
The Zimbabwe Trust focuses on capacity building;
Africa Resources Trust sources appropriate information on issues that affect
CAMPFIRE's capacity to market natural resources; and
The CAMPFIRE Association (a national body consisting of all district councils
under the CAMPFIRE programme) organises relevant educational visits for its
members within and outside the country.
The Parks and Wildlife Act (PWLA), is the principal piece of legislation regulating
the conservation and utilisation of the wildlife resources of the country. The Minister
of Mines, Environment and Tourism is mandated with the administration of the Act
through the DNPWLM which is the management and scientific authority for wildlife.
The conservation and preservation of wildlife, fish and plants is achieved through
the establishment of a system of protected areas, which constitute the Parks and
Wildlife Estate. The Act sets out six types of protected areas which may be established,
namely national parks, safari areas, sanctuaries, botanical gardens, botanical reserves
and recreational parks; each with a specific objective. The Parks and Wildlife Estate
constitutes 13% of the total land mass of the country. Although the President may
subtract or add to the estate, he may not reduce it by more than 1% of its total land
area as of February, 1979.
The first Schedule to the Parks and Wildlife Act constitutes eleven national parks
totalling some 2 718 010 hectares (see Table 2.3.6) of state and trust land. The
purposes for which national parks are constituted are the preservation and protection
of the natural landscape, scenery of wildlife and plants and the natural ecological
stability of wildlife and plant communities found in the parks with the ultimate
objective being public enjoyment, education and inspiration. The Minister is enjoined
to control, manage and maintain national parks in accordance with the purposes for
which they were established. All human activities in national parks are prohibited
except as provided in a permit, licence or other authorisation issued by the responsible
authority. The Minister may introduce any specimen of wildlife, fish or plant, but
may not introduce any exotic species of plant or wildlife. Measures necessary or
desirable for preventing or controlling human and animal diseases, controlling and
limiting quelea birds and locusts or eradicating weeds within a national park may
further be authorised.
National parks are site specific areas of in- situ conservation of both biological
resources and natural physical features. A general prohibition exists against picking
plants, hunting or destroying wildlife. Trade restrictions are placed on the sale of any
animal, plant or fish or their derivatives where these are obtained from a national
park without the written authorisation of the Minister. Recreational hunting or
commercial harvesting of wildlife or fish is strictly prohibited.
61
Botanical reserves are established for the purpose of preserving and protecting
endangered indigenous plants and/or representative plant communities growing
naturally. Botanical gardens are established for propagating and cultivating both
exotic and indigenous plants for public enjoyment and educational benefits. The
Minister is empowered to cede his powers, functions and duties in relation to a
botanical garden or botanical reserve to another Minister who may then exercise the
full powers, duties and functions outlined in the Act in respect of these areas.
Consequently, botanical gardens are administered by the Minister of Lands and
Agriculture who hosts the National Herbarium and the Botanical Garden. A general
prohibition exists against the introduction into or picking of any plant from a botanical
garden or a botanical reserve except in terms of a permit. The Minister has a discretion
to issue a permit for the introduction of any plant into a botanical reserve. The
permit issued may not authorise a holder to introduce any plant of a non-native species
to the botanical reserve.
Sanctuaries are constituted for the purpose of affording special protection to all animals
or particular species of animals for the enjoyment and benefit of the public. The
hunting, removal and sale of an animal or part of an animal from a sanctuary is
prohibited except in terms of a permit. Again, sanctuaries are treated as strict habitat/
species management areas where active intervention is necessary to meet the
requirements of particular species. The permit, which the Minister may issue for the
exploitation of animals within a sanctuary may not authorise its holder to hunt or
remove a designated animal from such a sanctuary except where this is intended for
scientific purposes or the protection of human life or property.
Safari areas are constituted for the purpose of preserving and protecting the natural
habitat and the wildlife within the safari area in order to afford the public with facilities
and opportunities for hunting and fishing and otherwise engage in various tourism
and recreational activities as may be permitted in the Act. Wildlife in safari areas
may be exploited in terms of a permit. In terms of the recognised classification of
protected areas, safari areas in Zimbabwe would constitute managed resource areas
which are maintained mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.
Recreational parks are constituted for the purposes of protecting and preserving the
natural features contained in the park. Recreational parks almost always invariably
surround the major water reservoirs of the country, the most notable of which is Lake
Kariba. No provisions for the exploitation of wildlife or indigenous plants are contained
in the Act. Accordingly, it would appear that consumptive utilisation of the biological
resources within recreational parks is prohibited and the Minister has no powers to
issue permits for any consumptive activity. Recreational parks are principally intended
to be tourist facilities for the enjoyment of the public.
The Act provides for the declaration of specially protected plants and animals. Eight
species of mammals, eighteen species of birds and one reptile species are listed as
specially protected. Where an animal is declared to be specially protected, it may not
be hunted, possessed or sold except under a permit. The permit to exploit a specially
protected animal may only be issued for public interest purposes rang'rog from research
and education to the protection of human life and property. The trophy or other
62
derivative of a specially protected animal is considered state property except in a few
exceptional cases. Only plants which are indigenous to Zimbabwe may be granted
special protection. Natural hybrids of plants between specially protected plants are
not included in the list of specially protected plants. It is an offence to pick a specially
protected indigenous plant in Zimbabwe except in terms of a permit. There are limited
exceptions to this rule, for example, where the plant occurs in an area where the
Minister has declared that such a plant may be picked. Currently, no such areas are
provided for in the Act or in subsidiary legislation. The Act empowers the Minister
to issue a permit authorising the holder to pick a specially protected plant for export,
cultivation and propagation for scientific purposes; for providing specimens to a
museum, herbarium, botanical garden or similar institutions; and for any matters the
Minister may deem fit. Trade in specially protected plants is generally prohibited
except as otherwise provided by a permit. It is an offence to purchase specially
protected indigenous plants from a person not qualified to sell these plants.
The shortcoming of the provisions for specially protected animals and indigenous
plants in the PWLA is the fact that it does not provide for the underlying reasons for
according this status to certain species or the criteria to be used in deciding which
species qualify for listing (DNPWLM, 1990). Only criteria for the protection of
animals or plants occurring in communal areas and on private land is provided for
and this relates to scarcity, over utilisation, utility or where the value deserves to be
protected. The protection afforded here is against over-utilisation by individuals and
communities as have been granted appropriate authority status for wildlife in these
areas. Appropriate authority status for wildlife in communal areas is granted to Rural
District Councils to exploit wild animals and plants on behalf of the communities
they serve.
2.3.5. Institutional framework, cross sectoral linkages and the human resource
base.
Communities which include both the large scale commercial farmers running
conservancies/game ranches and smallholder farmers involved in the CAMPFIRE
programme are key players in sustainable wildlife management. The former have
also been providing space for relocated animals such as the rhino from the Zambezi
valley and offer the DNPWLM opportunities to carry out research on their farms.
63
Non-governmental organisations such as the Zimbabwe Trust, the Africa Resources
Trust and the World Wide Fund play central roles in wildlife management through
their support to the CAMPFIRE programme.
It is clear from the foregoing that the various stakeholder institutions involved in
wildlife are linked through the services and facilities they offer. For example, the
DNPWLM sets out the overall policies and controls on wildlife utilisation; offers
opportunities to other stakeholders for research within the protected areas and
negotiates on the international fora (e.g. CITES) for wildlife product markets. The
Universities offer trained manpower to organisations involved in wildlife. For example,
the two year MSc. Programme run by the University of Zimbabwe in Tropical
Resources Ecology was specifically designed to train specialised staff for the
DNPWLM. NGOs undertake local human capacity building and research initiatives
within CAMPFIRE programmes. However, collaboration between the DNPWLM
and the Forestry Commission in the management of wild flora in protected areas is
rather weak.
It is obvious from the previous section that organisations involved in various aspects
of wildlife management are highly specialised. They have ecologists, veterinarians,
glossinoecologists, botanists, rangers and planners. There is therefore need to
strengthen inter-institutional linkages to ensure the most efficient utilisation of
specialised human resource capability.
Wildlife is one of the major tourist attractions to Zimbabwe, hence the financial
gains from tourism are, partly a reflection of the value of wildlife resources to the
country's economy. To a certain degree, the economic and social benefits accruing
from tourism in Zimbabwe are based on the existence of a healthy stock of wildlife
biodiversity and supporting habitats. Various measures of the wildlife value can be
estimated through different types of economic studies. On the other hand, while other
wildlife resources like most insect species are an important and integral part of different
ecosystems their values are difficult but not impossible to estimate. Research studies
should therefore be commissioned for a wide range of wildlife resources at both the
macro and community levels in order to estimate their use and non-use values.
64
relatively easier largely because of the prevalence of safari hunting as a sport and
also because of the CAMPFIRE programme (see Annex 6.3.4). It must however, be
pointed out that developing accurate measures of all components of total economic
value would be prohibitive in terms of cost, time and efficiency. A better approach
might be focused on a sample of key indicator species.
Zimbabwe has direct and indirect incentives for wildlife biodiversity conservation.
The former can be in cash or in kind and includes tax concessions, subsidies, grants
and compensation for animal damage to crops. Other direct incentives are low interest
rates or interest free loans, sales of wildlife below market prices to stock private or
communal conservation areas, reduced lease fees, and the sharing of conservation
proceeds and/or park entry fees with communities. Indirect incentives include
developing community level conservation institutions such as local parks boards;
building capacities for community involvement in both management and decision
making for resource use; conserving and promoting traditional knowledge, and
providing appropriate education to the local people.
Drought relief programmes are an indirect form of incentive and compensation for
crop damage by wildlife, though the programmes are not specific for this purpose.
However, such programmes are generally targeted at drought stricken or food shortage
areas, which encompass those communities whose crops will have been damaged by
wildlife. Plans are also under way to stock some communal and resettlement (model
D) areas with wildlife through government grants.
The current land tenure system in Zimbabwe results in lack of security and
accountability among communal farmers and in most cases leads to excessive
exploitation of the natural wildlife habitat. The natural resources, more specifically
wildlife, belong to the state, and not to the communities who live with them. This
leads to the use of enforcement rather than participatory approaches to protect wildlife.
65
AQIIATIC IPLEIJlM
Aim IrAIIIM
I
2.4 AQUATIC FAUNA AND FLORA
The diversity of Zimbabwe's aquatic flora and fauna is directly related to the type
and distribution of its wetlands (areas that are permanently or temporarily covered
with flowing or stagnant water). These wetlands, whose general distribution is shown
in Figure 2.3, include floodplains, riparian wetlands, dambos, pans, swamps and
artificial impoundments which are described below.
Floodplains
Floodplains are confined to the mid Zambezi Valley around Mana Pools and the
Save-Runde river confluence in the south eastern part of the country. These wetlands
are an important centre of aquatic biodiversity as they provide a range of unique
habitats. For example, their sand banks are an important crocodile breeding area and
they provide shelter to water birds such as White fronted Plover and the African
Skimmer. Fish species recorded in these areas include Tilapines and Hydrocyon.
However, the extent of the floodplain below the Kariba dam has been decreasing due
to changes in discharge patterns.
Riparian wetlands
Notable river wetlands of national importance in Zimbabwe are the Zambezi, Save-
Runde, Manyame, Gwayi-Shangani, Mazoe and Sanyati systems. Such riverline
wetlands are usually characterised by riparian vegetation such as Faidherbia albida.
Save is the country's main inland river which drains the central watershed. However,
as is the case with most of the country's rivers, Save is heavily silted due to physical
destruction caused by gold panning, stream bank cultivation and other forms of human
interference.
Dambos
Dambos are grass covered and generally tree-less wetlands that cover about 1.28
million hectares of land in Zimbabwe. They are a source of water, grazing and
cultivation and present an irrigation potential of about 200 000 ha. (Bell et al., 1987).
Before the arrival of the white settlers, the indigenous communities used dambos for
flood recession irrigation and Selous (1920) and Brooke (1965) confirmed that dambo
cultivation was a well established and highly productive form of traditional agriculture.
However, most dambos have been badly eroded and have lost some of their unique
habitats through human interference over time.
Pans
Although not widespread in the country, sizeable pans occur in Tsholotsho communal
lands and Hwange National Park in the west; in Gonarezhou National Park and some
66
WETLANDS OF ZIMBABWE
.I
x.._?.,,x [
*' F
%
! °
I. 's )
KEY g..._ ,/ /
Pans
· _Jvem
.°,. ....
:.:.'.' :'.:?.: Damboareas
,.1...'.*.?,*
5 L. Kyle/Mutirikwi 12 Mabomo-Jowenipancomplex
6 McDougalDam 13 Lememba-Shabashabacomplex
67
parts of Mwenezi dism'ct in the south; and in the mid Zambezi Valley. Pans in
communal areas are largely used for cattle grazing, while those in national parks are
important habitats for waterfowl and a variety of game.
Swamps
The country has very few swamps. Notable ones include the Tsamtsa and Kwaluzi
which are being threatened by overgrazing and drying.
Artificial impoundments
Although Zimbabwe has no natural lakes it has over 8 000 impoundments. The major
artificial impoundments are the Kariba, Mutirikwi, Chivero, Manyame, Mazvikadei,
Osborne and Manyuchi dams. With the exception of Kariba, which was dammed for
hydro-electric supply, all these dams were constructed for irrigation, domestic water
supply, fisheries and tourism. Kariba, the country' s largest dam which is shared with
Zambia, has now assumed functions of water supply, fisheries and tourism. A large
part of the lake is protected by the National Parks and Wildlife Management Act, as
a safari area and recreational park. Notwithstanding, the lake is threatened by over
fishing; erosion of the escarpment; siltation; future mining activities at Sengora; and
pressure on the shoreline by private developers.
The Manyame lakes are a group of four man-made reservoirs on the upper Manyame
and Mukuvisi rivers built to provide water to the city of Harare, Chitungwiza and
Norton (with a combined human population of about 1.7 million). A major factor in
the ecology of these lakes is eutrophication caused by sewage effluent from the urban
centres. This has led to the accelerated growth of plants such as the blue green algae
and water hyacinth in Lake Chivero and the dams.
Zimbabwe relies on inland lakes and waterways for its aquatic fauna and flora. Of
major economic importance to biodiversity conservation are the fish genetic resources
and to a lesser extent reptiles and ducks.
Fish
Exotic fish species were introduced into Zimbabwe by angling societies for fishery
stocking and aquaculture. Of the indigenous fish stocks present and the 31 introduced
68
species, only 9 are suitable for aquaculture. Of the latter, only Tilapia (e.g.
Oreochromis mossambicensis, O. macrochir, O. andersoni, T. rendalli and Clarias
gariepinus), exotic trout, prawn and crayfish are actively fanned. The Rainbow Trout
(Salmo gairdneri) which can withstand slightly higher water temperatures, can
establish itself in unfavourable environments and has excellent sporting and table
qualities. Its ova are easy to handle from a fish culture point of view and the fry learn
to feed early and are usually resistant to diseases.
Bream (Tilapia/Oreochromis) are very prolific breeders and if not controlled, they
can easily overstock ponds resulting in stunted fish. Although more than 30 exotic
species have been introduced into Zimbabwe, none of them are as productive as the
indigenous tilapia. Because of their herbivorous habit Tilapia, especially T. rendalli
and T. ziUi are widely used in irrigation channels and dams to control aquatic weed
growth. They are capable of eating submerged, semi-submerged, or floating weeds
and may even consume submerged parts of emergent plants, provided they are not
too tough.
The Green-Headed Bream (0. rnacrochir) is tolerant to low water temperatures with
its lower limit being around 12-13°C. T. mossambica is more adapted to cold water
than other kinds of Tilapia. It can also be artificially fed with any grain meal, bran
etc. The male is darker in colour than the female, and can turn to black during the
spawning act. Colourations and morphometrics are commonly used to identify
different Tilapia fish species.
T. macrochir is a warm water fish. It was introduced into the country because of its
special feeding habits; which are intermediate between T. rnossarnbica and T.
rnelanopleura. Another fish almost identical in form and habits to the former is T.
andersonii, which is adapted to colder water.
East Bottlenose (Mormyrus longilostris) is also a species highly rated by the African
consumers in the Zambezi systems.
Reptiles
Reptiles in Lake Kariba are dominated by the crocodiles whose flesh (especially the
crocodile tall) are a delicacy especially for tourists. Crocodile skins are used as hides
in the leather manufacturing industry.
Aquatic ducks
Besides producing tasty poultry meat, aquatic ducks can also be produced or kept
extremely successfully in conjunction with fish. The Pekin duck, appears to be most
suited to integrated duck-fish production.
69
2.4.1.3. Status and trends of biodiversity in f'Lsh
Zimbabwe is drained by six major river systems namely the Zambezi, Save-Runde,
Limpopo, Nata, Bubi and Pungwe. The presence of physical barriers in the form of
waterfalls and dam walls on these rivers has resulted in partially different fauna and
flora above and below each barrier. Fish biodiversity in the six river systems is
described below:
The Zambezi river system: Eighty-four and 70 species of fish occur above and
below the Victoria Fails respectively, with only 46 being common to both systems.
Species specific to the upper Zambezi system include Pollimyrus castelnaui,
Hepsetus odoe and Coptostomobarbus wittei.
The Save-Runde river system: The Chivirira and Selawandome Falls demarcate
Save-Runde into the lower and upper systems. Thirty-nine fish species have been
recorded from the upper Save-Runde system. The following are only found in the
Save-Runde system: Megalops cyprinoides, Barbus aenus, B. natalensis (exotic),
Belonichthys fiuviatilis, Carcharhinus leucas and Pristis microdon.
Limpopo river system: Forty-six species have been recorded with Chetia
fiaviventris and Lebeo rudii being confined to this system only.
Nata river system: The Nata river ceases to flow after the rainy season and has a
series of pools for most of the year. Only four fish species which also occur in the
other river systems have been recorded.
Bubi river system: Of the 49 species known to occur in this system, only 16 have
been recorded in Zimbabwean waters. The size of the river' s tributaries and several
waterfalls in Mozambique inhibit the upstream migration of some fish species.
Pungwe river system: Only 22 species occur in this system due to its small
catchment. Eight of these 22 species are of the genus Barbus.
Of the 123 fish species occurring in Zimbabwe, only a few economically and
biologically important ones have been monitored. Dams whose fish populations have
been monitored are Lake Kariba, Lake Chivero, Lake Mutirikwi and Darwendale
Dam. Those dams which are not regularly monitored but have limited records
available, are Manjirenji, Osborne, Mazvikadei, Ngezi and Sebakwe. Monitoring is
done through collections of data from fishermen on a monthly basis. Fisheries officers
also carry out experimental gill and seine netting fishing to confrrm the fishermen's
data. The collected data are extrapolated to derive the species composition and
population status. Information on trends in fish species in the four dams is presented
in this sub-section.
7O
Trends in Lake Kariba.
There are about 42 fish species in Lake Kariba and of these 18 are commercially
exploited and regularly monitored in the inshore fishery. The inshore fish species of
Lake Kariba have undergone several population changes. The initially dominant
species namely, Hydrocynus vittatus, Malapterurus electricus, Tilapia rendalli and
Clarias gariepinus have declined in importance and have been replaced by Synodontis
zambezensis, Mormyrus longilostris, Sargochromis codringtonii, Serranochromis
macrocephalus, Oreochromis mortimeri and Labeo altivelis (Sanyanga, 1996). Such
changes are related to changes in the availability and abundance of food. The species
composition of the inshore fishery in Lake Kariba is presented in Table 2.4.1.
The species composition and catches in Lake Chivero, Lake Mutirikwi and
Darwendale Dam are depicted in Table 2.4.2. Fish populations have been generally
increasing in Lake Chivero and Darwendale Dam due to an increase in nutrient levels.
The most dominant species in Lake Chivero is O. macrochir and Tilapia spermanii
seems to be increasing although the numbers cannot be verified. The latter is the
most abundant species in Lake Mutirikwi and Darwendale Dam.
Aquatic insects are as versatile as their terrestrial counterparts in the use of a wide
variety of food sources. However, very few are adapted to a completely submerged
71
existence with the majority having terrestrial periods due to respiratory problems
associated with low oxygen concentration in water. Most of the aquatic insect
biodiversity occurs in running water habitats which are more continuous than lakes
that fill up and may disappear. Running water also has a higher oxygen concentration
due to turbulence. Furthermore, cooler temperatures that prevail under such conditions
encourage insect survival.
The biodiversity of aquatic insects, unfortunately has not been studied in Zimbabwe.
However, records on very few insect species are available in the National History
Museum and these have largely been a result of personal interests.
Table 2.4.2. Fish catch records for Lake Chivero, Lake Mutirikwi and
Darwendale Dam.
Whilst it is recognised that aquatic plants play an important role in the ecology of
lakes and rivers, not much information has been collected on their population status,
trends and threats. The most studied water body with regards to aquatic macrophytes
is Lake Kariba whose information dates back to 40 years ago. The water hyacinth
has also been well documented due to its negative impact on the ecology of Lake
Chivero and its economic significance.
Lake Kariba has a low species diversity as compared to other lakes. The following
seven species of submerged macrophytes have been recorded; Lagarosiphon ilicifolius,
Najas pectinata, Vallisneria aethiopica, Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogeton
octandrus, P. pisillus and P. schweinfurthii.
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Biodiversity trends of macrophytes on the lake are depicted in Annex 6.4.1. In terms
of floral biomass, it is estimated that Lake Kariba has 101 000 tonnes (dry weight)
consisting of L. illicifolius (52%), N. pectinata (33%), V. aethiopica (11%), C.
demersum (3%) and P. octandrus (0.5%). With respect to Lakes Chivero and
Manyame and the Manyame River, thousands of tonnes of the water hyacinth have
infested these water bodies resulting in huge costs for weed clearing, loss of fishing
and boating sites, loss of fish and an increase in the cost of purifying domestic water.
Elsewhere, especially in the eastern highlands, invasion of trout dams by the water
lily and the oxygen weed has reduced the quality of trout fishing.
Not much is known about the factors that influence fish biodiversity in Zimbabwe
although the creation of reservoirs as a result of impounding the country's rivers has
some implications on it. Fish diversity and distribution is influenced by several
natural factors such as depth, temperature, oxygen and rainy season movements.
Abiotic factors include artificial barriers like dam walls and weirs, siltation,
introduction of exotic species, commercial fishing, poaching and pollution. Some of
these factors are elaborated below.
Interbasin transfer
The mass transfer of water from one geographically distinct river basin to another is
called interbasin transfer. The Upper Zambezi system is one of the richest ecosystems
in terms of biodiversity south of the Sahara. Thus, should the water from the Victoria
Falls eventually get into the Middle Zambezi system by way of pipes and canals (e.g.
irrigation), this will be an easy route for fishes of the Upper Zambezi to be introduced
into the Middle Zambezi. The Victoria Falls has been a natural barrier separating
fishes of the two river systems. Consequently, the proposed Matebeleland Zambezi
Water Project which will draw water from the Zambezi river, both above and below
the Falls through a pipeline could increase fish biodiversity downstream. However,
no detailed ecological impacts of Interbasin Transfers have been done in Zimbabwe.
Reservoir formation
The building of reservoirs has sometimes led to a decline in fish biodiversity. For
example, fish species such as Barbus that are not adapted to lacustrine conditions
have either disappeared or their numbers have been greatly reduced.
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Pollution
The full impact of pollution on the diversity of fish in Zimbabwe has not been
evaluated. However, both organic and inorganic pollution affect the diversity offish
in lakes and rivers. For example, the Tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus), which used to
be an important commercial fish in Lake Chivero in the 1970s has not been caught in
the last 6 years. It is generally believed that the high pollution loads in rivers draining
into Lake Chivero and in the Lake itself have contributed to the demise of this fish
species.
Hybridisation has the effect of reducing fish biodiversity. Zimbabwe has two groups
of tilapine fishes namely the substrate spawners of the genus Tilapia and the
mouthbrooders of the genus Oreochromis. However, the accidental introduction of
Oreochromis niloticus into Zimbabwean waters has complicated the taxonomy of
tilapias since they can easily breed with indigenous species. Furthermore, the
hybridisation of closely related species resulting from such introductions compounds
the taxonomic confusion that already exists.
Artificial propagation and selective breeding offish is one technology used to maintain
the fish stock. Ripe fish are stripped (i.e. the eggs or ova of the female or hen-fish are
extruded by hand into a slightly damped bowl) and manual pressure on a male fish
releases a flow of spermatozoa in fluid medium and this milt is permitted to fall
amongst the ova already secured. Ova and milt are stirred together, as water is added
to the bowl and the presence of this water activates the sperms. The newly fertilised
ova are taken to the hatchery, where they are laid upon trays with wire-mesh floors.
Thirteen to twenty-nine days after fertilisation, the eyes of the embryo become
sufficiently pigmented to be visible to the naked eye. These tolerate shipment and
comparatively rough treatment and are the form of ova which is purchased by riparian
owners.
Bream are prolific breeders, and if not properly harvested can result in too many
stunted fish with limited food in a pond. If breeding continues under such conditions,
the fish could start dying from lack of oxygen and food. To overcome this problem,
commercial producers are now cross-breeding various types of bream in special
breeding tanks to produce hybrids with predominantly male progeny. Producers can
then stock their ponds at the correct levels using the resultant hybrid. The use of such
hybrids also allows fish to be harvested at one time, since they will be of approximately
similar size. Indigenous species that can be satisfactorily crossed with reasonable
results are O. macrochir males with O. mossambicus females.
74
Polyculture, which involves the growing of more than one species or type of fish in
the same pond, is the most common form offish culture being practised in the country.
The main advantage of this practice is the more efficient utilisation of feeding niches
by different fish species which leads to an overall increase in productivity per unit
volume of water, thus optimising pond efficiency.
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management runs the Lake Kariba
Fisheries Research Institute Kapenta fish length, weight and frequency programme;
as well as the Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute fish biomass monitoring
programme. These progranunes have established systems for capturing catch and
effort data and for collecting samples for analysing length frequencies. A stock
assessment group on Kapenta has also been set up. This group analyses the bio-
economics and predicts and monitors stock parameters using computer progranunes.
Aquatic plants on Eake Kariba are monitored by scuba diving along vertical transects
and observation of surface coverage. However, there is no systematic way of
monitoring aquatic vegetation in the other water bodies. New occurrences and
infestations are reported to fisheries officers by patrol scouts, fishermen and boaters.
Applications of molecular biology have been utilised in fish genetics for species
identification and conservation of indigenous Tilapine genetic resources of Zimbabwe.
Like most other fish, wherever two or more Tilapia spp. which do not occur together
in nature (allopatric species) are bred together, hybridisation usually occurs. For
example, it has been reported that O. andersonii, O. mortimeri and O. mossambicus
may hybridise freely when they occur together. This makes it difficult for fisheries
agencies to identify fish stocks with certainty. Most native Tilapia have not yet been
evaluated in terms of their potential use in aquaculture in Zimbabwe. For this reason
and also for taxonomy as well as conservation of fish biodiversity, it is important to
prevent uncontrolled hybridisation among Tilapia spp. Pure indigenous species need
75
to be identified and used for development of aquaculture. The availability of simple
and rapid methods for identifying the different Tilapias spp and their hybrids is
therefore essential. Consequently, an enzyme assay for the Zimbabwean Tilapia spp
was developed using two fish each from O. mossambicus and T. rendalli populations.
Introductions of new exotic species and the possibility of hybridisation between the
indigenous fishes and newly introduced species may lead to losses of indigenous
fishes and a significant decline in aquatic biodiversity in Zimbabwe. Preliminary
research has also shown that indigenous male O. macrochir and female O.
mossambicus produce 100% male hybrid progeny. In addition, some hybrids grow
faster than the parental species and are superior in converting food or exhibit greater
cold tolerance. Projects were initiated locally aimed at the use of DNA fingerprinting
and isozyme gene-loci as species-specific genetic markers to:
establish enzyme assays and appropriate DNA probes for large scale sampling in
areas where introductions have occurred to assess the degree of hybridisation, and
About 13 % of Zimbabwe's surface area has been set aside as National Parks Estate
or Protected areas. Some of the protected areas are termed Recreational Parks, which
can be described as protected areas established around national dams. These national
dams by virtue of being surrounded by a conservation zone have become protected
areas for fish diversity. Dams that fall under this category are; Kariba, Chivero,
Mutirikwi, Manyame, Ngezi, Manjirenji, and Sebakwe. The recently completed
Osborne Dam will soon become a recreational park. While, the Chinhoyi Cave pools,
which are inhabited by a unique fish species, are specially protected. Although
commercial fishing is done on these dams, specially protected zones are closed from
fishing in an effort to protect breeding and feeding areas.
There are no botanical reserves for aquatic plants in Zimbabwe. Several species have,
however, been transplanted from their natural systems to home garden ponds and
aquaria as ornamental plants. These include Cyperus fiabelliformis, Potamogeton
thunbergii, Nymphea caeruela and Lagarosiphon major.
There are four Government owned hatcheries which maintain populations of certain
commercially important fish for restocking purposes in the country. These are:
76
Henderson Research Station which breeds pure stocks of Oreochromis and Tilapia
species;
Lake Kyle Fisheries Station which breeds pure stocks of Oreochromis and
Tilapia species.
In addition, Zimbabwe has two privately owned hatcheries with permits to breed
pure stocks of the exotic Orechromis niloticus.
Access to aquatic resources may be seen in the broad context of access to wildlife
resources in general. It is greatly dependant on the location of the resource. In terms
of the law, access to aquatic resources is under the control of the state in terms of an
authority, usually a permit or licence which attaches conditions for their exploitation.
In line with the current economic development strategy and poverty alleviation policy,
the rural population occupying areas adjacent to aquatic resources are allowed access,
provided sustainable harvesting measures are employed. In large dams, commercial
fishing by locals is allowed through co-operatives. These co-operatives compete for
permits with private commercial companies. However, fishing for subsistence by
rod and line is permitted, although in some dams this attracts a small fee. Sport
fishermen, aquarists and researchers are allowed access with a special National Parks
and Wildlife permit. Private dam owners control access to fish resources in these
dams and may grant authority to any other person to fish in their waters.
Aquatic fauna and flora are regulated under the general wildlife and natural resources
laws of Zimbabwe as part of the broader biological resources of the country. The
Parks and Wildlife Act (PWLA) principally regulates the elements of aquatic flora
and fauna by seeking to provide for the preservation, conservation, propagation or
control of wildlife, fish and plants of Zimbabwe.
Fish conservation is more particularly dealt with in the PWLA. The Act empowers
the Minister responsible for its administration to declare any waters to be controlled
fishing waters; where such a declaration is necessary or desirable for fish conservation.
The Minister is also empowered to take any necessary measures to reduce or increase
fish populations and to eradicate or encourage plant growth within or around controlled
fishing waters.
The PWLA prohibits the introduction of exotic species of fish or aquatic plants into
any waters and the importation of live fish or ova of any fish except in terms of a
permit. However, such a permit specially prohibits the introduction of any aquatic
77
plant which is a weed. Any fish or aquatic plant life considered injurious to fish
populations may be killed in terms of an order issued by the Minister to an appropriate
authority for the water.
The exploitation offish falls under a general prohibition; which only falls away where
a permit has been issued. Fishing without a permit is authorised in any waters that
the Minister may specify. A permit is required for the conduct of any business of
catching and selling fish. It is issued for the exploitation of kapenta from all waters
controlled by the State. The permits are issued on an annual basis and are based on a
number of unit catches. A permit holder is required to make annual returns on his/her
catch. Fishing nets and methods of fishing are also the subject of regulation, with a
requirement that all dealers and manufacturers of fishing nets be registered. A
registered fishing net dealer is required to make a return of each fishing net sold on a
monthly basis. The Act further regulates the type of fishing gear which may be utilised
as well as the methods in terms of which fish may be harvested.
No regulations particular to aquatic plant life are available except where such plants
have been declared to be specially protected plants or noxious weeds. A number of
species of aquatic plants are treated as noxious weeds and are regulated and controlled
through the Noxious Weeds Act. This Act prohibits the introduction of any noxious
weed or its seed into any water body, road or land. Such weeds include the water
lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and water fern (Salvinia molesta Mitchell).
The Natural Resources Act bears some implication on aquatic fauna and flora as it
broadly deals with natural resources and specifically regulates the use of wetlands
which are important habitants for aquatic fauna and flora.
Controls over aquatic flora and fauna in terms of the PWLA are problematic as its
application only covers the Parks and Wildlife Estate. With the exception of fish
resources, areas outside the Parks and Wildlife Estate are regulated and controlled
under other legislation.
The main institutions involved in fisheries in Zimbabwe are the Department of National
Parks and Wildlife Management (DNPWLM), Department of Agricultural, Technical
and Extension Services (AGRITEX), the Department of Research and Specialist
Services (DR&SS) and the University of Zimbabwe.
78
AGRITEX is responsible for fisheries extension outside the Parks Estate. Zimbabwe
has many small dams largely developed for irrigation and to provide water for domestic
stock. Such dams have also been developed for fisheries. Most RDCs have appropriate
authority status for fisheries management and in conjunction with AGRITEX, have
organised communities to communally manage this resource along CAMPFIRE lines.
Assistance in this area is being provided by the FAO/ALCOM (Aquaculture for Local
Community Development) Project. The University of Zimbabwe is responsible for
staff training through its postgraduate degree or diploma programmes on fisheries.
The university also carries out fisheries research at its Lake Kariba Research Station.
DR&SS has very elaborate aquaculture research facilities at Henderson Research
Station, where it works together with the DNPWLM and AGRITEX on multiple
production systems and extension.
Given the landlocked nature of Zimbabwe and the fact that it has no natural lakes,
aquatic biodiversity is restricted to river systems and dams. Some of these reservoirs,
such as Lake Kariba have developed into valuable recreational areas and commercial
fishing zones. The various values associated with aquatic biodiversity include both
use and non-use values. The former is created when people derive satisfaction from
using the biological resource and the latter from knowing that the resource exists and
is to be passed on to future generations or safeguarded for future development options.
Direct use values include both consumptive and non-consumptive. Consumptive use
values include fish from both wild capture and commercial fish farms. In 1996,
approximately 32,500 tonnes offish, half of it consisting of kapenta was harvested
from Lake Kariba. Over 1,000 tonnes of other fish species were also harvested from
fish farms throughout the country. With respect to kapenta fisheries, approximately
235 rigs operate a total of 75,000 boat nights per year. Assuming an average of six
crew per boat, the total primary employment could be about 1,410. In addition,
there is a large processing industry on shore that generates secondary employment
79
and income. Consumptive values also include recreational fishing on inland lakes
and dams; and fishing for small-scale commercial trading and personal consumption.
Non consumptive values centre around tourism related to aquatic ecosystems. The
main contributors are the tourism industries on Lake Kariba and Victoria Falls; and
canoeing on the Zambezi fiver. Within Victoria Falls, aquatic tourism activities include
kayaking, white-water rafting, canoeing, and boat cruises. While Kariba has a
significant luxury cruise boat industry to complement several hotels and a large number
of smaller private tourist lodges along the shore. Unfortunately, no accurate
information is available on revenues generated from these activities. However, an
economic study carried out in Victoria Falls showed that water related tourism
activities of canoeing/kayaking, white-water rafting and fiver cruises generated a
gross revenue of almost Z$70 million. Canoeing/kayaking and white-water rafting
accounted for 77% of all tourism based revenue (excluding accommodation) in the
area (Dube and Milne, 1995).
Indirect use values are tied to the ecological benefits of aquatic biodiversity and
supporting ecosystems such as wetlands. These include the regulation of water flow;
maintenance of water quality; and the provision of habitat for aquatic and terrestrial
fauna. Although these values are critical from an ecological perspective, they are
very difficult to measure in practice.
Non-use values
Non-use values relate to values generated even when people may not have, or will
never use the aquatic resources such as wetlands. The value of knowing that the
resource exists (existence values), can be conserved to pass on to future generations
(bequest values), or may be available in the future for other development options
(option values) can be important. As an example, some Zimbabweans may place a
high value on conserving the shores of Lake Kariba and associated biological
resources, even if they have never visited the area. However, these values are difficult
to measure in practice.
One of the more intractable problems associated with the conservation of aquatic
biodiversity is the lack of clarity over property fights, especially where more than
one country is involved. For example, fishing boats in Lake Kariba operate from
both Zimbabwe and Zambia. Since fish are fugitive resources and migrate from one
side of the lake to the other, a well-regulated fishing industry in one country, can be
threatened, if the other country over-harvests. This lack of clear property fights is a
disincentive to biodiversity conservation and more pronounced if one or both countries
fail to put in effective monitoring programmes. As a contrast, the case of private fish
and crocodile farms is a positive incentive for conservation. Such operations reduce
the pressure on natural ecosystems to supply a flow of products for local and export
markets. For example, the operation of private crocodile farms in the country has
80
often been cited as an important factor in the conservation of that species of aquatic
fauna.
81
A t_,It I il:Il L T Il It I_
2.5 AGRICULTURE
Agro-ecosystems occur where naturally occurring plants and animals have been
replaced by crops and livestock deliberately selected by human beings. The degree
of disruption of the natural systems varies with the type of agriculture practised. In
the case of Zimbabwe, the country has been divided into five agro-ecological zones
(NRs) largely based on rainfall (see Section 2.5.1.1). Natural Regions (NRs) I and II
are suitable for intensive farming based on crop production; NR III for semi-intensive
farming based on both crop and livestock production; and NR IV and V for extensive
farming based on livestock and wildlife management (Vincent and Thomas, 1960).
2.5.1.1. Agro-ecosystems
Farming sector
Source:ZimbabweAgric. SectorMemorandum,1991.
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Only 9% of the communal land is in the high rainfall areas (800 to over 1 000mm/
year) of NRs I and II compared to 35% of the large scale commercial sector.
Corresponding figures for the small scale commercial and resettlement areas are 18%
and 16% respectively. Land distribution in NR III, a medium rainfall zone (650 -
800mm/year) is 17%, 21%, 38% and 33% for the communal, large scale commercial,
small scale commercial, and resettlement areas respectively.
Overall, only 19% of Zimbabwe's farmland is in NRs I and II and almost 63% of this
high potential land is in large scale commercial areas. This land distribution pattern
highlights the fact that:
· overall, Zimbabwe has limited agricultural potential; and
· the large scale commercial areas have an inherently higher agricultural potential
than the other three farming sectors.
Zimbabwe is very rich in domesticated plant genetic resources which include cereals;
pulses; industrial and horticultural crops; indigenous and exotic vegetables; roots
and tubers; and medicinal plants. Cultivated crops cover about 27% of the country
and this area continues to increase as more forest land is opened up for cropping due
to increasing human population. Wild relatives of some of these crops also exist and
include cotton, rice, sorghum, pearlmillet, fingermillet, cowpeas and bambaranuts.
However, very little work has been done to document the diversity and distribution
of these wild relatives. The status of crop biodiversity in Zimbabwe is discussed in
this section.
Cereals
Maize (Zea mays) is the staple food and an important cash crop grown throughout
the country. It has a lot of genetic diversity in terms of maturity, plant height,
endosperm type, stress tolerance, yield potential and grain colour within the improved
varieties. There are about 30 accessions of landraces collected from various parts of
the country; 28 accessions being used in population improvement programmes; 34
accessions of populations from crosses of Mexican with local material; over 124
accessions of inbred lines; over 104 accessions of F1 hybrids from locally developed
inbred lines; and a lot of exotic lines being used in crossing programmes.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is widely grown in the low rainfall communal areas of
Zimbabwe (NRs III - V). Over 2 000 accessions of developed landraces have been
collected and about 830 of these have been characterised and described using
morphological and agronomic features. White grained varieties are preferred for
making porridge, while red or brown seeded varieties are mainly used for brewing
83
purposes. Five basic races of sorghum (namely kafir, caudatum, guinea, duvra and
bicolor) are found in the country but their frequency of occurrence is variable.
Zimbabwe has very few accessions of rice (Oryza sativa) which were obtained from
the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). However, the country has some
wild relatives of rice which include O. punctata, O. longista-minata and Lersia spp.
Wheat (Triticurnspp.) is the most important winter cereal grown under irrigation and
has over a thousand accessions of exotic lines being used in breeding programmes.
These lines, which originated from different parts of the world such as Mexico, Canada,
United Kingdom, South Africa and China show high genetic diversity in terms of
maturity, plant height, stress tolerance, grain yield potential and grain quality.
Pulses
The major pulses grown in the country are groundnuts, cowpeas, field beans, soya
beans and bambaranuts. These legumes are grown in rotation with cereals.
Most of the groundnut (Arachis hypogea) introductions came from the USA and
their genetic background is in Latin America. There are over 2 000 exotic and 400
local lines of groundnuts but no mapping of the latter has been done.
Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) is one of the most important drought tolerant pulses
grown in Zimbabwe. There are 120 exotic and 30 local lines available. Most of the
local lines are of the creeping type although short and erect cowpea lines are more
desirable for higher grain yield. There are presently 100 local and 1 000 exotic lines
of field beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Given the high susceptibility of field beans to
pests and diseases, lines with resistance to some major diseases such as Bean Common
Mosaic Virus, anthracrose and common bacterial blight have been identified. On
soyabeans, very few local lines exist while about 5 000 exotic and 1 240 locally
developed lines are available. With respect to bambaranuts (Voandzeia subterranea),
75 exotic and 12 local lines have been assembled.
84
Industrial and horticultural crops
Zimbabwe is a centre of diversity for castor bean (Ricinus communis) and about 85
collections are available. Some materials have also been sourced from countries such
as Brazil, Israel, USA, South Africa and Malawi. With respect to coffee (Coffea
arabica), 133 cultivars exist, five of which are resistant to coffee berry disease. About
six wild species of coffee have been reported. On sugarcane there are 661 varieties
kept in a germplasm collection in Chiredzi. Most of the collections originated from
other sugarcane growing countries around the world and some were locally selected
from seed produced in South Africa and propagated locally. Locally selected sugarcane
varieties exceed 105 and this number grows annually.
With regard to fruits, there are about 3 000 cultivars of apples while many cultivars
of peaches, plums, mangoes, bananas_ citrus etc. are available. On the other hand,
indigenous fruits are increasingly becoming an important food and cash source in the
smallholder farming sector, although they have not been subjected to much research.
Vegetables
Vegetables are the cheapest source of protein, vitamins, minerals and essential amino
acids in the diet of many rural communities in Zimbabwe. The most common exotic
vegetables are brassicas, onion (Allium cepa), pea (Pisum sativum) carrots, tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum) and okra. Although the country imports seed of most
brassicas, work has started on cabbage and onion seed production.
There are over 30 different indigenous vegetables found in the country and the common
species are Amaranthus hybridus, A. thumbergii, Cleome gynandra, C. monophylla,
Corchorus olitorius, C. tridem, Aerva leucura, Triumfena annua, Bidens pilosa,
Solanum nigrum, Cucurbita spp. and Hibiscus articulatus. Most of these vegetables
grow wild and are either harvested regularly or in times of food scarcity. However, a
few specialised collections have been done on Cucurbita, Amaranthus, Solanum and
Vigna spp. Zimbabwe is a centre of diversity for crop relatives of curcubits which
range from small spiky cucumbers (Cucumis metuliferus) to some indigenous gourds
and pumpkins. Notwithstanding, there is an overall decline in the quantity and types
of major indigenous vegetables growing in the country due to the introduction of
exotic vegetables.
85
Roots and tubers
The most common root and tuber crops in the country are irish potatoes, sweet potatoes
and cassava. Over 1 500 clones of irish potatoes from the International Potato Centre
(CIP), Holland. Scotland and USA are available. With respect to sweet potatoes,
about 20 different cultivars are present and their micropropagation for disease
elimination and the rapid propagation of disease free planting material is being
undertaken. Despite its drought tolerance, cassava is not widely grown except in
certain areas in the Zambezi valley and the Eastern districts.
Medicinal plants
More than 500 species of medicinal plants have been collected, out of the 5 000
species normally used in Zimbabwe. Of these, 39 plants are used by most practitioners
for the same ailment and 50 exotic plants have been identified.
Other vulnerable medicinal plants include Aloe spp., Asparagus spp., Gardenia.
resinifiua, G. volkensis, Trichilia emetica, Triumfetta welwitshii, Mondia whytei,
Peltophorum africunum, and Vernonia amygdalina. The populations of these plant
species have dropped drastically in communal areas and around human settlements
although they are still abundant in protected areas and on commercial farms. Crinum
macowanii and Hydnora solmsiana are now regarded as rare species because of the
high levels of their exploitation.
The populations of these animal species are depicted in Table 2.5.2. The large decline
of about one million head of cattle between 1990 and 1996 was largely due to the
catastrophic effects of the 1991/92 and 1994/95 droughts. It is, however, difficult to
get reliable livestock statistics from the country's livestock production systems which
vary from subsistence in the smallholder farming sector to intensive operations in
the large scale commercial farming sector. The number of equines is even more
difficult to estimate with donkeys being put at 300 000 and horses at 20 000.
86
Table 2.5.2. Domesticated animal population in Zimbabwe: 1980 - 1996
Source:MinistryofAgriculture,1996.
Domesticated animals play critical roles in the economy and farming systems of
Zimbabwe. Within the large scale commercial farming sector, livestock provides
marketed meat, milk and eggs for both the local and export markets. While in the
smallholder fanning sector, livestock, especially cattle provide invaluable inputs into
crop production. These include traction/draught power for land preparation, transport
and manure to fefftlise cultivated crop lands (Scoones et. al, 1996 ). In addition,
cattle provide mill for the household and constitute indispensable capital assets with
respect to family savings and investment. Goats, sheep, pigs, and poultry are important
cash and meat sources, while donkeys provide draught power especially in the drier
parts of the country.
During the evolution of livestock species in Africa, capacity to adapt for survival has
taken precedence over increased productivity hence most indigenous breeds cope
better with harsh tropical environments than temperate breeds. Consequently, the
genotype of indigenous species in countries like Zimbabwe has been overemphasised
as a primary constraint to increased production and productivity resulting in huge
resources being allocated to conventional breeding programmes with indigenous
species involving selection, crossing with exotic breeds and multiplication schemes.
However, recent studies have shown that the perceived low genetic potential of
indigenous cattle is critical only in terms of their milk production for commercial
purposes and .not in terms of meat production under comparative management
conditions (Tawonezvi et. al, 1988). This is also true with small ruminants. Despite
this evidence, the advantages of indigenous animals are not widely exploited due to
the limited availability of improved indigenous stock and the lack of properly
articulated animal breeding policies in the country. Consequently, the greatest need
in genetic improvement programmes is not only improvement within indigenous
breeds, but also ensuring that the merits of these breeds are widely promoted. In
addition, there is need for vigilance to ensure that genes of these breeds are not lost
due to overuse of exotic stock in breeding programmes directed at increasing meat
and mill production. Consequently, the current conservation efforts of indigenous
cattle germplasm being done for Tuli and Nkone cattle at Matopos Research Station
87
and for Mashona cattle at Makoholi Research Station must be maintained as an integral
part of the national breeding programme.
Indigenous goats have been cross-bred to a limited extent with the Boer goat for
meat production and with the Saanen goat for higher milk yields. They have also
been bred with the Angora goats from Namibia and South Africa for mohair, although
this industry is very small in Zimbabwe. The indigenous black pig is basically a
scavenger and its meat is very fatty. Because of this and the limited focus on the
indigenous pig, only exotics such as the Landrace, Large White and Duroc are bred
for porkers and baconers. With respect to sheep, the Blackhead Persian and the local
Sabi sheep have been cross-bred with the exotic Merino types from Germany and
Australia for meat production. The commercial poultry industry relies heavily on
exotic breeds from various countries, while indigenous poultry breeds are non-
commercial and are kept on free range in the smallholder farming sector.
The foregoing livestock improvement initiatives have been at the expense of local
breeds whose diversity has been greatly reduced.
A number of mycorrhizal fungi are known to beneficially associate with root systems
of many crop plants. For example, cassava, citrus, onion, cowpea, asparagus and
Stylosanthes species have strong dependency; maize, sorghum and Paspalum species
have medium dependency; and wheat, barley, potatoes and rice have weak dependency
on mycorrhizal fungi. However, no detailed studies have been undertaken to determine
the quantitative benefits of such associations and how they can be enhanced. With
respect to livestock, fungi such as Saccharomyces cerevisae (a yeast) andArmillaria
heimii ( a white rot fungi) are known to increase forage and roughage utilisation in
ruminants (cattle, goats and sheep).
Associations between bacteria and non-leguminous crops are also known to exist.
Such associations involve nitrogen fixing bacterial species such as Azospirillum (e.g.
A. lipoferum, A. irakense, A. brasilense, A. amazonense and A. halopraeferens) with
crops like maize, wheat, rice, sugarcane and sorghum and have demonstrated
88
considerable nitrogen fixing potential. However, very few studies have been conducted
on this type of nitrogen fixation in Zimbabwe.
Table 2.5.3. Rhizobia and Bradyrhizobia strains kept at Grasslands Research Station.
With respect to ruminant animals, a number of bacterial strains that assist in the
degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic substances are found in the rumen
(Table 2.5.4). Other bacteria of importance to domestic animals are the lactic acid
forming bacteria which "sour" milk. The most widely used of such bacteria are
LactobaciUus bulgaricus and L. therrnophillus which are imported into the country
as freeze dried cultures.
The range of crops grown in Zimbabwe is discussed in section 2.5.1.1. This section
illustrates the status of dryland crop production in the four farming sectors using six
widely grown crops namely maize, sorghum, cotton, groundnuts, sunflower and burley
tobacco. Table 2.5.5 shows the areas planted and yields achieved in these crops by
farming sector. The following points can be deduced from the table.
With the exception of burley tobacco, the bulk of the area planted to maize, sorghum,
cotton, groundnuts and sunflower is in communal areas. This is followed by the large
scale commercial, resetfiement and small scale commercial areas in that order.
89
Table 2.5.4. Bacterial strains found in the rumen of cattle, sheep and goats.
Table 2.5.5. Summary of mean area planted and yield by crop and sector:
1987/88- 1990/91.
Crop Sector
Area (000ha)
Maize 934.0 (11)* 136.2 (8) 40.0 (4) 77.0 (4)
Sorghum 147.0 (29) 4.4 (30) 1.2 (41) 3.5 (35)
Cotton 147.0 (11) 50.1 (17) 9.6 (16) 15.0 (13)
Groundnut 197.0 (10) 4.3 (28) 8.3 (8) 1.3 (16)
Sunflower 120.9 (22) 4.6 (80) 6.7 (11) 12.2 (14)
Burley tobacco 1.0 (46) 1.7 (12) 0.3 (53) 0.4 (-)
Yield (t/ha)
Maize 1.37 (10) 4.70 (3) 1.87 (10) 1.99 (13)
Sorghum 0.71 (24) 3.01 (5) 0.62 (18) 0.56 (25)
Cotton 0.73 (24) 2.03 (7) 0.78 (25) 1.07 (18)
Groundnut 0.46 (14) 3.10 (6) 0.59 (12) 0.51 (8)
Sunflower 0.53 (15) 0.71 (6) 0.44 (34) 0.66 (11)
Burley tobacco 1.20 (18) 2.34 (9) 0.92 (4) 0.80 (-)
Most of the area planted to crops in the communal areas and to some extent in the
small scale commercial and resettlement areas is in NRs IV and V, while the bulk of
the large scale commercial area crop is in the better rainfall areas (NRs I to II).
90
Consequently, crop production is riskier and the chances of environmental degradation
are nigher in the smallholder fanning sectors. Notwithstanding, farmers in these sectors
still concentrate on growing maize, a drought sensitive crop, at the expense of more
drought tolerant crops such as sorghum. This highlights the cash orientation of
smallholder producers and the absence of profitable alternatives to maize.
There is considerable seasonal variation in the area planted to the six crops across
farming sectors. This can be partly attributed to the farmers' response to change in
the official commodity producer prices. This variability is, however, generally larger
in the large scale commercial sector. Reasons for the lower seasonal variability in the
area planted to some of the crops in the other sectors, especially communal areas,
include:
the lack of alternative cropping options for marginal rainfall areas;
the availability of more lucrative informal market outlets for crops like groundnuts;
and
the food security role played by crops such as maize, which restricts the extent to
which it can be substituted.
Overview
The area developed for irrigation in the large scale commercial farming sector is
estimated at 139 000 hectares on 1 500 farms and is growing at 2 000ha each year.
High value crops such as tobacco, cotton, wheat, sugarcane and horticultural crops
are grown. In the 1995/96 season, it was estimated that over 70% of the total
agricultural production on the large scale commercial farms was grown under full or
supplementary irrigation. In addition, some 26 estates of the Agricultural Development
91
Authority (a parastatal organisation in the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture) have
an irrigation capacity of 13 500ha.
The smallholder (communal and resettlement areas) irrigation schemes have a total
operational area of 9 450ha spread amongst 306 schemes that benefit some 20 600
smallholder farmers. About 89% of this area is under surface irrigation and the
remainder is under sprinklers. Farmers grow a wide variety of crops ranging from
maize, cotton, wheat and some high value agricultural crops. However, of concern
on these schemes are the low crop yields which are one third of those achieved under
large scale commercial irrigation. This is largely due to poor scheme and crop
management and the limited use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. Scheme
maintenance has been poor as evidenced by leaks, inefficient water use, unreliable
water supplies and poor catchment area management. Furthermore, the schemes are
heavily subsidised by the state which meets the capital and development costs and a
significant proportion of costs for scheme operation, repairs and maintenance.
However, this has proved to be unsustainable, and government has committed itself
to a phased hand over of the schemes to farmers. In this regard, government has
revised the scheme operation and maintenance charge from a flat Z$145 per ha to a
charge based on the amount of water used. In addition, all schemes are now run by
Irrigation Management Committees (IMCs) which are being trained for the eventual
take over of the schemes. There is, however, need to give these committees and their
constitutions and bye-laws a legal basis to enable them to operate as corporate bodies
which are able to enter into legal contracts.
Overview
The livestock species kept in Zimbabwe are described in section 2.5.1.3. This section
focuses on the performance of cattle, the major livestock species in the country.
Natural pasture from grazing areas is the basis for cattle production in the four farming
sectors. However, the relative contribution of grazing areas to cattle performance
varies with sector. In the case of the communal fanning sector, communal grazing
has led to veld deterioration due to overstocking and lack of veld improvement
measures. Despite being communally owned, grazing in resettlement areas is still in
a relatively good condition because of the relatively low stocking rates and the limited
time frame that such schemes have been operational. On the other hand, privately
owned grazing areas of the large and small scale commercial sectors are still
satisfactory, partly because farmers use optimal stocking rates, rotationally graze
their cattle and implement strategies such as legume reinforcement into the veld.
92
The beef enterprise
Performance indices for beef production in the four fanning sectors are presented in
Table 2.5.6. Large scale commercial areas show comparatively higher cattle
productivity and offtake figures than the other sectors. For example, calving rate and
offtake figures in this sector are 75% and 33% respectively. Corresponding statistics
for communal, small scale commercial and resettlement areas are 29% and 3%; 38%
and 7% and 50% and 4% respectively.
Ageat 1stcalving,
yrs 5 2.5- 3 4-5 4-5
Calving
rate,% 29 75 38 50
Offiake,
% 3 33 7 4
Herd
mortality,
% 21I 4 11 17
Reasons for the low beef performance indices in the smallholder farming sectors are:
grazing is based on the natural veld which is generally inadequate both in quantity
and quality, particularly during the dry season. Crop residues are the major food
source to supplement veld grazing. Unfortunately, the low crop yields achieved
in these sectors invariably limit the amount of residues produced. Furthermore,
high stocking rates, coupled with the communal grazing system have led to the
rapid deterioration and depletion of natural pastures and the environment in
communal areas. On the other hand, large scale commercial farmers supplement
veld grazing (usually reinforced with legumes or other improved pastures) with
purchased stockfeeds. Furthermore, these farmers use rotational grazing and adhere
to optimum stocking rates to maintain the veld and animals in good condition;
and,
cattle play a multiple role in smallholder fanning systems including: provision of
draught power; provision of manure (organic fertiliser); supply of milk; socio-
cultural roles such as lobola (bride price) payment; and financial and economic
roles such as the use of cattle as sink areas for savings and investment.
Consequently, the low beef offtake in these sectors is not necessarily an indicator
of low efficiency, but a reflection of the "non commercial" approach to cattle
production.
Grazing schemes
93
improving livestock production through increased quantity and quality of herbage;
and
conserving the vegetation cover of grazing areas through rotational grazing and
adherence to recommended stocking rates.
Table 2.5.7 depicts the distribution of communal area grazing schemes by natural
region. Only 27% of the schemes are in NRII while the rest are in NRIII, IV and V.
Such a distribution confirms the importance of livestock in marginal rainfall areas.
On average, each scheme incorporates land under three kraal heads and all households
in that community are eligible for membership and make equal contributions (in
labour or cash) towards scheme operation.
II 15 11357
III 10 7911
IV 24 25533
V 6 5847
Total 55 50648
Source: Chinembiri,1992.
On the basis of the foregoing analysis, it is difficult to suggest that grazing schemes
have increased animal and veld productivity in communal areas. If anything, they
have tended to worsen environmental degradation, through increased stocking rates.
This largely reflects the problems associated with the management of common
property resources and the "non commercial" status of cattle in this sector.
Nevertheless, grazing schemes are popular in some communal areas and a number of
communities (e.g. in Gutu) have been operating them for some years.
Game ranching has been on the increase since the passing of the Parks and Wildlife
Act of 1975. This Act introduced flexibility in the government's control of wildlife
94
in Parks and Reserved areas by allowing:
private landowners to manage and benefit directly from wildlife on their land;
and
greater participation of communal area residents in the management and utilisation
of wildlife by granting Rural District Councils similar rights to those of farmers
on private land.
Low beef prices and rising costs of cattle production following the 1982/83 drought
accelerated the incorporation of game farming into large scale commercial farming
(MLARR, 1988). While, wildlife programmes in communal areas have been
encouraged through the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE) which works with relevant District Councils. The major
motivation for this programme has been the need to enable rural families to exploit
wildlife in their environment profitably, sustainably and legally. This has occurred
through a combination of game ranching and organised safari operations.
About 10% of the large scale commercial farmland in Zimbabwe is currently used
for game ranching, while 33 districts participate in this activity in communal areas.
The majority of game ranches in the two farming sectors are located in the drier agro-
ecological zones. Some of the large scale commercial farmers have introduced game
to the rough areas of their land such as rocky outcrops, steep slopes and shallow or
waterlogged soils. On the other hand, communal area game ranching is concentrated
in areas with no or low cattle populations and sizeable wildlife numbers.
Within the large scale commercial farming sector, returns from game ranching, hunting
and photographic safaris are more attractive than those from meat production. The
higher returns from game in comparison to cattle farming in this sector are evidenced
by the considerable shift from beef production that has occurred on some farms. On
the other hand, a theoretical comparison of wildlife and cattle performance in a typical
communal area showed that wildlife produced a value of Z$0.63/kg of biomass
compared to Z$0.38/kg from cattle (Martin, 1989). This analysis included the value
of the other roles played by cattle in the farming system. The assessment suggests
that it would be more economically efficient for communal area farmers to use their
grassland resources to raise and harvest wildlife, than to increase cattle production in
the appropriate areas.
95
waterholding capacity, soil fertility and the population of beneficial micro-organisms
with an adverse effect on agro-biodiversity.
The use of modem technology such as high yielding varieties, agricultural chemicals
and irrigation in Zimbabwe, has increased with the following adverse effects on agro-
biodiversity:
the homogenisation of most commercial crop and livestock species; which has
reduced their gene pool and increased their susceptibility to pests and diseases;
the erosion of landraces and breeds of traditionally important crops and livestock
species; and,
the decline in the population and species range of soil organisms such as beneficial
fungi, bacteria and insects such as bees; which are important in the pollination of
certain crops such as sunflowers.
On the other hand, if properly used, biotechnology should maintain (e.g. through the
standardised in vitro propagation techniques) or increase (e.g. through the production
of genetically modified organisms) agro-biodiversity. Biotechnology could introduce
a greater diversity of genes into organisms, including genes from unrelated species,
than traditional methods of breeding and selection. The main thrust of biotechnology
research in Zimbabwe has been the promotion of available technologies in crops
such as tobacco, wheat, sugarcane, irish potatoes, sweet potatoes and maize through
tissue culture techniques for disease elimination; rapid propagation; the development
of transgenetic plants (e.g. in tobacco) and the development of biopesticides and
biofertilisers. Work in the animal sector has focused on laboratory diagnosis of
diseases, vaccination development and vector control.
Given the increasing awareness on the adverse effects of persistent chemical pesticide
use on the environment, biotechnology can also contribute to reduced pesticide use.
In this regard, work is underway on cloning Cowpea Aphid-borne Mosaic Virus
(CabMV) in order to confer resistance to CabMV in cowpea using the coat protein
approach and transdominant lethal mutations in the viral replicase.
96
Biotechnology applications in Zimbabwe are also used in disease detection. They
range from field applications in microscopy and cow mastiffs testing in commercial
dairy operations to more specialised laboratory testing operations such as microbial
culture and serological testing for antibodies and antigens for a wide variety of
microbial diseases. Biotechnology is also used in artificial insemination, based on
selected animals, and to assist in economic translocation of selected breeds over long
distances, thus obviating the more difficult quarantine procedures for grown animals.
The above examples show that biotechnological developments can play an important
role in maintaining, protecting and improving agro-biodiversity in Zimbabwe.
However, such developments and their products (e.g. transgenic plants) if not carefully
pursued, reduce biodiversity. There are also concerns on the potential risks to
biodiversity and human health posed by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
released into the environment. Such concerns include: unintended changes in
competitiveness; virulence or other characteristics on target species (non- target
species) and ecosystems, hence threatening the local landraces with extinction; and
unintended gene transfer. There is therefore need to develop safety measures under
which biotechnology should operate in order to ensure the safe transfer, handling,
use and release of its products. It is against this background that the Conference of
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity established an open Adhoc Working
Group on Biosafety in order to develop a protocol on biosafety. As a signatory to the
Convention, Zimbabwe has prepared draft biosafety guidelines with technical
assistance from the Special Programme on Biotechnology of the Netherlands Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. The Research Council of Zimbabwe has decided to incorporate
the guidelines into the Scientific and Technological Research Act of 1998. This will
require an amendment of the Research Act to allow for the setting up of a board that
implements biosafety policies and procedures in the country.
97
estimating soil loss from a given piece of land under given rainfall amounts and
intensity and vegetation cover; and
measuring and estimating runoff from grazing and arable land under certain rainfall
and vegetation conditions.
The methods used in both monitoring programmes include observations,
measurements and physical counts in the field. Grass measurements are done five
times per year, while trees are measured annually.
About 13% of Zimbabwe's land area consists of national parks and wildlife estates,
which contain a wide range of flora and fauna. Wild crop relatives such as cowpeas,
bambaranut, sorghum, cotton, rice and many indigenous vegetables are quite abundant
in these areas, which are managed by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Management. Unfortunately, no mechanisms have been put in place to facilitate the
surveying, inventory, monitoring and conservation of these plant genetic resoarces.
Non-protected areas in Zimbabwe harbour some plant and animal biodiversity. Such
areas include cattle ranches and communal grazing lands which are rich in domestic
animal diversity. However, breeding is not normally controlled in the latter situation
resulting in greater genetic diversity, when compared to commercial farms where
breeding is controlled. Notwithstanding, no efforts have been made to map out the
distribution of important plant and animal species in non- protected areas in order to
determine their diversity, threats and appropriate conservation strategies.
On-farm conservation
98
The promotion of on-farm conservation of traditional landraces of sorghum,
pearlmillet, cowpeas, and bambaranuts by Environment Development Activities
(ENDA-Zimbabwe); and
The promotion of in-sita conservation and sustainable utilisation of traditional
vegetables and fruits by the Community Technology Development Association
(COMMUTEC).
Gene banks
Most of the germplasm collected in Zimbabwe is in the hands of plant breeders. The
breeders' working collections (active collections) consist of seed (for field crops and
forest trees) and living collections of horticultural trees and crops. The germplasm in
the breeders' active collections include: local landraces of wild crop species;
introduced varieties, lines and populations; locally bred populations or breeding
material stored for re-selection or insurance against disasters; and locally bred elite
lines (e.g. parents of commercial hybrids) and commercial varieties. Breeders'
collections are stored in medium-term cold storage facilities at below 10 °C and about
40% relative humidity and then rejuvenated after every five years. A list of some of
the crop germplasm stored at plant breeding institutes in the country is presented in
Table 2.5.8. Considerable pasture legume and pasture grass germplasm is also held
at the research stations of the Department of Research and Specialist Services
(DR&SS) in the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture (see Annex 6.5.1).
Germplasm collection plays a very crucial role in ensuring that species threatened
with extinction are conserved. Most of Zimbabwe's local germplasm collection was
done in 1982 and 1987 by DR&SS in collaboration with the International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute (IPGRI), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
and ICRISAT. Currently, the Gene Bank of Zimbabwe in collaboration with IPGRI,
the SADC Plant Genetic Resources Centre (SPGRC) and IRRI is collecting wild
relatives of rice and traditional vegetables. So far 12 accessions of wild vegetables
including Oryiza barthii, O. Longistaminata, Lersia lexaudra and L. denudata have
been collected. The Horticulture Research Institute of DR&SS has been involved in
collecting germplasm of traditional vegetables for conservation and utilisation in
99
breeding programmes (Table 2.5.9). Non Governmental Organisations such as ENDA
and COMMUTEC have started collecting and storing local germplasm for
multiplication and subsequent repatriation to communal areas.
i
Crop No. of Accessions Description
Maize 28 landraces
Sorghum 1 829 landraces
Pearl millet 47 local lines
Fingermillet 456 locallines
Barley 350 locallines
Winterwheat 715 locallines
Field beans 100 local lines
iCowpeas 30 locallines
Groundnuts 800 locallines
Soyabeans 1 140 locallines
Sunflower 40 locallines
Potatoes 30 breedinglines
Potatoes 6 commercialvarieties
Cotton 2 500 acquisitions& breeders' lines
Cotton garden (ex-sim) wild cotton relatives
Tea/Coffee living collection duplicate of Mt. Mulanje collection
Tobacco 800 local lines, breedinglines & landraces
Botanic Gardens
The main centre for ex-sim conservation is the 68ha National Herbarium and Botanic
Garden in the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture. It is responsible for the propagation
and conservation of plant species such as tea, coffee, cotton, robber, sugar, sisal, oil
palm, lemon grass, jackfruit, pomegranate and pecan nuts.
100
Table 2.5.9. List of vegetable crops collected by the Horticulture Research
Institute.
Intellectual property rights generally take two forms namely plant variety protection
and utility patents (Jandle, 1990). Plant variety protection in Zimbabwe is instituted
through the Plant Breeders Rights Act of 1973. The Act allows breeders to register a
variety that meets the criteria of novelty, uniformity, stability and distinctiveness
and authorises the owner to exclude others from selling the variety for 20 years.
Utility patents are applied to live organisms in some countries. These patents use
different criteria such as novelty, utility and non-obviousness and are more restrictive
than plant variety protection. Being a signatory to the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT), Zimbabwe is in the process of developing the patenting system.
Since breeders and technologists are compensated for their innovations by Plant
Variety Protection and Patents respectively, farmers should, by right be afforded
similar benefits for their landraces, most of which are in international Genebanks or
were the raw materials for the breeders and biotechnologists. However, the current
plant breeders' rights act only applies to propagatory materials that are distinct, uniform
and can therefore be identified, but do not apply to the farmers' landraces which are
variable and evolving. This absence of fair and widely accepted international standards
of protection for intellectual, genetic and cultural property rights raises equity issues
and may discourage some forms of biodiversity conservation, research and
development, since international seed banks, private companies and research institutes
collect samples of germplasm freely from developing countries. Recent trends in
conservation are however emphasizing the need to ensure a fairer distribution of
10l
economic returns partly on equity grounds and to provide stronger economic incentives
to local populations to help conserve the resource base that generated this revenue.
Women also played a key role in agro-diversity conservation as they comprise 75%
of the smallholder farmer population in the country. They selected seed with preferred
characteristics such as colour, size, genetic stability, disease tolerance, palatability
and good processing qualities for planting. Furthermore, they grew "women's crops"
such as groundnuts, pumpkins, leafy vegetables, cowpeas, cucumbers and sweet
potatoes, which had the effect of raising biodiversity and food security on the farm.
Such crops required a lot of precision and patience in planting, weeding, harvesting,
processing, preservation and food preparation.
There is therefore need to fuse such valuable indigenous knowledge with contemporary
knowledge systems in agro-biodiversity conservation.
?
The Plant Pests and Diseases Act provides for the eradication and prevention of the
introduction and spread of plant pests and diseases in Zimbabwe. It applies to both
live and dead plants, namely, tubers, bulbs, corn, root cuttings, grafts, seeds and
fruits. The object of the Animal Health Act is the eradication and prevention of the
introduction and spread of animal pest and diseases. The animals covered under the
102
Act include any class of vertebrate animals whether domesticated or wild as may be
specified. This Act establishes a strict regulatory framework with regards to the control,
importation and destruction of diseased animals and gives the administering Minister
wide and sweeping powers. The Plant Breeders Rights Act regulates the registration
of new varieties of plants and enjoins the holder of a plant breeders right to maintain
the reproductive material. Other legislation provides for the eradication of noxious
weeds and places a duty on owners of infested land to eradicate noxious weeds. The
importation of noxious weeds and their introduction onto any land, or into any water
body is expressly prohibited by the Noxious Weeds Act. Locusts are controlled in
terms of the Locust Control Act, which basically seeks to eradicate four species of
locusts which are harmful to agriculture.
The Bees Act aims at the control of diseases in bees and generally seeks to regulate
the conservation of bees found in the wild. The Act makes provision for the declaration
of diseased bee areas in which the responsible Minister is empowered to destroy
bees. Bee conservation is sought to be achieved primarily through measures restricting
the removal of bees found in natural hives and creates an offence where this is done
without the express consent of the appropriate authority for the land on which the
natural hive is located. The Quelea Control Act makes the quelea bird a notifiable
pest. The primary objective of the Act is the prevention of massive damage to
agricultural crops and hence it employs drastic measures in the control of quelea.
2.5.5 Institutional framework, cross sectoral linkages and the human resource base.
The Ministry of Lands and Agriculture through its line departments (Department of
Research and Specialist Services, Department of Agricultural and Technical Services,
Department of Veterinary Services and the Agricultural and Rural Development
Authority) is the major player in agro-diversity management. Other players include
the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, the Department of the
Surveyor General, the Forestry Commission, the Department of Natural Resources,
Universities, non governmental organisations and the private sector.
The bulk of agricultural research and extension in Zimbabwe is carried out by the
Department of Research and Specialist Services and the Department of Agricultural,
Technical and Extension Services respectively. However, government funding to
103
these two departments has been declining over the years with an adverse effect on
the smallholder farming sector; which is the major beneficiary of their efforts. It is
however, heartening to note that there has been an increase in privately funded research
and extension over the last few years. Key players in the field include the Seed Coop,
Pioneer Seeds, Pannar Seeds, National Tested Seeds, Fertiliser Companies, the
Zimbabwe Sugar Association, the Pig Industry Board, the Tobacco Research Board
and the Agricultural Research Trust Farm. The Agricultural and Rural Development
Authority is responsible for planning, co-ordinating and implementing fairly large
agricultural and rural development projects on behalf of the government while the
Department of Veterinary Services is responsible for the prevention and control of
animal diseases.
The fact that most of the services offered by the above organisations are
complementary provides opportunities for cross sectoral and cross-institutional
linkages in specific areas. However, given the large number of players involved,
there is considerable scope for improving upon such linkages.
The previous section has highlighted the presence of a wide range of expertise in the
various institutions involved in agricultural biodiversity management and the existence
of financial constraints in some of the institutions. The latter highlights the need for
104
inter-institutional linkages in order to maximise the use of available specialised human
and limited financial resources.
The forecast values of crop production for the 1996/97 season are presented in Table
2.5.10. However, this table excludes a number of key agricultural commodities hence
it does not reflect the true value of agro-diversity in Zimbabwe. For example, sugar
contributed 25% of the total value of agricultural production in 1995; livestock
slaughtering, milk and butterfat production amounted to Z$1.6 billion in 1996; while
fruit, dry beans, vegetables and fodder crops are likely to contribute about 10% of
total agricultural sales in 1997. Once these issues are incorporated, the value of
agricultural sales for 1997 can be estimated at Z$19 billion.
105
Perverse incentives
Positive incentives
106
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2.6. BENEFITS AND COSTS OF CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY.
Overview
I
I I
PERSONAL USE VALUES NON-USE VALUES
a
I I I I ]
DIRECT USE INDIRECT USE OPTION / BEQUEST EXISTENCE
VALUE VALUE VALUES VALUE
I I I I
CONSUMPTIVE AND FUNCTIONAL LEAVING YOUR KNOWING THE
NON-CONSUMPTIVE BENEFITS & OPTIONS OPEN VALUES EXIST
VALUES SERVICES PASSING VALUES TO
FUTURE GENERATIONS
FISHING
I
FLOOD CONTROL
I
BIODIVERSITY HABITATS
HUNTING WILDLIFE HABITAT HABITAT PROTECTION RARE SPECIES
FOOD OXYGEN RECYCLING BUFFER STRIPS
VIEWING WATER QUALITY
Use values are held by most people for participating in some activity involving natural
resources and the environment and fall into the consumptive and non-consumptive
use categories. Consumptive uses are those activities that consume the resource such
as fishing, cutting fuelwood and hunting. Non-consumptive uses include activities
such as wildlife viewing, ecological tourism and camping where the good or service
is not actually consumed or removed. Other non-consumptive uses include people
viewing biological resources (like wildlife) in magazines, on television or in books.
For example, an individual might not want to visit, or may never get the chance to
visit Hwange National Park to see elephants, but could still gain some value from
viewing the wildlife on a television show. The true economic value for most
consumptive and non-consumptive use sub-categories can be represented by the
amount of money which people would be willing to spend over and above their
actual out-of pocket costs of enjoying the resource.
107
Non-use values are more complex and relate to values held by the individuals for
goods and services they do not actually participate in or consume. The knowledge
that a natural resource or environmental benefit exists to be passed on to future
generations is an important value to many people. For example, although most
Zimbabweans have probably never seen a black rhino in the wild and are unlikely to
do so in the future due to the small herd size, they still contribute to various "Save the
Rhino" campaigns.In this case,people mightvaluethe existence ofthe rhino (existence
value) and may want to preserve the species for future generations (bequest value).
They might also want to conserve the species to have the option of enjoying direct
and indirect use values in the future (option value).
This section summarises direct use benefits derived from forestry, wildlife, aquatic
life and agro-biodiversity. A detailed description is presented under the relevant
sectors.
Forest biodDersity
Major indirect use benefits of forest biodiversity, which have not yet been fully
evaluated in Zimbabwe include: the provision of windbreaks, shade and soil stability;
and the regulation of water quality and run-off.
Wildlifebiodiversity
The direct use benefits from wildlife biodiversity include tourism income which
accounts for about 6% of the GDP and the sale of hunting concessions in CAMPFIRE
project areas which is now generating about Z$25 million per year. The other direct
use benefits include wildlife products (e.g. meat, hides and ivory) from commercial
hunting and game ranching and insects such as mopane worms, which are gathered
for food and for sale by local communities. These other benefits are not quantified in
this study.
Aquatic biodiversity
Direct use benefits from aquatic biodiversity include fish from both wild capture and
commercial fish farms. For example, the gross kapenta value is estimated at Z$270
million per year. Other direct use values centre around tourism related to aquatic
ecosystems mainly around LakeKariba andVictoria Fails.For example a study carried
108
out in Victoria Fails showed that water related tourism activities of canoeing/_yaking,
white water rafting and river cruises generated about Z$70 million per year (Dube
and Milne, 1995).
Agro-biodiversity
The primary and secondary agricultural sectors contribute as much as 20% to the
country's GDP. Agro-biodiversity also has indirect use values or ecological services
which include the maintenance ofnaturai cycles, reservoir ofnaturai biological control
systems, symbiotic associations and genetic resistance. These aspects are not quantified
in this study.
Overview
109
Table 2.6.1. Nominal Zimbabwe government expenditure on issues related to
biodiversity conservation: 1987/88 to 1997/98
Forestry
Commission 12,4 14.5 18.0 19.3 19.0 21.2 19.7 18.5 16.3 23.2 36.3
Natural Resources 4.5 5.0 6.5 8.3 9.4 9.6 12.3 14.0 12.8 21.5 40.2
National Parks 21.9 19,2 25.7 31.1 35.1 37.5 40.2 47.3 51.8 48.4 20.0
Agric. Extension
(AGRITEX) 35.4 39.4 42.4 53.1 63.9 185.1 111.5 152.8 216.2 169.5 399.6
Agric. Research
(DR&SS) 16.9 19.2 19.6 24.9 26.7 29.5 37.6 43.2 53.1 73.2 135.4
Water Resources 80.3 103.9 51.4 100.3 92.2 169.0 185.3 148.4' 124.7 145.9 169.8
Total (currentS) 171.4 201.2 163.6 237.0 246.3 451.9 406.6 424.2 474.9 481.7 801.3
Total (realS)2 276 274 187 237 187 272 202 169 162 137 , --
I
900-
_mn
7OO
60O
40O
3O0
2OO
loo
j. /.^..
I I I I I I I
0 g871881988/89 989/9019oo/911991/92 992/931993/941994/_5 995/96 _6/97 t_7/ut
Fiscal Years
2Real expenditures are deflated by the GDP index, 1990=-100 (source CSO, 1997) to
account for inflation. Nominal expenditures were also deflated by the CPI index with
little difference to the results. In this report, the GDP deflator is used.
I Ill
Apart from central government, a number of local and international non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and land owners are actively involved in financing biodiversity
conservation in Zimbabwe as highlighted in the sector presentations. However, no
comprehensive data base containing summaries of in-country expenditures by NGO
exists. In addition, it is difficult to identify the budget components that go directly
into biodiversity conservation.
I11
J
_
2
mm
m
I
IW
3. UNMET NEEDS ANALYSIS IN ZIMBABWE'S BIODIVERSITY
PROGRAMMES.
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Forestry
1. The Forest Act gazetted the establishment of demarcated indigenous forest areas
on the Kalahari sands of western Zimbabwe for: the sustainable extraction of
timber; to act as reservoirs of wildlife and water catchment; and, for the conservation
of biological diversity. These gazetted forests, which cover about 2% of the
country's land area, are being threatened by communities living on the "forest
edge", who illegally obtain timber and non-timber forest products from them.
Furthermore, the selective logging and extraction of indigenous commercial timber
species by concessionaires in the protected forests "cream off' phenotypically
superior trees and lead to a gradual genetic impoverishment of the forests. In
addition, the stumpage price assessed on these valuable commercial species does
not reflect the economic rent of the resource. In order to address these problems,
there is need to replace the protectionist approaches to conserving gazetted forests
to those that consider neighbouring communities as partners in the conservation,
management and sustainable use of forests. This can be achieved by adopting the
CAMPFIRE concept, which has been quite successful in the wildlife sector. Such
a concept could also reduce the currently high administrative cost to government
of protecting the forests. With respect to reducing genetic erosion associated with
the selective extraction of commercial timber species, there is need to expand and
strengthen the Strict Natural Reserves (SNRs) concept being implemented in some
gazetted forest areas. SNRs are like "witness stands" and are not "touched" during
a timber harvesting concession. Notwithstanding, the success of the SNR concept
will depend on a good understanding of the genetic variability of the tree species
in question. This aspect has not been well studied. Some species such as
Chlorophora excelsa have been fragmented to such an extent that in-situ
conservation is no longer possible. Resource conservation stands should, therefore
112
be established in such cases. In addition, the whole aspect of indigenous commercial
timber valuation and concession fees should be reviewed along with the process
of allocating commercial timber cutting rights within a broader context of forest
management responsibilities and associated costs.
2. The loss of forest land to agriculture due to human population pressure is a major
cause of forest biodiversity losses and land degradation especially on communally
owned land. Consequently, it is difficult to find pristine miombo woodlands on
the central watershed of Zimbabwe, as most have disappeared to give way to
cropping and grazing land. Furthermore, the purposeful extraction of certain tree
species by local communities is leading to their over exploitation. Such threatened
tree species include: Warburgia salutaris (muranga), a medicinal plant on the
verge of extinction in the Chipinge area; and certain indigenous fruit trees harvested
for sale in urban markets. Causes of this over exploitation include poor enforcement
of the Communal Land Forest Produce Act (CLFPA) and the Natural Resources
Act; the erosion of powers of the traditional leadership; economic hardships and
loss of cultural values. The latter included prohibiting the cutting of tree species
such as Julbernardia globifiora and Warburgia salutaris which were considered
"sacred" and indigenous fruit trees such as Uapaca kirkiana and Strychnos, which
could not be cut under any circumstances. To address some of these problems,
there is need to: harmonise the application and enforcement of the Forest Act, the
CLFPA and the Natural Resources Act; further improvement of the monitoring
capacity of the appropriate state authorities, and increase penalties for non-
compliance; promote indigenous knowledge in the identification of useful species
and their appropriate conservation measures; and create opportunities for alternative
livelihood outside agriculture.
113
both the miombo and teak forests. Such losses in beneficial Mycorhizae adversely
affect the rejuvenation of the associated tree species. There is therefore need to
study and monitor mycorhizal associations in different woodland/forest types and
to find ways of enhancing them in situations where they are threatened or have
been lost.
The following needs and concerns are identified in the equitable sharing of forest
biodiversity benefits in Zimbabwe.
114
3.3. Wildlife
Issues and needs identified under wildlife biodiversity conservation are as follows:
1. About 13% of Zimbabwe is set aside as the national parks and wildlife estate
under the Parks and Wildlife Act for the conservation and preservation of wildlife,
fish and plants. These areas were selected largely because they are marginal for
agriculture. The lack ofjoint planning between the Departmem of National Parks
and Wildlife Management (the country's wildlife management and scientific
authority) and the Forestry Commission (the state forest authority) on forest
conservation and management matters in these areas tends to compromise the
balance between forestry and wildlife biodiversity issues. In addition, despite the
stringent policing and existence of the CAMPFIRE Progranm_ in communal
areas that borderthe national parks and wildlife estate, there is considerable local,
national and transborder poaching of wildlife. Thereis therefore need for strategies
that address these issues in order to enhance wildlife biodiversity in the parks and
wildlife estate.
2. The most widely studied and monitored wildlife species are those of economic
importance and international interest. They include mammals such as the elephant,
buffalo, sable, antelope, kudu, lion, leopard and the rhino. Very little attention
has been given to other wildlife species which though economically unimportant,
are a vital component in the eeo-system's food chain and to the local communities.
In addition, no criteria and review mechanisms exist for the listing of endangered
species such as the wild dog. Consequently, there is need to institute inventory
and monitoring mechanisms for all wildlife species and to put in place criteria
and review systems for the listing of specially protected species.
The following issues were identified in the equitable sharing of wildlife biodiversity
benefits in the country.
1. The Parks and Wildlife Act gives privileges to owners of private land and Rural
District Councils in communal areas to utilise and exploit animals on their land.
Such an arrangement has given these communities incentives to sustainably
manage wildlife resources through the formation of conservancies/game ranches
on private land; and, the participationin the CAMPFIRE programme in communal
areas. This has led to an increase in species diversity and improvements in these
ecosystems. There is, therefore a need to extend the CAMPFIRE concept to other
districts with sizeable wildlife populations and to other natural resources such as
forestry and aquatic life. With respect to conservancies, there is a need to balance
them with crop and domestic animal production, as they seem to be spreading
very rapidly at the expense of the latter.
115
3.4. Aquatic life.
The following issues and needs were identified in aquatic biodiversity conservation.
1. Zimbabwe relies on inland lakes and waterways for its aquatic fauna and flora
of which fish are the most economically important. However, of the 123 fish
species found in the country, only a few economically and biologically important
ones have been monitored in Lakes Chivero, Kariba, Mutirikwi and Darwendale
dam. Consequently, the composition and population status of many fish species
in the country's water bodies are unknown despite their high food value to local
communities and to the eco-system as a whole.
2. Apart from certain species of fish, reptiles, ducks and invertebrates of medical
importance that have been studied and monitored, very little information, if any,
exists on other aquatic fauna and flora considered to be of less direct economic
importance. For example, despite the important role that aquatic plants play in
the ecology of lakes and rivers, little information exists on their population status,
trends and threats. Such an information void can be disastrous should there be a
tilt in the water body nutrient balance (due to organic and inorganic pollution) as
has occurred with the water hyacinth in Lake Chivero, Lake Manyame and
Manyame river. This has resulted in huge costs of weed clearing, loss of fishing
and boat sites, loss of fish and increases in the cost of purifying domestic water.
3. The lack of a comprehensive and elaborate inventory and monitoring system for
aquatic/wetlands biodlversity makes it difficult to value the contribution of aquatic
life to the economy and ecosystem in general and to local communities in particular.
4. Controls over aquatic flora and fauna in terms of the Parks and Wildlife Act are
problematic as the Act's application only covers the parks and wildlife estate.
With the exception of fish resources, areas outside the estate are regulated and
controlled under other pieces of legislation. Furthermore, no regulations particular
to aquatic life are available, except where plants have been declared to be specially
protected or noxious weeds.
The following were identified as pertinent issues in the equitable sharing of benefits
from aquatic biodiversity in the country.
116
can be a disincentive to biodiversity conservation hence the need for coordinated
policies for allocating fishing fights and implementing monitoring programmes.
2. With respect to fishing rights on the country's major water bodies, there is need
to review the current permit and quota systems in order to make fishing more
accessible to local communities in these areas. At the same time, the review should
assess the cost of the various permits relative to the value of the resources being
harvested and the cost of their management and protection.
3.5. Agriculture
The following issues and needs are identified in the area of agro-biodiversity
conservation.
117
2. A number of wild relatives of crops such as cotton, rice, sorghum, pearlmillet,
cowpeas and bambaranut are available, especially in the protected areas. These
crops can be useful in the genetic improvement of their domesticated crop relatives.
However, there is need to institute mechanisms that facilitate the surveying,
inventory, monitoring and conservation of the wild crop relatives.
The following issues and needs were identified in the equitable sharing of agro-
biodiversity in the country:
The current plant breeders' rights act only applies to propagatory materials that
are distinct, uniform and identifiable and not to the farmers' landraces, that are
variable and evolving. This lack of recognition of the farmer's contribution
discourages agro-biodiversity conservation, research and development at the
household and community levels.
118
3.6. Intersectorai issues.
The following aspects and needs were identified in the inter-sectoral arena of
biodiversity conservation.
The lack of joint planning among organisations with similar interests resulting in
adverse effects on biodiversity. For example, uncoordinated planning between
the Forestry Commission, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Management and the Department of Natural Resources on forest conservation
matters in the parks and wildlife estates, tends to give vegetation resources a
subordinate role as they are considered "food" for wildlife with an adverse effect
on both floral and wildlife biodiversity;
Limited knowledge on the skills base in the various sectors. There is therefore
need for inventory, rationalisation and development of skills in the various
institutions involved in biodiversity conservation; and,
119
3. Conflicts between various pieces of legislation have tended to adversely affect
biodiversity conservation. For example, there are conflicts between mining on
the one hand and forest, wildlife, aquatic life and agriculture on the other. This is
due to the supremacy of the Mines and Minerals Act over all other resource use
legislations. This situation is being reviewed within the context of the
environmental law reform by the Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism.
Notwithstanding, there is need to explicitly incorporate biodiversity conservation
issues into the on-going law reform process. Relevant laws should also be
synchronised and harmonised with local needs.
6. There are no comprehensive and elaborate inventory and monitoring systems for
biodiversity in Zimbabwe. Consequently, it is not easy to establish the exact status
and changes in biodiversity for planning purposes. This also makes it difficult to
value the contribution of the various biodiversity sectors (i.e. forestry, wildlife,
120
aquatic life and agriculture) to the national economy; the ecosystems in general;
and, the local communities in particular. Such a lack of information also applies
to micro-organisms (fungi, bacteria and viruses) associated with biodiversity in
the four sectors.
121
4. ZIMBABWE'S BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN
4.1 Introduction.
In line with the requirements of the Convention on Biological Diversity Article IV,
the objectives of Zimbabwe's biodiversity programme are to: conserve the country's
biodiversity; sustainably utilise it and equitably share the resultant benefits for the
present and future generations. These objectives will be achieved by deve/loping and
implementing strategies and action plans that address priority needs identified in the
biodiversity status report (see Chapters 2 & 3).
The verification of unmet biodiversity needs presented in Chapter 3 was done at the
first national workshop held at Club Mazvikadei and at subsequent workshops held
at the provincial level. The former workshop was attended by 41 environmentalists,
ecologists, scientists, extensionists, agriculturists, foresters, wildlife experts, traditional
healers and journalists with the following objectives:
to analyse the draft Biodiversity Status Report and prioritise the unmet needs;
to develop strategies that address the priority unmet needs; and
to consider actions that should be taken to operationalise the developed strategies.
The unmet needs, draft strategies and action plans formulated during the first national
workshop were revisited during the provincial workshops in order to give them a
local perspective. Each provincial workshop was attended by between 60 and 80
people from government and non governmental organisations drawn from the district
and provincial levels. The specific terms of reference for the provincial meetings
were to:
review the content of the biodiversity status report;
review and revise the unmet needs based on local realities;
review and revise the draft strategies based on local realities; and,
review and revise the draft action plans based on local realities.
The second national workshop was convened as the last stage in the stakeholder
consultation process. It attracted 90 participants from both public and private sector
institutions and had the following objectives:
to review and revise the unmet needs, strategies and action plans formulated during
the first national workshop and subsequent provincial workshops;
to prioritise the resultant unmet needs; and,
to suggest collaborative mechanisms for funding and implementing projects
emanating from the national Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.
122
Criteria used to prioritise unmet needs included the following:
the cross cutting nature of the unmet need. Needs that cut across sectors were
given higher priority;
the potential impact on biodiversity of implementing strategies that address the
unmet need; and
the feasibility of implementing the resultant action plan.
123
7. Inadequate affordable alternatives to reduce the reliance on natural resources at
the local level.
8. Inappropriate research and extension approaches in biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use.
Zimbabwe's biodiversity strategy and action plan aims at addressing the priority
unmet needs listed in the previous section. Specific strategies formulated to achieve
this are:
1. Development of comprehensive and elaborate biodiversity inventory and
monitoring systems/programmes for all species of flora and fauna and micro-
organisms;
2. Creation of opportunities and incentives for biodiversity conservation at the
national and local levels;
3. Development of a clear, definite and co-ordinated national policy, legislative
framework and implementation strategy on environmental awareness, education
and training;
4. Improvement of the understanding of the importance of biodiversity at both the
national and local levels and the strengthening of biodiversity initiatives at all
levels;
5. Strengthening and harmonisation of relevant legislation that recognise the need
for biodiversity conservation and the maximisation of synergies across sectors
and the development of a comprehensive national policy on biodiversity;
6, Provision of a sustainable and readily accessible financial and institutional base
to assist biodiversity projects at the local level;
7. Provision of affordable, viable and acceptable alternatives for human survival
beyond the existing natural resource base; and,
8. Development and implementation of appropriate research and extension
approaches in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
124
Unmet need Strategy Action nlnn
species at the genetic,
species and ecosystem
levels
Identify, review and
develop collaborative
mechanisms for
biodiversity initiatives
undertaken by various
players within and
outside the country
Document indigenous
knowledge on
biodiversity
conservation and
sustainable use.
Involve local
communities,
institutions and
traditional leaders in
biodiversity inventory
and monitoring.
Develop criteria and
review systems for the
listing of specially
protected species of
flora and fauna.
Create databases on
biodiversity issues
(including socio-
economic aspects) at all
levels and provide
linkages among the
levels.
Develop the human and
infrastructural capacity
to inventory, monitor,
document and store
biodiversity information
at various stakeholder
levels.
125
Unmet need Strategy Action plan
sustainable use flora and fauna (e.g.
initiatives theCAMPFIRE
approach).
Develop appropriate
and transparent benefit
sharing mechanisms.
i Adopt a participatory
approach in
biodiversity
conservation and
sustainable use.
Establish and
implement reward
systems that recognise
local biodiversity
conservation efforts.
Develop a framework
for protecting and
rewarding local
innovations and
indigenous technical
knowledge.
Increase the role of,
and empower local
institutions and
communities in
biodiversity
conservation and
sustainable use
matters.
[26
Unmet need Strategy ! Action plan
programmes and
suggest ways of
enriching and co-
ordinating their
activities.
Package biodiversity
awareness, education
and training materials
and messages in local
languages.
Establish an
environmental watchdog
(with private and public
sector players) to
develop, monitor and
evaluate inter-sectorai
programmes on
environmental
awareness, education
and training.
Develop targeted
information
dissemination systems
for resource user groups
(including that targeted
at traditional leaders,
local institutions, the
church and traditional
healers),
Develop programmes to
implement the
environmental
awareness, education
and training policy and
recognise the central
role played by the print
and electronic media in
this process.
127
Unmet need Strategy Action plan
Use appropriate
methods to analyse and
evaluate current
biodiversity
conservation efforts.
Establish an inter-
institutional framework
for biodiversity
monitoring at all levels
128
!Unmet need Strategy Action plan=
biodiversityconservation synergies across the key Incorporate biodiversity
and sustainable use sectors, considerations into the
now environmental law.
Adopt a participatory
approach during the
policy formulation
process.
Develop clearly defined
roles and
responsibilities for the
different authorities.
Establish a central
authority to coordinate
biodiversity initiatives
and policy issues
129
Unmet need Strategy Action plan=
implement biodiversity
programmes (e.g.
biotechnology).
130
Unmet need Strategy Action plan--
Provide tax incentives
to private companies
financing biodiversity
related initiatives at the
local level.
Give funding priority to
development projects
that positively impact
on biodiversity
conservation at the
community level.
131
Unmet need Strategy Action plan=
Develop, adapt and
adopt practical models
for creating incentives
for sustainable
biodiversity
conservation at the
community level.
Develop human
capacity for the
development and
implementation of
appropriate research
and extension methods.
The foregoing broad action plans which are based on the country's priority needs in
biodiversity, will form the basis for developing detailed project proposals aimed at
enhancing biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. The resultant projects will
be submitted to government and interested donors such as the Global Environment
Facility for financial support. The key stakeholders in the process are discussed in
Chapter 3.
132
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137
6. ANNEXES
Project Secretariat
Steering Committee
Consulting Group
138
6.2 FORESTRY
Miombo woodlands
D1 - Brachystegia spiciformis-Baikiaea woodland on Kalahari sands
D2 - Brachystegia spiciformis-B, boehmii woodland on sand
D3 -Brachystegia boehmii-Julbermadia-Pterocarpus angolensis open woodland on sandstone
plateaux
D4 - Brachystegia boehmii-Julbemardia woodland on shallow soils
D5 - Brachystegia-Julbermardia woodland on granite
D6 - Brachystegia glancesens woodland on hills
D7 - Brachystegia allenii woodland
D8 - Mixed woodland on Zambezi Escarpment
Miombo-Mopane woodlands
E1 - Brachystegia boehmii-Colophospermum woodland catena
E2 - Julbernardia~Colophospermum woodland catena
E3 - Combretum-Colophospermum open woodland mosaic
E4 - Colophospermum-Diospyrous kirkii open woodland on shallow soils
E5 - Colophospermum-Brachystegia allenii woodland mosaic
Mopane woodlands
FI - Colophospermum woodland on skeletal soils
F2 - Colophospermum-Terminalia stuhlonanii woodland
F3 - Colophospermum woodland (Single dominace)
139
Acacia open woodlands
HI - Acacia open woodland on goldbelt soils
J. Grasslands
J1 - Parinari wooded grassland
J2 - Cynodon-Eragrostis grassland on sand
J3 - Cynodon-Sporobolus grassland in granite vleis
J4 - Panicum repens lakeshore grassland
J5 - Andropogon grassland on serpentine
J6 - Grassland on basalt soils
J7 - Setaria grassland on clay.
Annex 6.2.2. List of reserved indigenous tree species scheduled under the
Communal Land Forest Produce Act of 1987
140
Trichilia emetica Warburgia salutaris
Uacapa kirkiana Widdringtonia nodiflora
Vitex doniana Xylopia aethiopica
Vitex
payos Zanhla
golungesis
6.3. WILDLIFE
Annex 6.3.L Population status of some common mammals based on the 1995 aerial
surveys and other sources.
Species Populationstatus
141
I Species Population status
Source: DNPWLM unpublished census records and local knowledge offield staff.
Annex 6.3.2. Number of some bird species of Southern Africa and in Zimbabwe
I
142
Family Number of Number of
species in species in
Southern Africa Zimbabwe
143
Annex 6.3.3: Trophy values of larger wildlife species used in the CAMPFIRE
programme (USS1= Z$10).
1959 - There was a population explosion of mycrocystis and floating Salvinia molesta,
Pistia stratiotes, Ultricularia spp. and Lemna spp.;
1960 - There was an appearance of Ceratophyllum demersum, Typha spp. and Scirpus
curbensis;
1962 - Twenty two percent of the lake surface was covered by Salvinia molesta;
Pasture Legumes
Pasture grasses
145
Henderson Research Station
Pasture Legumes
Pasture grasses
146
District Development Fund (DDF)
Forestry Commission
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Health and Child Welfare
Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development
Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism
Ministry of National Affairs, Economic Creation and Co-operatives
Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare
National Economic Planning Commission
Parliament of Zimbabwe
Rural District Councils (RDCs)
Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre (SIRDC)
Africa 2000
Africa Centre for Holistic Resource Management
Africa Resources Trust
Association of Women's Clubs
Chiefs' Council
Church in Zimbabwe
Commercial Farmers Union
Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)
Community Technology Development Association (COMMUTEC)
Environment 2000
Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG)
Legal Resources Foundation
Matebeleland Development Foundation
National Employment Services
Regional Environment Organisation (ZERO)
Southern Alliance For Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE)
The Zambezi Society
Timber Producers Federation
Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe
Women in Business
World Conservation Union (IUCN-ROSA)
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Zimbabwe Farmers Union
Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZlNATHA)
Zimbabwe Trust
Action Magazine
Africa Information Afrique
Chaminuka News
Community Newspaper Group
Development Media Organisation
147
Masvingo Provincial Star
South Media Features
The Chronicle
The Financial Gazette
The Manica Post
The Reporter
The Sunday News
The Zimbabwe Mirror
Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC)
Zimbabwe Information Services (ZIS)
Zimbabwe Inter-Africa News Agency (ZIANA)
Zimpapers
Universities
Africa University
University of Zimbabwe
Donors
Appendix 6.7.1. Prioritisation of the unmet needs during the Second National
Workshop
Priority ranking
Unmetneed* Group
I 2 3 4 5 Overall
Inventoryand monitoringprogrammes I 9 2 2 2 16
Incentivesforlocalcommunities 2 1 1 7 6 17
Appreciation of the importance of biodiversity 5 3 3 4 4 19
i Environmental awareness 3 4 3 3 5 18
Inadequate legislation 7 5 2 4 1 19
Limited financial and institutional base 6 6 2 1 5 20
Inadequate alternatives 4 8 1 10 8 31
Inadequate research and extension approaches 9 10 3 7 7 36
148