Integrated Livestock Fish Farming Systems: January 2003
Integrated Livestock Fish Farming Systems: January 2003
Integrated Livestock Fish Farming Systems: January 2003
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Preface
Small farmers in developing countries are poorer than
the rest of the population, often not getting enough food to lead normal, healthy
and active lives. Dealing with poverty and hunger in much of the world therefore
means confronting the problems that small farmers and their families face in
their daily struggle for survival. One option for economically and ecologically
sustainable development of farming systems is the integration of agriculture
and aquaculture.
The various types of aquaculture form a critical component within
agricultural and farming systems development that can contribute to the
alleviation of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty through the provision of
food of high nutritional value, income and employment generation, decreased
risk of production, improved access to water, sustainable resource management
and increased farm sustainability.
Livestock production and processing generate by-products that may be
important inputs for aquaculture. The main linkages between livestock and fish
production involve the direct use of livestock wastes, as well as the recycling of
manure-based nutrients which function as fertilizers to stimulate natural food
webs.
On a global basis, most cultured freshwater fish are produced in Asia in
semi-intensive systems that depend on livestock wastes purposely used in
ponds, or draining into them. Much of the vast increase in China’s recent inland
aquaculture production is linked to organic fertilization, provided by the equally
dramatic growth of poultry and pig production. The use of livestock wastes is
still needed, even when high-quality supplementary feeds are available and they
are still widely used in more intensive aquaculture systems.
The objective of the publication is to provide an analysis of the evolution
and current status of integrated livestock-fish systems in Asia, particularly East
and Southeast Asia, as well as to provide a sound technical basis for considering
their relevance for the planning of livestock-fish systems in Africa and Latin
America.
It is hoped that the conclusions and recommendations presented here will
be interesting and thought-provoking for a wide audience generally interested
in the subject of integrated agriculture-aquaculture, and particularly policy
makers, planners, NGOs and senior research and extension staff. It is hoped that
the book will stimulate these people at all levels to ensure that agricultural
development provides for reasonable rural livelihoods, a clean environment, and
adequate food products.
iii
Contents
1
1 Introduction
1.1 Rationale of the Study
1
1
1.2 Definitions of Integrated Farming 2
1.3 Potential Linkages Between Livestock and Fish Production 2
1.4 Relevance of Integrated Farming 4
1.5 Sustainability Issues at Micro- and Macro-Levels 5
1.5.1 MICRO-LEVEL 5
1.5.2 MACRO-LEVEL 10
2
2 Evolutionary Development of Integrated
Livestock-Fish Farming Systems in Asia 13
2.1 Systems and Scale 13
2.2 Environmental Effects 15
2.3 Crop Domination 16
2.4 Integrated Crop/Livestock 20
2.5 Industrial Monoculture 21
3
3 Major Types of Integrated Systems in Asia
3.1 Current Status
23
24
3.1.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 24
3.1.2 MONOGASTRICS 25
3.1.3 RUMINANTS 29
3.1.4 NON-CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK 30
3.2 Upgrading Traditional Livestock Systems for Aquaculture 31
3.2.1 UPGRADING LIVESTOCK DIETS AND
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 32
3.2.2 COLLECTION OF MONOGASTRIC WASTES IN
SMALL-HOLDER SYSTEMS 33
3.2.3 RUMINANT SYSTEMS 34
3.2.4 MIXED INPUT SYSTEMS 36
3.3 Integration with Agro-Industry 40
3.3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 40
4
4 Environmental Aspects
4.1 Nutrients
4.1.1 NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
47
48
49
4.1.2 NUTRIENT EFFICIENCY IN LIVESTOCK 52
4.1.3 NUTRIENT EFFICIENCY IN AQUACULTURE 52
4.1.4 NUTRIENT RELATIONSHIPS IN LIVESTOCK-FISH SYSTEMS 53
5
5 Design Criteria for Livestock Manured Ponds
5.1 Manured Pond Dynamics
61
61
5.1.1 OVERVIEW 61
5.1.2 PRINCIPLES OF FERTILIZATION 64
5.1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING 67
5.2 Waste Characteristics 69
5.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 69
5.2.2 SPECIES, SIZE AND SEX 71
5.2.3 FEED AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 71
5.2.4 NUTRIENT RELEASE FROM MANURES 76
5.2.5 WASTE COLLECTION AND STORAGE 76
5.3 Waste Addition 79
6
6 Public Health and Livestock-Fish
6.1 General Considerations
6.1.1 PATHOGENS
85
85
86
6.1.2 BACTERIA AND VIRUSES 87
6.1.3 PARASITES 89
6.1.4 INSECT-VECTOR BORNE DISEASES 92
6.1.5 INFLUENZA PANDEMICS 92
6.2 Chemical Hazards and Associated Risks 93
6.3 Biological Hazards 95
6.4 Summary 100
7
7 Social and Economic Considerations
7.1 Demand
101
103
7.2 Nutritional Benefits 106
7.3 Gender and Age 108
7.4 Resource issues 111
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION 111
7.4.2 MICRO-LEVEL 111
7.4.3 MACRO-LEVEL 117
7.4.4 BENEFITS 118
v
7.4.5 RISK 118
7.4.6 LABOUR 120
7.5 Promotion of Integrated Livestock-Fish 123
7.5.1 FRAMEWORK 123
7.5.2 DEVELOPING HUMAN CAPACITY 124
7.5.3 SYSTEMS APPROACH 124
7.5.4 FARMER-FIRST 124
7.5.5 CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES 125
7.5.6 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES 126
7.5.7 EXTERNAL FACTORS 129
8
8 Transferability of Asian Experiences to
Africa and Latin America
8.1 General Considerations
131
131
8.2 Information Needs 135
8.3 Institutional Constraints 135
8.4 Seed Supply 138
8.5 Theft and Predation 139
8.6 Demand 139
8.7 Multipurpose Use and Benefits 140
8.8 Beneficiaries 141
8.9 Comparing the Regions 143
9
9 Future Directions in Livestock-Fish Integration
9.1
9.2
Demand and Globalization
Feed Resources
145
145
146
9.3 Intensification not Concentration 147
9.4 Peri-Urban Integration 148
9.5 Rural Integration 151
9.6 Potential 156
Acknowledgements 159
References 161
List of Boxes
BOX 1.A Checklist of key issues affecting linkages between livestock and fish production
BOX 1.B A widely used definition of sustainability
BOX 1.C Livelihoods defined
BOX 1.D Agribusiness view of sustainability
BOX 1.E Challenges to sustainable farming in the Red River Delta, Viet Nam
BOX 1.F A decline in integrated farming in China?
BOX 2.A Disease constrains livestock production
BOX 2.B Intensification of ruminant and macrophagous fish have similar constraints
BOX 3.A Case study of integrated farming in Central Thailand
vii
BOX 3.B Constraints to integration of traditional livestock and fish production
BOX 3.C Key indicators of the potential for upgrading
BOX 3.D Upgrading scavenging poultry diets and management in Ethiopia
BOX 3.E Changing integrated systems in China
BOX 3.F Summary of factors affecting use of inorganic fertilizer and feeds with livestock wastes
BOX 3.G By-products from livestock and processing waste
BOX 3.H Green blowfly larvae used to process pig manure to fish feed
BOX 3.I Chicken slaughter house waste fed to catfish
BOX 3.J Feeding maize to catfish
BOX 4.A Nutrient flows among village subsystems and between village and outside systems in Nguyen Xa
village, Viet Nam
BOX 4.B Approaches to reducing livestock wastes and environmental pollution
BOX 4.C Summary of nutrients and the environment
BOX 4.D A need for water encourages integrated fish culture
BOX 4.E Summary of factors through which livestock and fish interact with the global environment
BOX 5.A Benefits of animal manures in pond culture
BOX 5.B Fixed fertilization rates defined by experimentation
BOX 5.C High loadings of ruminant manure
BOX 5.D Categories of supplementary feeding
BOX 5.E Disappointing results with supplementary feeding
BOX 5.F Summary of key factors affecting manured pond dynamics
BOX 5.G Goat management level affects nutrients collectable for aquaculture
BOX 5.H Quantity of supplementary feed affects scavenging poultry wastes and fish production
BOX 5.I Integration of duck and fish production in ricefields in the Philippines
BOX 5.J Impacts of supplementary feed quality on waste characteristics
BOX 5.K Summary of factors affecting livestock waste characteristics
BOX 5.L Pornsak's duck slaughterhouse in Bang Lane, Central Thailand
BOX 5.M Surin's use of duck manure in Nakon Pathum, Thailand
BOX 5.N Factors affecting characteristics of livestock waste and its use for aquaculture
BOX 5.O Questions to ask during the design of livestock-fish systems
BOX 6.A Key points to reducing public health risks from pathogens in livestock-fish systems
BOX 6.B Safety issues as aquaculture stimulates changes in household pig production in Lao PDR
BOX 6.C Key points to reducing public health risk due to parasites and other biological and chemical agents
BOX 7.A Summary of key points relating to social and economic issues
BOX 7.B Building social assets
BOX 7.C Poor quality control hinders export of value-added fish products
BOX 7.D Summary of demand related issues
BOX 7.E Nutritional importance of fish
BOX 7.F Access and benefits from aquaculture
BOX 7.G Training women in aquaculture
BOX 7.H Intra-household relationships affect production and consumption
BOX 7.I Summary of key points relating to role of gender in integrated aquaculture
BOX 7.J Overcoming constraints to using livestock waste in Northeast Thailand
BOX 7.K Contrasting rice land holding, rice yield and pig production
BOX 7.L Hybrid maize enhances integrated approach
BOX 7.M Increasing the village pig herd in a village in Northeast Thailand-potential impacts on fish
production
BOX 7.N Summary of key resource issues
BOX 7.O Development of livestock-fish systems in Asia
List of Figures
Figure 1: The development of sustainable aquaculture systems involves consideration of production
technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects (Source: AIT, 1994).
Figure 2: Potential outcomes of livestock-fish integration
Figure 3: Main and secondary linkages in livestock-fish integration
Figure 4: Asset pentagons to analyse sustainable rural livelihoods
Figure 5: Evolutionary development of integrated farming systems
Figure 6: Classification of livestock production and relationship to value of livestock waste for aquaculture
Figure 7: Percentage of farms using various fertilizer and supplementary feed inputs for fish culture in
Central Thailand (a) manure (b) rice and grain products (c) waste food from human consumption
and agro-industry (d) animal by-products and animal feed (e) vegetable matter
Figure 8: Livestock present and integrated on fish farms in Central Thailand by type and number of livestock
Figure 9: Percentage yield by fish species in three areas of productivity in China
Figure 10: Comparison of possible strategies for using livestock production and processing wastes in
aquaculture
Figure 11: Percentage of farms in Central Thailand using various fertiliser and supplementary feed inputs for
fish culture (a) waste food from human consumption and agro-industry (b) animal by-products and
animal feed (c) vegetable matter
Figure 12: The two-way interaction between aquaculture and the environment involves numerous factors
that range from positive to negative in their impact
ix
Figure 13: Nutrient cycles for an agro-ecosystem involving crops, fish and livestock
Figure 14: Nutrient flows among village subsystems and between village and outside systems
Figure 15: Mean dissolved oxygen (DO) in mg I-1 at dawn for ponds receiving different levels of manure
loading. Error bars show standard deviation
Figure 16: Schematic depiction of changes in the natural food organisms and fish yields, in relation to
standing crop of the cultured organism and the ensuing protein needs of the supplemental feed (s)
Figure 17: Annual production of nitrogen in faeces and urine for various livestock
Figure 18: Goat production and total collectable nutrients in different management systems. 1= Stall feeding
with fodders and concentrate-wastes collected daily; 2=daytime tethered grazing and ricebran
supplement-wastes collected daily; 3=daytime tethered grazing and legume leaf supplement-
wastes collected daily; 4=daytime tethered only, wastes collected daily; 5=daytime tethered only,
wastes collected monthly
Figure 19: Egg laying rate of Khaki-Campbell x local strain fed two differents supplementary diets,
T1 unhulled paddy rice and T2 village rice bran
Figure 20: Dry matter (DM), total nitrogen (N) and total phosphorous (P) in wastes of ducks
Figure 21: Loss of total nitrogen in fresh egg-laying chicken manure with time
Figure 22: Rates of faecal coliform (grey line) and bacteriophage (blue line) die-off in septage loaded ponds
Figure 23: Schema showing main possible resource flows in conventional mixed farming and the alternative
use of livestock wastes in fish production
Figure 24: Annual distribution by crop of labour input into the dike-pond system, Zhujiang Delta, China
Figure 25: Schema of the major interactions between the various subsystems in a crop/ livestock-fish
integrated farming system
Figure 26: What factors stimulate feed or waste-based aquaculture?
Introduction
In this initial section we introduce the rationale environment, and if they are socially and
for the study and provide definitions of economically viable. Macro-level factors may also
integrated livestock-fish farming. We then have a significant influence and there are environ-
examine the current status and future mental implications, both on- and off-farm, for the
importance of livestock and fish production development of sustainable systems (Figure 1).
being integrated rather than being developed The current status of livestock-fish systems
further as specialized, separate activities. Their reflects their evolution in response to changing
sustainability and importance in a broader circumstances: the past history of current
context are then considered. systems is not generally appreciated; nor is their
future potential apparent.
The rationale for this study is to interpret
1.1 Asian, especially East and Southeast Asian
experience in integrated systems through
Rationale of the study analysis of their evolution and current status and
Livestock-fish production systems develop to to consider their relevance for livestock-fish
satisfy needs if they fit into the resource base or planning in Africa and Latin America.
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 1
FIGURE 1
The development of sustainable aquaculture systems involves consideration of
production technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects
Production
Technology
Productive
FIGURE 2
Potential outcomes of livestock-fish integration
Integration increases level of benefit Small declines for one component are
of one component and has a neutral compensated for the large increase in the other
effect on the other
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 3
waste-fed aquaculture in sub-tropical and products as livestock feeds, although currently
temperate zones where temperatures rise uncommon, holds promise and is reviewed.
seasonally has also been successful. Processing Other, more minor beneficial linkages between
wastes through organisms such as earthworms fish and livestock production include use of fish
and insect larvae that feed on them and culture water for drinking/bathing livestock and
concentrate nutrients to produce ‘live feeds’ is an cooling livestock housing. Nutrients contained in
alternative approach to raising fish needing high culture water and sediments may be used to
levels of dietary animal protein. Livestock produce arable crops for livestock. The viability of
processing can also provide a wide variety of these options depends on a variety of factors,
wastes that vary from dilute washing water to including the types of livestock and fish that can
high value meat and bloodmeal that can be used be raised profitably and the production systems
as high value fish feeds or feed ingredients. If used.
enough of these types of feeds are available, high
density and intensive production of carnivorous
fish species can be supported. Aquaculture may 1.4
also provide inputs and other benefits to livestock
production. A variety of aquatic plants e.g.
Relevance of integrated
duckweeds and the aquatic fern Azolla have farming
proven potential as livestock feeds; and The integration of fish and livestock production is
invertebrates such as snails and crustaceans can probably closer today, and more important than
be used for poultry feeds. ever before (FAO, 2000). On a global basis most
Our study focuses on the integration of fish cultured freshwater fish are produced in Asia in
and livestock. The use of cultured fish or fish semi-intensive systems that depend on fertilizer
FIGURE 3
Main and secondary linkages in livestock-fish integration (P = processing)
Feed
main flows
P secondary flows
Livestock P Human
Waste feed
Manure
abattoir
Drinking
Urine
Cooling
P waste
Water
P
Fish Human
Irrigation
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 5
thinking is required to analyse and describe there is overlap between them (Figure 4).
livelihoods with a focus on peoples’ relative Understanding trends in peoples’ assets over
strengths rather than ‘needs’. Building up assets time can indicate if positive or negative
is a core component of empowerment (Figure 4). developments are occurring, and if livelihoods
How the inclusion of intensified management of are deteriorating or improving. The approach
aquatic resources can support, or detract, from can be applied on a community, group or
this process is indicated in Table 1.1. household level to inform and guide the
People base their livelihoods on a range of development process. Knowing about the assets
assets in addition to financial capital that of different wealth and social groups in the same
include natural, human, physical and social community can allow better targeting of poorer
capital. A pentagon can represent these five people and monitoring of changes that occur.
types of asset or capital although in practice The impacts of shocks of various types, and how
assets are used to reduce vulnerability, are
important aspects of assessing livelihoods.
Forging links between ecosystem theory and
BOX 1.C
farming system analysis (Dalsgaard et al., 1995) can
Livelihoods defined be useful, provided that the results are placed
within a broader framework of sustainability
"A livelihood comprises the capabilities, issues. A range of different system attributes has
assets (including both material and been identified that provides measures of how
social resources) and activities required livestock and fish can improve sustainability of
for a means of living. A livelihood is farming systems (Table 1.2). As sub-systems with-
sustainable when it can cope with and in the wider farming system (Edwards et al., 1988),
recover from stresses and shocks and fish culture and livestock can improve nutrient
maintain or enhance its capabilities and recycling and concentration. This feature is
assets both now and in the future, important in both nutrient-rich, peri-urban systems
while not undermining the natural and nutrient-poor, rural situations (Little and
resource base". Edwards, 1999). Diversity, stability and capacity
Source: Carney (1998)
can all be enhanced through inclusion of livestock
FIGURE 4
Asset pentagon to analyse sustainable rural livelihoods
Financial capital
Source: Carney (1998)
and fish on farms, as can both economic efficiency (Kessler and Moolhuijzen, 1994). The
and the scope for future change or ‘evolvability’. productivity and stability of farming systems in
The greater ecological similarity of low Machakos, Kenya, improved considerably as
external input than intensive systems to natural incomes from off-farm employment were
ecosystems reduces adverse environmental reinvested in agro-forestry, livestock and
impacts (Kautsky et al., 1997). But very low input horticulture. Intensification of livestock and soil
systems, especially in nutrient-poor environ- management have also reduced land
ments, may not adequately support livelihoods, degradation in heavily populated parts of
driving poor people to ever more extractive and Uganda (Lindblade et al., 1998). Integration of
unsustainable practices off-farm. Small external livestock and fish at a community or watershed
nutrient injections may enhance performance or level may have more potential than household-
help to regenerate degraded agro-ecosystems level in some situations.
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 7
TABLE 1.2
How livestock and fish improve the sustainability of farming systems
Nutrient recycling Feeding crop byproducts such as ricebran and terrestrial and aquatic
plants to livestock increases recycling of nutrients within the farm. Pigs
are used particularly for this purpose in parts of China and SE Asia
Nutrient concentration Feeding off- and on-farm feeds can allow concentration of nutrients,
and act as a pathway for nutrients to be cost -effectively gathered or
harvested from common property. Ruminants are important for this
aspect of enhanced sustainability
Diversity Most small-holder farms manage a range of livestock that utilize the
variety of feed resources available. Important advantages include pest
control, recycling, manageability, economic reasons (risk aversion and
cash flow)
Capacity Livestock waste improves soil quality and fertility; grazing can improve
species richness and reduce soil erosion
Economic efficiency Livestock products are often the major source of cash in small-holder
systems. Having a variety of livestock types improves versatility with
respect to investment, cash flow and risk aversion
Nutrients from other sub-systems in the farm are retained in Use of livestock wastes in fishponds may be the most
fishpond sediments and water and can be used for crop practical way to reduce nutrient losses, especially N
production
Natural and stocked fish can harvest nutrients from common Overgrazing of common land by ruminants may lead to
property for direct human food or use in livestock diets deterioration, increased erosion and declining sustainability
of the surrounding watershed or ecosystem
Efficiency of polycultures within aquatic systems in exploiting Increasing diversity of livestock and fish may complement or
the range of aquatic niches. Control of livestock and human compete within the farming system. Whereas increased
pests with an aquatic phase within the life cycle amounts of monogastric waste are valuable for planktivorous
fish, grass carp and ruminants may compete for limited
amounts of grass
Maintenance of a water body necessary to raise fish Livestock can be a contributing factor to destabilization,
improves the stability of water availability for the whole especially through deforestation, overstocking and soil
farming system erosion
Increased water and nutrient holding improves productive Fertile ponds may not contaminate groundwater significantly
capacity around the pond. Sealing of pond traps nutrients but more research is needed
and prevents loss to ground water
Small individual size of fish often improves local Returns to labour are often attractive for livestock and fish
marketability. Polyculture and perennial water increases production, and integration is particularly favourable.
opportunities for strategic marketing Integration reduces market risk and improves flexibility
Aquaculture systems are generally recent and are evolving Concept coined by Pullin (1993) to describe the scope for
rapidly around resources and markets. The dominance of future change of any system
small-holder compared to commercial production, and
importance of aquaculture and fisheries as suppliers of fish,
are major issues with policy implications
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 9
1.5.2 MACRO-LEVEL farm, or even plot or pond level. One example of
how macro and micro-level sustainability issues
Sustainability viewed at a macro-level may can interact, and be affected by institutions, is the
include global, national, regional and watershed changing basis of pig and fish production in the
contexts. The expected dramatic increases in Red River Delta of Northern Viet Nam (Box 1.E).
global trade following recent WTO agreements Pig and poultry production using modern
are expected to have wide ranging impacts on systems have been challenged as unsustainable
the nature of food production and viability of in the long term on a global basis because of
farming systems. Agribusiness is positive about dependence on concentrates, which are based on
the effects such measures will have on non-renewable, fossil-fuels (Preston, 1990).
sustainability of food product (Box 1.D) but other Examples exist where modern systems, following
groups fear a rapid undermining of poorer ‘shocks’, have collapsed. These include oil
national economies and marginalization of small- exporting countries where oil price decline, and
holders with little market leverage. associated revenues made imported con-
Global trends in resource use for livestock and centrates and poultry production uneconomic.
fish production, trade and consumption are Cuba saw major disruption in its imported,
important for understanding constraints at the concentrate-based livestock industry as Soviet
Union support was withdrawn and favourable
terms of trade shifted. Even if concentrate feeds
BOX 1.D can be used economically, and the wastes
productively reused for aquaculture, there may
Agribusiness view on sustainability be inequities in the system that prove
unsustainable in the longer term. Thus, an
It is generally accepted that intensification of
analysis of current systems using sustainability
livestock and fish production is required as low
indicators can lead to the development of
production levels do not meet people’s needs.
relevant research agendas. Given its complexity,
The major issue is the level of intensification that
some advocate the use of consensus indicators of
can support overall sustainable development.
sustainability in aquaculture production (Caffey
The feed and pharmaceutical industries
and Kazmierczak, 1998).
make the following claims:
The need for alternatives to the narrow range
Aspects of intensification that support
of feed ingredients used in most concentrates
sustainable development:
has been identified as urgent, especially for the
intensive agriculture allows livelihoods to be
tropics where little research has been conducted
sustained through increased production to
so far (Preston, 1990). In China, the substitution of
satisfy needs, without the need to further
semi-intensive aquaculture integrated within
encroach on the natural environment with
farming systems by intensive, feedlot production
losses to biodiversity;
has been advocated on the grounds of improved
removal of political and trade barriers that productivity and reduced negative environ-
artificially support agriculture and lead to mental impacts (Box 1.F). The analysis, though
expensive surpluses: flawed, does identify a general tendency towards
high yield agriculture can protect the envi- intensification of aquaculture. This may have
ronment by reducing soil erosion e.g. use of particularly large impacts since intensive
minimum tillage, intensified ruminant pro- aquaculture is relatively more profligate than
duction can reduce greenhouse gases, and livestock in its use of feed resources and is more
without veterinary medicines, livestock in polluting. The major species raised intensively
Europe would need to increase from (salmonids and shrimp) are fed diets high in
between 25 percent to 89 percent to main- fishmeal (Naylor et al., 1999) and often have large
tain existing production levels. impacts on the local environment. Potentially the
intensification of semi-intensive culture of carps
In this region of historically high population developments may further undermine the
density, both traditional farming systems and the sustainability of the system by reducing the
‘green revolution’ have failed to sustain availability of pig manure for application to the
livelihoods alone. Sustainable central and local land:
level institutions have been critical to the Government policy change towards support
maintenance of irrigation and flood prevention for industrial pig production, leading to con-
structures essential to maintain productivity in centration of the national herd among fewer,
this area characterized by climatic perturbations1. larger producers, and
Government policy changes towards a market increase in aquaculture leading to a demand
system with increased availability of inorganic for more inputs, including pig manure.
fertilizers, livestock feeds and breeds and fish
Changes in demand are also occurring:
farming systems are highly productive, use many
market for more and leaner pork, increasing
external inputs and recycle intensively but recent
demand for balanced feeds i.e. concentrates
studies indicate that sustainability is threatened
and modern strains of pig, and
by a declining capacity as soils become acidic2.
Shortages of organic inputs, and excess inorganic increase in demand for tilapia3, which has
fertilization, may exacerbate these problems. become dominant in other parts of Asia
Traditional household pig production is valued for where commercial, feedlot livestock-fish
its role in asset accumulation and provision of occurs.
organic manure for field crops. Certain Source: 1Adger (1999); 2Patanothai (1996); 3Binh (1998)
an tilapias will have even greater impacts on the the need for water exchange in intensive
environment through raising demand for such systems.
feeds (Naylor et al., 1999). High input, export driven agriculture
Difficulties in maintaining feeds or disposing (agronomy, animal husbandry and aquaculture) is
of wastes will probably be only part of the more likely to be non-diverse (monoculture),
problem of sustaining intensive livestock and fish highly extractive and polluting (little recycling)
systems on a macro-level scale. Control of and unstable in the face of environmental
pathogens may prove a more important change. Moreover, its economic efficiency can be
constraint and pose greater threats to human drastically affected by the vagaries of global
populations (see 6.1.4). Densities of pigs exceed markets. Smaller livestock units spread more
9 000 animals km-2 in parts of Western Europe as evenly, based on local production of feeds and
economies of scale and demand for cheap pork disposal of wastes, are likely to improve the
favour intensified production close to sustainability of the livestock and associated
concentrated markets. The cost of disease farming systems.
epidemics such as classical swine fever, and the Intensification is important, however, to
difficulties in their control at such levels ensure that smaller scale systems are economi-
of density, are prompting a rethink and cally viable and sustainable. Improvements in
new legislation (MacKenzie, 1998). Similar productivity at the local level have also been
experiences are occurring with intensively shown to be important globally. Low productive
raised fish such as the Atlantic salmon and black ruminants have been implicated in the increase
tiger shrimp. Control of pathogens through in greenhouse gases, which could undermine
isolation is particularly problematic because of sustained food production worldwide (see 4.2.1).
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 11
BOX 1.F
FIGURE 5
Evolutionary development of integrated farming systems.
Shifting cultivation
Settled agriculture 2
Integrated crop/livestock
Settled agriculture 3
Industrial monoculture
SITE
Rural Peri-urban
FEEDING Grazing/
Scavenging Feedlot
SYSTEM
Semi-feedlot
ENVIRONMENT
Riceland Crop by
Grassland Tree crops Field crops Roughages Grains Concentrates
+ Wetlands products
LIVESTOCK
WASTE
VALUE
LOW HIGH
watered environments have had greater developing and developed countries. Industrial
productive potential and supported higher food production requires intensive applications of
human populations. Thus, well-endowed resources, particularly energy, nutrients and
floodplain agroecosystems in Asia have become water and is dependent on scientific knowledge.
the site of the most intensive traditional Farming operations spanning a wide range of
agricultural practices. Globalization of trade pre- intensity levels can be found increasingly within
dating the colonial era, industrialization and the same country although some doubt that
major changes in human medicine have coexistence of less intensive production systems
fundamentally de-linked food production and with industrial methods is possible over the long
human population densities. If the concept of term. Integration of livestock and fish, in which
agro-climatic population, or the population in one or both sub-systems does not become
terms of food production capacity is used, today entirely agro-industrially based, may better fit the
semi-arid zones are typically under much greater limited resource base of smallholders and im-
population pressure relative to land endowments prove environmental sustainability.
than humid areas (Binswanger and Pingali, 1988).
Although historically most of Africa has had little
pressure on land resources, by 2025 the majority
of the continent will comprise high-density
2.2
countries requiring highly productive agricultural
techniques.
Environmental effects
Accelerating urbanization has stimulated Environments have shaped cultures and dietary
demand for industrial food production in both norms and taboos that in turn explains current
BOX 2.A
interest in improving their performance. Parallel
development of intensive feedlot operations may
Disease constrains livestock
also reduce opportunities for small-scale pig and
production
poultry production (Little, 1995).
Widespread adoption of fish culture may not
have occurred within crop-dominated systems, Aquaculture is a recent development among
even when fish are valued and consumed. Stocks certain ethnic minorities, such as the Hmong in
of wild fish may remain at a level that satisfy rural upland areas of Indochina, for whom pig
peoples’ needs. Poorly developed on-farm water production is both traditional and important.
storage, or a lack of seed or knowledge may also Under current conditions disease is a greater
constraint to expansion of pig production than
constrain adoption. Traditional aquaculture in the
feed availability; more arrowroot or cassava can
valleys of upland areas of Indochina and Southern
be grown, or vegetables and banana stems cut
China, where population densities are high and
from the forest, if supplies of maize are limited.
wild fish stocks are very limited, suggest that
Pig wastes are used extensively, with
aquaculture can evolve under these conditions,
wastewater directed towards opium-poppy
but that linkages between livestock and fish were growing plots, but the siting of pens over fish
relatively weak. Intensification of fish production ponds has been adopted by some households.
based on animal manures would be constrained Source: Oparaocha (1997)
by the limited numbers of livestock and
(a)
Percentage of farms
20
10
60
(b)
50
Percentage of farms
40
30
20
10
Broken rice Rice bran Milled rice Paddy Maize Cassava Flour
40
(c)
30
Percentage of farms
20
10
40
(d)
30
Percentage of farms
20
10
30
20
10
difficulties in collection and use of their waste. feeding of turnips to livestock during the winter
Livestock diseases also constrain inventories of and the rotation of cereal crops with legumes
livestock in many instances (Box 2.A) such as clover. More inputs such as nightsoil
from urban centres, followed by inorganic
fertilizers and feed concentrates, increased
livestock densities and soil fertility.
2.4 Integration of fish culture into farming
systems has developed in areas where ponds
Integrated crop/livestock were essential to diversification of rice-dominant
The integration of livestock with crops, or mixed systems and livestock were relatively few and
farming, is the major characteristic of settled feed limited. This has occurred in flood-prone
agriculture phase II. Livestock fed arable crops areas, often where rice yields were low (Ruddle
and improved pasture produced on the farm is and Zhong, 1988) and land was raised to make
the main focus. Crops are intimately integrated dikes for planting perennial or upland crops.
with livestock as manures are used to maintain Increasingly, buildings and roads are constructed
soil fertility together with N fixing legumes. on raised dikes and fill is obtained from borrow
Much of the farming in Western Europe and pits. The ponds excavated often serve primarily
Eastern USA was of this type between 1850-1945. for storing water on-farm. Expansion of on-farm
However, the recent increased control of nutrient reservoirs (OFRs) has also expanded in areas in
effluents has begun to favour this form of farming which drought otherwise constrained any inten-
again over industrial monoculture. sification of cropping.
The origins of mixed farming lie in increased Analysis of traditional integration of fish
demand for livestock products from urban production within the highly diversified farms in
centres. Various methods were adopted to the Zhujiang Delta, Southern China, indicates
increase livestock such as production and that wastes from livestock (pigs, silkworms) and