Broodstock Management

Introduction

Captured fisheries (wild) production has leveled off and is no longer considered capable of
sustaining the supply of fisheries products needed to meet growing global demand of fish. Since
captured fisheries have become static since 1980’s, aquaculture has been responsible for the
growth in fish supply for human consumption (FAO 2014). Global fish production from
aquaculture currently stands at 76.6 million tonnes representing 45% of the total fish
production (FAO 2017). Aquaculture plays a leading role in the fight against food insecurity,
malnutrition and poverty globally (Golden et al 2017). However, the growth of aquaculture has
been hindered by numerous challenges including; inadequate supply of quality fish seed and
feeds (Little 2004), non-availability of working business and marketing models and inadequate
local technical capacity in fish production (Hishamunda et al 2014).

Aquaculture production in Nigeria has grown over time since 1950s with the main cultured
species being African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) (75%) and Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) (15%)
(Ngugi and Manyala 2004). The production escalated from 4,000MT in 2007 to 24,096 MT in
2014 due to government support through the Economic Stimulus Program- Fish Farming
Enterprise Productivity Program (ESP-FFEPP) initiated in 2009 with an aim to commercialize fish
farming (SDF 2016). However, production reduced to 18,656 MT in 2015 and further to 14, 952
MT in 2016 (KNBS 2017). The drop in production was attributed to poor soil water retention
capacities, poor extension services, expensive quality feed, inadequate supply of quality fish
seed and changes in governance that meant reduced focus on aquaculture by several county
governments (SDF 2016). The decrease in production notwithstanding, aquaculture is one of
Nigeria’s vision 2030 flagship projects, thus the sector is expected to grow with private
investors putting more capital in fish farming and hatchery business (Nyonje et al 2011).

Quality seed production and broodstock management is an important aspect that should be
considered for effective utilization and management of fish genetic resources. Collection of
fingerlings from the wild is unreliable due to seasonality, variability in sizes and quality,
possibility of entry of diseases, and difficulty in determining the age of the fingerlings (Charo-
Karisa et al 2011). Reliance on government hatcheries for provision of fingerlings most of the
time is unsustainable due to poor infrastructure, use of poor quality broodstock and impure
strains, inadequate funding and unnecessary bureaucracy leading to difficulty in effective
quality control (Charo-Karisa et al 2012). The poor structures in seed production have led to
farmers stocking fry and fingerlings whose quality cannot be ascertained.

The recent rapid growth of aquaculture in Nigeria has called for high demand of quality fish
seed for the commonly cultured species; African catfish to meet the rising demand for
production of table size fish as well as broodstock for development of seed for new species.
Increase in the number of hatcheries calls for proper broodstock management and quality
control to ensure production of quality seed since fish farmers view fast growth rate and good
survival rates as most important traits of a good quality fish seed. The problems of quality seed
in aquaculture has been reported to be as a result of lack of genetic management and poor
hatchery procedures which has resulted to degradation of the performance of many farmed
species through inbreeding, genetic drift and uncontrolled hybridization (Bostock et al 2010).
There exist a gap in knowledge of the fish hatcheries operations in Kenya and scanty
information exist on broodstock management and fingerling production for freshwater fish in
Kenya. This study examines the status of fresh water fish hatcheries, fingerling production and
the issues that need to be addressed in production of quality fish seed. This knowledge is
required in strengthening breeding programs and establishment of fish breeding and seed
production structure that will ensure quality seed production in Kenya.

Result

Majority of the fish hatcheries in Nigeria were owned by private farmers; the government
owning the smallest share of the hatcheries in the country. Private hatcheries were either
owned by groups of like-minded persons or individually.

Hatchery Equipment and Facilities

Seine nets

Scoop nets and perforators

Packaging bags

Aerator

Screens for inlets/outlets

Hapa nets

Weighing balance

Incubation facilities

Water holding facilities

Graders

Status of Broodstock Strains and Management in Freshwater Hatcheries

The rearing practice common in the hatcheries for O. niloticus broodfish was stocking ponds at
a density of 2-3 fish m -2. The health of the broodfish was assured by adequate feeding with
quality feed prepared by the hatcheries for a sufficient time prior to spawning. The practice in
most hatcheries was the separation of the male and the female fish for two to four weeks to
increase chances of mating when paired. The males and females were placed in separate ponds
or hapas depending on the preference of the farmer; some farmers kept the fish together due
to space constraints or inadequate facilities.

Fingerling Production Technologies

The hatcheries that produced C. gariepinus fingerling used artificial propagation and reared fry
in nursery ponds and tanks. Shell free/decapsulated artemia was used by all the hatcheries for
the first feeding of fry before weaning to dry starter diets of 40-50% Crude Protein. The
hatcheries graded the catfish fry once a week for the first month of rearing and fortnightly after
weaning with dry feed. The survival of the African catfish fry and fingerlings ranged between
40-60% in all the hatcheries.

Discussion

The growth of aquaculture in Kenya led to a steady increase in the hatchery establishment from
2009 to 2014. In 2009, only 21 hatcheries producing either C. gariepinus or O.
niloticus fingerlings existed (Charo-Karisa et al 2009). The demand for fish seed led to
investment in seed production by private fish farmers. In line with the world’s trend of private
investors having the biggest share in aquaculture e.g. carps and trout, the ownership of
hatcheries in Kenya followed a similar trend with other parts of the world where majority of the
hatcheries were privately owned. The hatchery ownership pattern in Kenya is similar to the
hatchery ownership pattern reported by Faruk et al (2012) in leading aquaculture producing
countries such as Bangladesh where 88.7% of hatcheries were private. The participation of
private sector in seed production is an indication of positive development towards sustainable
seed production in Kenya (Orina et al 2014). Additionally, the present study established that
the governments owned hatcheries were operated by government institutions including State
Department for Fisheries and the Blue Economy (SDF&BE), Kenya Marine and Fisheries
Research Institute (KMFRI) and Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA). The involvement of
these three institutions in seed production follow their individual mandates including
sustainable management and development of Kenyan fishery resources, undertaking
aquaculture research on fish of both freshwater and marine origin and implementing
sustainable development projects at the largest Lake basin in Kenya (Lake Victoria basin) for
SDF&BE, KMFRI and LBDA respectively. Most of the government farms culture C.
gariepinus and O. niloticus as both species are considered the most suitable freshwater species
for aquaculture in tropical and subtropical areas (El-Sayed 2002; Adewolu et al 2008). A similar
scenario was reported in Uganda with government owning up to 95% of fish hatcheries until
2007 when private farmers started producing more fingerlings than the government owned
farms (Mwanja 2007). Ponds are the most commonly used facilities for production of fingerlings
in Kenya. Machena and Moehl (2001) reported that the use of ponds in seed production is a
widely practiced culture system in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Fresh water fish hatcheries in Kenya are required by the government to have facilities such as a
adequate ponds, water reservoirs, resting tanks, breeding tanks, weighing balance, incubators
for hatching eggs, scoop nets, oxygen supply and fish packaging materials (Charo-Karisa et
al 2012). The water reservoirs can either be plastic tanks, cemented tanks or consist of lined
ponds from which the water is either pumped into breeding ponds or supplied from a tower to
the breeding pond and the incubation units. The current status of hatchery facilities in Kenya
can be compared to hatcheries in countries with higher aquaculture production like Vietnam
(Phan et al 2010). This result underscores further, the existing ability of the hatcheries in the
country to engage in intensive seed production.

The government recommends that hatcheries in Kenya keep broodfish for 3 years before
bringing in a new stock. This is to ensure high fingerling production since females older than 3
years spawn less frequently (Bhugel, 2000). The broodfish of both O. niloticus and C.
gariepinus were obtained from other hatcheries or collected from the wild and the fish that
adjusted to the hatchery environment and perform well became the brooders for the next
generation and each new generation become even more adapted to the environment (Osure
and Phelps 2006). The broodfish of O. niloticus were stocked in broodstock ponds at the rate of
2-3 fish m-2. Most of the farms had the male to female ratio of their fish at 1:1. Nevertheless,
the sex ratio of 1:1 of the fish in the hatcheries indicated low fingerling production per female
fish during breeding and is contrary to the recommended ratios of at least a male to female
ratio of 1:2 (Bhugel 2000). The findings of the study further indicate that the mating ratios of  O.
niloticus were falling short of the widely acceptable male to female sex ratio of 1:3 (FAO 1980).
The recommended ratio is as a result of the low fecundity and variability in the reproduction
capacity of the mouth-brooding O. niloticus which requires proper optimization of factors that
affect seed production. According to Siddiqui and Al-Harbi (1997) and Ridha and Cruz (1999)
studies in sex ratio management can improve spawning synchrony in O. niloticus broodstock
hence boosting production.

The health of the broodfish is assured by adequate feeding with quality feed prepared by the
hatcheries for a sufficient time prior to spawning. The practice in most hatcheries was the
separation of the male and the female fish. The males and females were placed in separate
ponds depending on the preference of the farmer; some farmers kept the fish together due to
space constraints or inadequate facilities. The female O. niloticus broodfish were smaller in size
(<203g) than the male broodfish (>300g). This could be attributed to the fact that O.
niloticus females mature earlier at smaller sizes and produces smaller eggs but relatively more
eggs than a larger fish per unit body weight (Bhugel 2000). In order to produce all-male tilapia,
fry were fed immediately after yolk sac absorption on a hormone (17α-methyl testosterone)
treated feed for 4 weeks at a dose of 60 mg kg -1 feed (Phelps and Popma 2000). All male tilapia
were generally preferred since they grow faster than females and this reduces the problems of
prolific breeding of tilapia in ponds (Ngugi et al 2007). The catfish broodstock ranged between
600g-2kg which indicated better fecundity for catfish producing hatcheries. However, the
survival of catfish fingerlings was lower and ranged between 40-60%. The lower survival could
be attributed to cannibalism which was experienced in most of the hatcheries as a result of low
grading frequency of the fry and fingerlings. The hatcheries graded the fry and fingerlings once
in week or fortnightly leading to cannibalism amongst the fry and fingerlings. Baras and Jobling
(2002) indicated that routine grading has been used effectively to reduce intracohort
cannibalism rates in larviculture of Dorada (Brycon moorei) and Catfishes (C. funcus and C.
gariepinus. Inadequate grading could have result to heterogeneity in sizes of the C.
gariepinus fry and fingerling leading to cannibalism hence low survival.

Measures to maintain quality seed production

To maintain quality of fish seed, the government established a system of authentication in

which no hatchery would operate without the government ascertaining the quality of
broodstock, the seed produced and availability of necessary facilities and skills. The steps
followed by the system are not very far from the approach that has been followed by other
major aquaculture producing countries like China. Similarities are observed on how, the
government responded to seed quality problems by encouraging investment in hatcheries by
the private sector; instituting seed quality control policy measures to improve seed quality
management; including the establishment of fish seed certification methods and standards; and
encouraging and supporting the production and distribution of quality seed (Helfand and Levine
2004). These management strategies were aimed at maintaining the quality of broodfish and
seed because poor management had led to deterioration in quality of broodstock and seed
overtime. Therefore, a training program for hatchery managers was initiated at the NARDTC,
Sagana in 2009 where all hatchery managers were trained on the necessary skills in hatchery
operations. A seed certification and accreditation system was developed so that farmers
purchasing seed from government endorsed hatcheries could trust the product. The
authentication of hatchery is undertaken by the State Department for Fisheries and the Blue
Economy in collaboration with KMFRI. One of the requirements for a hatchery in Kenya is that
the manager should have attended a course in aquaculture and preferably should have
attended a relevant diploma or a degree course. The study noted that 23% of the hatchery
managers had degrees and 11% had diploma certificates of education, an indicator that
hatchery management were likely to become more professionalized and are able to adopt
technologies, leading to higher production of quality seed.

Hatchery authentication

Hatchery authentication is an exercise which is frequently carried out to ascertain the quality of
seed produced by both the private and public hatcheries. This was instituted by the
Aquaculture Economic Stimulus Programme in 2009 as a way to ensure quality of fingerlings
reached the farmers. It includes the evaluation of the production capacity, production levels
and the practices used in the fish farm for seed production. The qualified hatcheries are
enlisted to ensure only quality fingerlings are sold to fish farmers in Kenya. Fish farmers are
then advised to buy fingerlings from the government accredited hatcheries only.
Hatchery authentication criteria

The hatchery authentication criteria in Kenya involves sampling and verifying the quality of the
broodstock, fingerling produced, infrastructure and equipment required for fingerling
production in the hatcheries. From the year 2009, hatchery authentication has been carried out
in all the fish farms intending to venture into seed production. During the exercise, data
collection from the farms is done by administering a questionnaire, interviewing famers and
filling in the information in the already designed questionnaire. Physical observation of the
management of the culture facility, verification and evidence of the existence of the expected
structures for the fish seed producers are checked. Relevant details of the farm including the
name of the farmer, ownership of the farm, and the number of culture facilities in every farm
are recorded and various categories such as breeding, grow out and nursery facilities present
are also established. Sampling of broodstock as well as fingerlings is done by taking a
representative sample from the culture facility. The fingerlings are examined for any infection
or deformity. A minimum of thirty fish are taken from the breeding facilities to determine their
sex, length and weight. Quality and purity of the broodstock are also established and the
broodfish examined for deformities, diseases and fungal infections. Farmers are also
interviewed to get the information concerning the farm.

Development of the seed standard

Seed standards were developed to guide both the farmers and hatcheries on seed quality. Seed
production and availability increased as a result of adoption of improved seed production
practices by the private sector. The standards were developed by KMFRI in collaboration with
the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) and State Department for Fisheries and the Blue
Economy. The standards developed are to be ratified by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) in
order to be utilized by hatchery operators and farmers. Other measures to ensure quality is the
development of guidelines to be used by the hatchery operators. Two guidelines have been
developed including good aquaculture practices for seed production in Kenya and the
guidelines for fish business operators. Sensitizing farmers on their content will help the
hatchery operators to produce the high quality fish seeds required by the farmers.

Fish seed development

The seed development in Kenya is being done at the National Aquaculture Research
Development and training Centre (NARDTC) through selective breeding and strain
improvement. The selective breeding targeted Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) and African Catfish (C.
gariepinus ). Proper selective breeding program for Nile tilapia was initiated in Sagana in 2011
and was aimed at improving the quantity and quality of fish seed and market size Nile tilapia
fish targeting fast growth and high survival traits. The ongoing Nile tilapia breeding program at
KMFRI Sagana is currently on the F7 generation. The selective breeding program found
considerable effect of genotype by environment for harvest weight, growth rate and shape
between monosex and mixed sex monosex and mixed tilapia (Omasaki et al 2016). An active
selection for particular traits, commonly growth and survival, is associated with domestication
and genotype-environmental interactions where one strain may perform best in one
environment (Osure and Phelps 2006). The program need to be up-scaled and supported to
supply the broodstock to multiplication centers across the country.

The survey indicated that different strains of C. gariepinus exist in Kenya both from within and
from imported strains, these include; Indonesian, Dutch and several local strains including the
Lake Victoria and River Ewaso Nyiro strain (Opiyo et al 2017). It has been established that the
development and effective use of genetically improved strains is one of the most powerful
technologies to achieve the fast growing strain of catfish for aquaculture development (Ponzoni
and Nguyen 2008; Opiyo et al 2017). A study conducted at NARDTC indicates that Indonesian
strain performed better than the Dutch and the Kenyan strain in growth performance and
survival (Opiyo et al 2017). Nevertheless, genetic characterization of the different strains is
required to identify the genetic difference that exists in the three strains and measures need to
be taken to ensure the long-term viability of the strain.

Challenges in broodstock management and seed production

1. Lack of structural framework for the operationalization of the breeding nuclei by the
government after devolution system of governance.

2. Inconsistent monitoring and evaluation of the existing hatcheries to ensure quality seed
production.

3. Inadequate research funds to ascertain the quality of different strains of fish under
aquaculture.

4. Lack of adequate training of hatchery operators to ensure adoption of new technologies

and knowledge enhancement.

5. Low supply of hatchery inputs and equipment especially quality larval feeds and
unavailability of hatchery equipment locally.

6. Inadequate rearing facilities for selection and rearing of broodstock to reduce

inbreeding problems.

7. Inadequate record keeping by the small-scale farmer-operated hatcheries.

Future prospects and recommendation in broodstock management

1. Harmonization of technical standards and guidelines for the hatchery production. It is

important that such technical standards be developed, standardized, validated and
harmonized with the international standards.

2. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of accredited hatcheries at different production

scales to ensure production of high quality seed.
 3. Strengthening of research partnerships with hatchery and nursery operators to improve
quality broodstock and produce quality fingerlings.

4. Preparation of a directory of hatchery operators practicing best management practices

for ease in availability of services to other farmers/hatcheries and for development
programs.

5. Use of pure quality stocks which can be obtained from certified hatcheries and breeding
centres.

Conclusion and recommendation

 From the results of this study, it’s recommended that a system of dissemination of the
improved and quality broodstock should be established through broodstock
multiplication centers connected to the breeding nucleus as a necessity for the
production of quality broodstock required by the hatcheries.

 Having the biggest percentage of ownership (>80%) of hatcheries in private hands

require elaborate monitoring plan to regularly monitor the performance of these
hatcheries and evaluation of the seed produced. The demand for male tilapia fingerlings
by most grow out farmers is exerting pressure on hatcheries to produce the superior
breeds.

 Ability of male tilapia fingerlings to attain the table size at the shortest time possible is
viewed by many farmers as a way to optimize production and reduce cost of production.

 The accreditation of the hatcheries needs to be embedded in the fisheries regulations of

Kenya so that the fish seed quality assurance is easily implemented.

 For successful breeding programs, training of quantitative geneticists is required for

continuation of the fish breeding programs.

 Measures need to be put in place by the national government to ensure quality

requirements for fish seed are adhered to in order to meet the demand of the farmers.