AQUACULTURE and BIOTECHNOLOGY
AQUACULTURE and BIOTECHNOLOGY
AQUACULTURE and BIOTECHNOLOGY
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Latife Ceyda İRKİN
AQUACULTURE and
BIOTECHNOLOGY
ISBN: 978-605-70345-0-2
Cover Design: İbrahim KAYA
February / 2021
Ankara / Turkey
Size = 16x24 cm
AQUACULTURE and BI OTECH N OLOG Y |1
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................7
2. AQUACULTURE ...........................................................................9
3. HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE ...............................................12
4. THE ROLE OF AQUACULTURE IN THE WORLD
ECONOMY........................................................................................15
5. AQUACULTURE IN TURKEY .................................................18
6. MAIN SPECIES CULTIVATED IN AQUACULTURE ..........23
5.1. Carp [Cyprinus carpio, Linnaeus, 1758] ..................................23
5.2. Clam [Ruditapes decussatus, Linnaeus, 1758/ Ruditapes
philippinarum, Adams & Reeve, 1850]...........................................25
5.3. Mussels [Mytilus edulis, Linnaeus, 1758/ Mytilus
galloprovincialis, Lamarck, 1819] ..................................................29
5.4. Oyster [Ostrea edulis, Linnaeus, 1758/ Crassostrea gigas,
Thunberg, 1793] ..............................................................................31
5.5. Atlantic salmon [Salmo salar, Linnaeus, 1758] .......................34
5.6. Seabass [Dicentrarchus labrax, Linnaeus, 1758] .....................35
5.7. Sea bream [Sparus aurata, Linnaeus, 1758] ............................37
5.8. Sturgeon [Acipenser baerii, J. F. Brandt, 1869] .......................39
5.9. Trout [Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum, 1792] .......................41
5.10. Turbot [Psetta maxima, Linnaeus, 1758] ...............................43
7. ECONOMIC PROFITS OF AQUACULTURE ........................45
8. THE FUTURE OF AQUACULTURE .......................................48
9. BIOTECHNOLOGY ....................................................................51
10. BIOTECHONOLGY IN THE WORLD AND IN TURKEY ..55
11. USES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AQUACULTURE ...........59
11.1. Sex control ..............................................................................63
2|La tife C eyda İRKİN
FIGURES
PREFACE
Benefiting from the latest scientific studies with educated human resources,
following international developments closely and benefiting from advanced
technologies of many countries are the basis of the rapid development of
aquaculture in the world.
In the light of these requirements, it was decided to prepare this book in order
to contribute to the literature. During my studies, I owe my endless thanks to
my friends Dr. Şamil ÖZTÜRK and Lecturer İlhan ÖZDEMİR, my family,
who confronted all difficulties with me, who believed and supported me
unconditionally in every moment of my life.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. AQUACULTURE
the nature and then to be caught by taking advantage of their instinctive return.
This situation is called as culture origin fishery [6].
In areas where regional conditions prevail, the diversity of fish farms varies
extensively. This situation can be organized to require extensive, mesocosmic
and intensive cultivation and their subcultures. Fish farming in industrial
countries with a developed market economy is affected by some or all of the
following. Use of suitable units at every stage of production. High stocking
amount in order to obtain the product to be put on the market at the maximum
rate from the established volume or the production area used. Use of
scientifically formulated feed that can meet the nutritional needs of the species
in pellet form High level of automation usage in operations such as feeding,
grading and harvesting. Ensuring that the production is brought to the market
stage by using eggs obtained from rootstock.
6% of the protein used by the world population is met from fish consumption.
Total animal protein is obtained from fish at a rate of 24%. Despite the
12 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
3. HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE
The first farmed species is known as cold-water salmon. The first salmon
hatchery was established in Germany in 1741, and the breeding of this species
has increased with the developing culture systems since this date. The
situation indicated by the decrease in the fishing tonnages seen both in our
country and on a global scale is that the natural fish stocks in our country and
the seas of the world have decreased considerably. Considering the
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 13
importance of fish in human nutrition and the increasing hidden protein deficit
in the world; The role and importance of fish produced in fish farms and
aquaculture at this point emerges [10].
The first records of aquaculture was seized in China in 2000 BC. However, in
recent excavations, there are documents showing that aquaculture was first
discovered by the Egyptians. BC In Ancient Egypt The figures showing
people taking tilapia [Tilapia sp.] Fish out of the pond around 2500 BC are
present in the tomb paintings, and fish drawings were found on the wall
decorations [Fig. 1]. Again BC. It is known that controlled oyster [Ostridea
sp.] Cultivation was practiced on the shores of Japan in 2000. Extensive
marine farms on the other hand, for the first time in BC. It emerged in the 6th
century. Species belonging to shellfish cultivation BC It was tested in Greece
in the 5th century. Studies of sea bass [Dicentrarchus labrax], sea bream
[Sparus aurata], mullet [Mugil sp.] And oyster [Crassostrea gigas] cultures
are found in ancient Rome BC. In 475, Fan Lai presented the first information
about carp [Cyprinidae sp.] Breeding. There are findings that the Greeks had
intensive studies on oyster culture in the 100's BC. At the same time, fish
farming is mentioned in the Bible. In the Roman period, aquaculture studies
on the coastal area emerged. These techniques form the basis of those
currently used in Italy. In the last periods of the Roman Empire, the traces of
aquaculture disappeared until the breeding of freshwater fish in central Europe
in the 12th century. In the middle ages, carp species stocked for consumption
throughout the year are encountered in the aquatic environment around castles
and monasteries. Firstly, the cultivated species depends on the salmon
[Salmonidae sp.] found in cold waters. The first salmon hatchery was
established in Germany in 1741 and the breeding of this species has increased
with the developing culture systems since that date [11].
14 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
The first practices of marine fish farming began in Indonesia around 1400.
During this period, milk fish [Chanos chanos] juveniles were stocked in
coastal ponds. It has continued for many years to raise this fish in the rivers
that are connected to the sea in Java island, without entering the environment.
Individuals consuming dense algae clusters formed in the aquatic environment
continued their development. Later, the fertilization of the ponds increased the
feed density in the environment and a new era began. In the following years,
modern fish farming was started as a result of external feeding efforts. Even
today, the methods applied years ago are still valid. In the 15th century, large-
scale extensive aquaculture [valliculture] studies can be found on the Adriatic
coasts. The religious ban on eating meat on Fridays has led to the development
of fish farming in European culture. In the 19th century, the crustacean culture
became up-to-date once again and spread in the western Mediterranean and
Adriatic. Developments in marine fish farming began with the introduction of
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 15
yellow tail [Seriola quinqueradiata] fish into breeding in Japan in the 1960s.
In the later period, coral [Pagrus major] and tuna [Thunnus thynnus] breeding
were discussed extensively. Modern aquaculture in fish and oysters began
some 30 years ago. Many Mediterranean countries have taken part in this
development. As of today, Northern Europe has made progress in salmon, and
in the 1980s, Mediterranean countries introduced sea bream and sea bass
farming to the economic system. Italy has become a leader in the market with
its traditional valiculture methods. Aquaculture has improved significantly in
many countries compared to the agricultural sector [12].
According to FAO data; Production through fishing in the seas peaked at 86.4
million tons in 1996, and showed a relatively stable course in the following
years. In recent years, the total production of marine and inland water fishing
has been around 90 million tons. Aquaculture production is continuously
increasing and shows the fastest growth among all food products production
16 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
[13]. World aquaculture production was 172.7 million tons in 2017; 92.5
million tons [53.6%] of this production was obtained from hunting and 80.1
million tons [46.4%] of it was obtained from aquaculture. While 80.6 million
tons of hunting production in 2017 was obtained from the sea and 11.9 million
tons from inland waters, 30.6 million tons of aquaculture production was
obtained from the sea and 49.5 million tons from inland waters [5]. China has
the largest amount of hunting production [16.6% in 2017], followed by
Indonesia, India, the United States of America [USA] and the Russia. Ten
countries, which hunt over two million tons, accounted for 56.8% of world
hunting production in 2017 [5]. FAO fisheries statistics contain data on more
than 1,680 marine species. However, 25 main species represent almost 42%
of the total fishing. More than half of these species are small pelagics whose
production fluctuates greatly due to environmental impacts [13].
In 2017, China [46.8 million tons], which is the country that grows most
aquatic products [excluding aquatic plants and non-food products], provided
58.4% of the world's total production alone. China respectively; India,
Indonesia, Vietnam and Bangladesh followed suit. The top ten producers
realized 88.9% of the world aquaculture production in 2017 [5]. In 2017, 53.4
million tons of world aquaculture production was fish [66.6%], 17.4 million
tons mollusks [21.7%], 8.4 million tons crustaceans [10.5%] and 0.9 million
tons is composed of other aquatic organisms [1.1%]. On the other hand, the
production of aquatic plants [mainly seaweed] reached 32.9 million tons in
2017, of which 31.8 million tons [96.6%] were obtained through cultivation.
It is stated that the number of people directly engaged in aquaculture business
worldwide is 158 million and the vast majority of them live in developing
countries. It is estimated that 38 million of this number work in aquaculture
and more than 120 million people live dependent on fishing activities [fishing,
processing, trade]. It is assumed that 56 million of those employed in fishing-
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 17
related jobs are women and mostly work in the processing sector and in small-
scale fisheries trade [14].
countries play an important role in these exports [Fig. 2]. The share of
developing countries in total fishery exports in 2016 is approximately 53% in
value and approximately 59% in quantity. The net export value of fisheries
products of developing countries increased from 17 billion USD in 1996 to 25
billion USD in 2006 and 37 billion USD in 2016. These figures are also
significantly higher than other agricultural products such as rice, coffee and
tea [13]. Salmon and trout have become the most important traded products in
terms of value since 2013 and accounted for approximately 18% of the total
value of fishery products subject to international trade in 2016. The other main
product groups of the exported species were shrimp species with
approximately 16%, demersal fish with 10% [eg cod, haddock, etc.] and tuna
with 9%. China is far ahead in both sides of foreign trade [13].
5. AQUACULTURE IN TURKEY
Seas around Turkey is part of the Mediterranean water system. But these seas
differ from each other in terms of ecological, geographic, geomorphological
and meteorological features. The difference between the Black Sea and the
Mediterranean is more pronounced. This situation is reflected in species
diversity and abundance when evaluated in terms of fisheries. Turkey's annual
aquaculture production varies according to the year due to the fluctuations in
fishery production, water resources between the years 2010-2018 between the
years 537-704 thousand tons of aquatic products were produced. Similar to
world production; Turkey's aquaculture continues to increase aquaculture
production and increases the share of the total production culture. The
aquaculture production in Turkey stood at 628 631 tonnes in 2018, 35.3% of
the marine fish production, the 9.9% other seafood, constituted 4.8% of inland
fisheries and aquaculture products 50%. While the production made by
hunting was 314,094 tons, the aquaculture production was 314,537 tons [15].
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 19
The fluctuation in aquaculture from year to year is due to the change in the
fishing of migratory marine fish such as anchovy, sprat and bonito, which
constitute the vast majority of fishing. The fishing of these fish depends on
many environmental factors such as the biology of the fish and the water
temperature, and the amount of catching varies from year to year. The
important bottom fish in hunting; haddock, red mullet and turbot fish.
Demersal fish production is much less compared to pelagic fish [15]. The
production of crustaceans and mollusks is also important in seafood fishing,
which is mainly composed of marine fish. In 2018, 21.8% of the total seafood
fishing production was made up of the other seafood group other than fish.
The species with the highest production amount in this group are white sand
mussels and sea snails, both of which are caught in the Black Sea. Most
hunting is done anchovies in Turkey, sprat, bonito, mackerel, whiting, all in
some kind of white clams and sea snails production, some in fishing in the
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 21
Black Sea when it is taken into consideration that fished in the Black Sea, the
majority seems to have a very important place. In the period after 2000, 70-
80% of the total seafood fishing was provided from the Black Sea. Most of
the anchovies and sea snails are caught in the Eastern Black Sea, almost all of
the sprat are caught in the Sinop-Samsun region in the Eastern Black Sea, and
the whole of the white sand mussels in the Western Black Sea. Particularly
depending on the anchovy and sprat production amount, 57% of the amount
of fish caught in the seas in 2017 and 37% in 2018 was obtained from the
Eastern Black Sea. The share of the Western Black Sea in the production of
other seafood other than fish was 73% in 2017 and 77% in 2018 with the effect
of the production of white sand mussels. The most caught species in inland
fisheries are pearl mullet and carp. While carp production has decreased in
recent years, there has been an increase in the production of silverfish and
especially the silvery crucian fish, which is an invasive species [15, 16].
While trout is the most grown species in inland waters, sea bass and sea bream
production stands out. Trout production increased after 2002 and reached 128
thousand tons in 2013. Trout production has been around 110 thousand in
recent years. Sea bream production increased slightly after 2002, after a steady
development period between 2005-2012, it increased again and reached the
level of 76.7 thousand in 2018. Sea bass production, which has been
increasing every year since 2002, was 116.9 thousand tons in 2018 [15].
Aegean Region provinces are seen to be prominent in aquaculture. 2018 year
of aquaculture production 69% was provided from the Aegean Region. The
provinces with the highest share in aquaculture production are respectively;
Muğla [36.6%], İzmir [23.9%], Aydın [6.5%] and Elâzığ [5.7%]. Sea bream
and sea bass production and therefore marine aquaculture, respectively;
Muğla, İzmir and Aydın are in the first place. In trout production and therefore
inland water farming, respectively; Muğla, Elâzığ and Tokat are in the first
places. The fisheries sector is one of the most important sectors in Turkey's
exports. Turkey's export value is increasing every year. Parallel to the
developments in aquaculture production and export of aquatic products
processing technology in Turkey is also seen a significant increase. In the
period after 2000, the increase in exports continued, and imports, on the other
hand, showed a partially fluctuating and partially stable course. In terms of
quantity, imports in 2010 (80.7 thousand tons) were considerably higher than
exports (55.1 thousand tons), while exports in the following years were always
higher than imports. Looking at recent years in terms of monetary value; it is
always seen that the export value is much higher than the import value.
Fisheries exports, which was 27 thousand tons in 2002, increased to 177
thousand tons in 2018, from 97 million dollars in value to 952 million dollars.
In the same period, the import of fisheries; While it was 23 thousand tons in
2002, it reached 98 thousand tons in 2018, and the monetary value of imports
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 23
increased from 19 million dollars to 189 million dollars. When the export-
import balance in 2018 is analyzed, it is seen that exports are 79 thousand tons
more than imports and 763 million dollars more in monetary value [TUIK,
2019]. The most important export items are the bluefin tuna fish, which are
caught with trout, sea bream and sea bass obtained through aquaculture, and
then reared in net cages and have high commercial value. Exports are made to
many countries of the world. In 2018, exports were to 81 countries, and 60%
of exports were to EU countries. The most exported countries are the
Netherlands, Italy and Russia [15].
C. carpio is a species originating from Asia and Eastern Europe. The Romans
consumed carp. Carp farming in Europe began in the Middle Ages. Carp is a
species that can easily adapt to breeding systems. It is a living thing with a
wide ecological spectrum that is tolerant of water quality and temperature. It
prefers slow flowing and still waters. It is an omnivorous species; feeds on
zooplankton and aquatic plants. The original species is known as "scaly carp"
with a large and regularly spaced array of scales [Fig. 4].
24 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
Carp is mostly reproduced in hatcheries. When the larvae hatch, they are taken
into shallow tanks rich in plankton. Initially, the amount of plankton,
vegetation, and benthic invertebrates of the pond is sufficient to feed. Then
the creatures are usually fed with coarse grain meal or feed mixes. In the
autumn the ponds are cleaned and the fish are moved to a deeper pond [winter
pond]. During the coldest times, their feed intake decreases considerably and
their activity decreases. The following spring, the carp are transferred to
summer pools. In the spring of their third year, carp are now taken into
marketing pools. It feeds on food from the natural habitat, but is supplemented
with grains [17].
Carp is harvested in the fall [before frost]. It is marketed according to its size.
Since the carp is usually sold before Christmas, it is kept in clean, fresh water
for several weeks. Thus, its taste is improved. At other times of the year, an
increasing amount of carp is harvested. A mature carp can weigh up to 30 kg
and measure up to one meter in length. However, the marketing size is 30 to
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 25
50 cm long and about 1,5 kg-3 kg in weight. These criteria last about three to
four years in European climatic conditions. Carp can be grown in monoculture
and polyculture [with other desserts such as pike, catfish or silver carp] also
integrated with agricultural activities. Pools where carp are raised are
important in increasing biodiversity, landscaping and flood protection. The
majority of carp production is provided from farming. 80% of the world's carp
production is obtained from China. Other producers are Indonesia, Vietnam,
EU, Russia, Bangladesh and Brazil. The largest producers in Europe are
Poland and the Czech Republic [18].
In Europe, the vast majority of both European and Japanese oyster seeds are
harvested from their natural habitat. In addition, thermal shock ovulation is
also produced in hatcheries where stimulation is performed by the addition of
sperm. After fertilized eggs are filtered through the net, they are kept in
different containers until they become larvae. Oysters feed on microalgae until
they undergo metamorphosis. European oysters can be grown in a control
feeding system with microalgae. Also, they can be grown in mesh tanks on
culture trays. In Italy, this species are mostly grown in wooden frame covered
with plastic mesh. In Ireland it is grown in net pocket on trays around low
spring tide areas. Oysters must be classified to ensure the size of species. The
aim is to prevent competition for food that will cause smaller clams to grow
more slowly. In order to grow European oysters, regular maintenance of the
substrate is required. Algae and predators [crabs and sea stars] should be
abolished and the substrate should get enough oxygen. It is essential to
maintain a proper oyster population. Japanese oysters are especially grown in
tidal areas protected from extreme conditions. But some oyster pools can be
used to produce oysters. Before fertilization, the area should be prepared and
cleaned in such a way that predators are away. Oysters are covered with a net
that helps protect them from predators. A seeder that plows the nets and sows
the seeds at the same time has been developed in Europe. Nets should be
cleaned regularly to protect organisms from contamination, siltation, and the
entry of predators. Depending on the habitat carrying capacity, oysters can
reach a size of about 40mm in about two or three years. Clam seeds are wild-
collected in Europe and Japan. In addition, seeds can be produced in hatcheries
where ovulation is stimulated by an increase in thermal temperature,
increasing the amount of sperm in the environment, or peeling. Fertilized eggs
are drained and kept in different pools until the larval stage. Clams are fed
with microalgae until they undergo metamorphosis. European oysters are
28 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
grown in nurseries with the help of a controlled feeding system with micro
algae. Another alternative mode of production is to grow in mesh containers
on culture tables. In Italy, Japanese oysters are grown underwater in wooden
frames covered with plastic mesh. Nurseries in Ireland consist of net bags on
coffee tables around the tidal parts [21].
China provides 98% of the clam production all over the world. Other
manufacturers are EU and Korea. It can be counted among the major
producers from Italy, Portugal, France and Spain in Europe. Production in
Italy is carried out in lagoons in the northeast Adriatic and in the Po river delta.
A controlled stock management regime is used here. Trade with Europe is
very limited, except for imports from South Korea to Spain and Portugal.
Small-scale intra-European trade is carried out from France and Italy to Spain
[22].
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 29
Mussel farming is the largest shellfish activity in Europe. The first farming is
in France in 13th century by planting with wooden piles. Farming started with
blue mussels [M. edulis] on the Atlantic coast, and continued with
Mediterranean mussels [M. galloprovincialis], which were grown on the
Atlantic coast and Black Sea in Spain in the following years. Two species are
widely found in natural habitats. Cultivation begins with the collection of
mussel seeds from the natural environment and placing them in selected rope
nets. Ropes are collected and transported to sheltered growing areas on the
shores between May and July. The most common cultivation methods in
Europe's coastal areas are:
Worldwide, 95% of aquaculture is mussel farming. China and Europe are the
largest mussel producers, others are Chile and New Zealand. Mussels are
produced locally in Europe. Chile and New Zealand supply mussels to Europe,
and frozen products used in the processing industry are supplied to Europe.
Intra-European trade is worth about half the demand in Europe. Exports are
made from Spain, the Netherlands and Denmark. The European mussel market
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 31
is divided into sections with various prices and market periods. Exports to
Europe are smaller, especially to Switzerland and Russia [13, 23].
Today, the indigenous flat oyster [O. edulis] culture is produced in limited
quantities in Europe. Exploitation and diseases have caused the species
became extinct. C. gigas, is native to Japan were carried to Europe in 1970
[Fig. 7]. Thanks to rapidly development and adaptation to various
environment, Pacific coated oysters are n the most grown species worldwide
nowadays, including Europe. Its population in nature began to increase in
northern Europe, causing pollution in coastal areas. Oysters are
hermaphroditic and they can change sex. First, a male individual is formed
and then they mature as a female. Reproduction occurs depending on the
temperature and salinity of the water. Before settling, the larvae are located in
the pelagic areas and are dispersed by currents. They then change
morphologically, assuming the juvenile forms of bivalves. Oysters feed by
filtering the water.
32 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
Production begins with the collection of oyster larvae from the natural
environment. Collectors placed at important points are used to collect the
larvae. When the larvae reach a few millimeters in length, they are removed
with collectors and ready to be grown. However, most larvae are obtained
from hatcheries. Sea-based facilities are established for this production. As the
water temperature rises, oysters begin to release their gametes. The larvae are
placed in a closed circuit tank system and fed with algae as food. When the
larvae are about to settle on a surface, solid substrates are placed in the tank.
The method of growing oysters depends on both environmental conditions
[tidal range, water depth, etc.] and traditional conditions. Oysters are produced
as a "bottom culture" on the Atlantic coast of France. Oysters are placed in
netted plastic bags found in coastal areas. The "bottom culture", which is made
by leaving oysters on the shore or under low water, is not used much today. In
Spain, unlike France, oysters are cultured with the "hanging culture", which
is the way they are grown on a rope. This method is more suitable for non-
tidal waters or open sea environments. Another method, 'deep water culture',
consists of embankments where oysters can be placed up to ten meters deep.
After approximately 18-30 months, oysters reach the desired size. Harvesting
method depends on the type of culture. Cultured species are harvested by
removing the bags with the help of tripods, except for the dip method. In
bottom culture, the grown species are harvested using rake or dredging [if
water level allows] when the tide is low. Worldwide, cultivation accounts for
97% of the total oyster production. China is the largest producer with 80% of
its total production, followed by Korea, Japan, the USA and Europe. Europe
is self-sufficient when it comes to oysters. Intra-Europe trade is very limited.
France has the largest market share in Europe [24, 25].
34 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
Atlantic salmon [S. salar] is found in rivers flowing to Europe's North Atlantic
coast. Anadrom is one of a kind. It spends the first few years in fresh waters
and migrates to fresh waters to breed. However, they mostly live in sea water
[Fig. 8]. Spawning takes place between October and January. The eggs are
released into gravel beds and fertilized. Fertilization takes place in oxygen-
rich waters. Most of the fish die after spawning. Larvae feed on their own
reserves for four to six weeks. Later, the larvae feed on insect larvae. The
babies, called "Parr", usually live in fresh water for an average of two to five
years between March and June until they adapt their physiology to sea water
and go through the smog process they migrate to the sea [26].
The hatching technique for Atlantic salmon was first applied to stockpiling in
the United Kingdom in the 19th century. However, in 1960, adult salmon
produced in floating cages was introduced to the market for the first time in
Norway. The first part of salmon farming takes place in freshwater.
Propagation of Atlantic salmon is under strict control. Eggs are taken from the
female individuals and fertilization takes place with the sperm taken from the
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 35
male individuals. Fertilized eggs are then placed in incubation tanks. The first
stage after fertilization takes four to six weeks until the larvae suck the egg
sac and become parr. The second stage is taken to parr fresh water tanks [or
floating cages in a lake] where the time required for smoltification is one to
two years. The fry are then placed in a floating cage and released to the sea.
The time required to reach market size [2-5 kg] is two years. Salmon are
carnivores. They are fed with fish meal and fish oil pellets. These feeds
contain additional ingredients such as vitamins, mineral salts and carotenoid
pigments. Worldwide, its culture accounts for two-thirds of the total salmon
production. 93% of the main species grown are Atlantic salmon. The main
producers of Atlantic salmon in 2009 were Norway, Chile, EU and Canada.
Only Atlantic salmon is grown in the EU. The EU imports 80% of the demand
from third world countries and 20% from Norway. Imports from China are
increasing day by day. Stuffed and frozen Norwegian salmon is produced in
China. The main importer countries of Norwegian salmon are Sweden and
Denmark. These two countries act solely based on central location and have
started to re-export especially to EU markets [France, England, Germany and
Poland]. This particular role of Sweden and Denmark explains why the value
of intra-EU trade is as important as the value of imports. Raw material from
Norway is processed and imported in Poland and Germany. This situation
contributes to intra-EU trade. The export price from EU to ABY is not
considerable [27].
European sea bass [D. labrax] is found throughout the Mediterranean, Black
Sea and North East Atlantic from Norway to Senegal. They can live in waters
up to 100 m depth, in estuaries and in brackish waters in coastal lagoons.
Young fish, especially seasonal migrations form flocks. This species feeds on
36 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
Sea bass is grown by traditional methods where fish are allowed to enter
lagoons. The entry point of the fish is closed after a certain period of time, as
in the "valliculture" used in Italy and "esteros" used in southern Spain, and the
fish are confined inside. Imprisoned creatures are fed naturally until they are
harvested. In the 1960s, Mediterranean researchers developed intensive
breeding methods involving complex incubation techniques. Running a
hatchery requires many technical and trained personnel. Hatcheries usually
operate independently and sell the larvae to the farms. The reproduction of sea
bass can be completely controlled at the facility. The fertilized eggs are
collected in the spawning tank, and the hatched larvae are placed in the
hatchery tanks. Then the larvae are placed in rearing tanks. After the larvae
feed on the sac residues from the eggs, they first feed on micro algae and
zooplankton, and a special food containing some artemia. Live feed can be
produced in the hatchery. Within a month or two, the larvae begin to get used
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 37
to the artificial feed and are now taken from their first food to the cutting tank.
Later, the fry are transferred to the feeding unit with pellets. They can be
transported to farms after two months. Mostly fish are grown in floating cages
[Mediterranean and Canary Islands]. In other farms, sea bass is produced in
tanks using a recirculation system that generally controls the water
temperature. Some facilities use traditional extensive and semi-intensive
methods. Sea bass can be harvested when it reaches a weight of 300-500 gram.
This situation may take a one or two year depending on the water temperature.
The main production method for D. labrax is aquaculture medium. More than
10% of the total sea bass production in the world consists of those grown in
culture medium. The EU is the largest producer of sea bass with 80% above
the second producer [Egypt]. Greece has the largest share in the EU, followed
by Spain. Very little export is outside the EU. The majority of imports from
third countries comes from Turkey. Importers from Turkey is Italy, Greece
and the Netherlands. In Italy, imports meet local demand. However, Greece
and the Netherlands prefer to export to other EU countries. Because intra-EU
trade is very important for economic balance. At this point, Greece has
assumed the role of the biggest exporter in Italy as the biggest importer. It is
followed by England, France, Spain and Portugal [18, 28].
Seabream [S. aurata] in culture is the only species grown in large quantities.
It is widely cultivated in the Mediterranean and is found in abundant herds
along the East Atlantic coast from England to the Canary Islands [Fig. 10]. It
takes its name from the characteristic golden line between its eyes. It can
survive under difficult conditions in the sea and up to the brackish waters of
coastal lagoons. It is generally found more on rocky or sandy ground. As an
exception, they can also be found in sea meadows. During the spawning period
38 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
hatch within 48 hours. After three to four days, the larvae consume the egg
sac and begin feeding. Before training, they are fed first with micro algae and
zooplankton, then with artemia and finally with high protein feeds. In coastal
lagoons, sea bream is often bred with mullet, sea bass and eel species. They
grow naturally in cages or semi-closed systems where natural food is
supplemented with feed. In intensive production systems, sea bream is fed
with commercial feed in tanks located on land or in sea cages where the
majority of its production is located [Mediterranean and Canary Islands].
Individuals who reach the market size after 18 months on average are made
ready for trade. Most of the sea bream fish are obtained from aquaculture. The
EU is the largest manufacturer in Turkey and is followed him. The largest
producer in the EU is Greece. Spain follows Greece. Trade between the EU
and third countries is very limited. On the other hand, intra-EU trade is
important. Greece is the largest exporter compared to Italy, Portugal, France
and Spain [31].
In the breeding of the Siberian sturgeon, females lay eggs throughout the year.
Therefore, by controlling the water temperature, eggs can be obtained from
December to May. Siberian sturgeon is raised in artificial channels, circular
tanks, pools or cages. They are carnivorous creatures. They feed on feeds
containing fish meal, fish oil and vegetable extracts. The average production
period of sturgeon is 14 months and it is produced with an average weight of
650-700 gram. Their harvest is done with nets. Caviar production of sturgeon
is quite costly. Because Females cannot produce eggs until they are seven
years old. During this period, they are grown in tannins containing fresh water.
In previous years, females were killed and their caviar was taken in this way.
However, in recent years, techniques have been used to get caviar without
killing the living creature. In this way, production becomes easier and the cost
is reduced. Global sturgeon farming is carried out at very low levels due to
stock depletion. Agricultural activities have outstripped fishing. Water
accounts for 85% of the total production in Chinese sturgeon farming [34].
Other producers are Russia and the EU. To obtain caviar to preserve Siberian
sturgeon stocks. This species is bred in Western Europe. Although statistics
on caviar production are not entirely accurate, The value of caviar in sturgeon
farming is over 80%. Italy and France are the main caviar producing countries.
Thanks to the developments in aquaculture EU gets significant income in
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 41
exporting caviar to third countries. Most of the intra-EU caviar trade is from
Italy to France, Germany and UK [33, 35].
There are many colored spots on the skin of rainbow trout [Oncorhynchus
mykiss]. It is one of the most important species grown in fresh water [Fig. 12].
It was brought to Europe from the Pacific coast of America at the end of the
19th century. Today it is grown in many EU countries. Rainbow trout is a
species that can withstand extreme conditions. It has a wide tolerance range.
It can be found in different habitats by making the transition from freshwater
to salt water. But their main habitat is lakes. Reproduction occurs at
temperatures below 21°C. Growth and maturation period varies according to
water temperature and feeding amount. Under normal conditions, trout mature
at the age of 3-4 years. They are carnivorous creatures. They should be fed
with foods rich in protein. They reach 350 grams within a year and their weight
reaches 3 kg at the end of two years [36].
Larvae have yolk sacs for feeding after hatching. They get their first food from
this pouch. The pouch is sucked once and the larvae get their energy from
there to swim to the surface in search of food. The fry must be fed with small
pellet feeds [special feed] containing protein, vitamins and fat. Feeding is done
manually to ensure a balanced diet early in the rearing. The fry are then fed
with small pellets until they reach 30 grams of weight. Young fish reaching
50 g and 8-10 cm in size are transported to rearing units, either to floating
cages in lakes or to tanks. These tanks, usually rectangular, are made of
concrete and operate in two techniques: flow path, in the form of an open
system through which river water flows from the units through a channel; or
with a closed system in the form of recirculation, providing water circulation
in the tanks and working with a recycling logic, or a partial recirculation
system. The biggest advantage of recirculation is that the water temperature
can be controlled throughout the year, thus limiting the waste going to the
environment. In addition, trout farming can be done in floating cages in the
sea, low salt waters of the Baltic and sheltered waters. In the Scandinavian
fjords, the west coast of Scotland, and in Ireland, trout farming in seawater is
done following a salmon-like diet. This explains why trout meat grown with
this system is pink in color. When the fish reach its commercial weight, trout
is collected by net and traded. In the year 2009 the main producers worldwide
EU, Chile, Norway was ranked as Turkey and Iran. Today, almost all rainbow
trout production in the EU market is provided by aquaculture. The vast
majority of EU trout needs are provided locally. The main producing countries
in Europe are Italy, France, Denmark, Germany and Spain. Turkey imports
mainly [freshwater portion size trout] and Norway [large sea water for trout
fillets] and are the main importers took place in Germany and Sweden. The
EU exports trout especially from Denmark to countries such as Russia and
Switzerland. In trade within the EU, this export is equal to half of the total
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 43
supply. Among the permanent countries of the market, Poland, Denmark and
Sweden are the main exporters; Germany and Finland are the main importers
[36].
Turbot [Psetta maxima] is a flat creature in terms of body shape with eyes
located on the upper part of its body. It is quite common on the Atlantic coast
of Europe, but less common in the Mediterranean [Fig. 13]. It is found at the
bottom of sandy and muddy waters, which can be from shallow sections to a
depth of 100 meters. It can imitate the ground color it is on very well. The
spawning period is from May to July in the Atlantic and from February to
April in the Mediterranean. At the end of about two months, with the increase
in development, the right eye shifts to the left. This species is a carnivorous
creature. Juveniles feed on mollusc and crustaceans. Adult individuals
consume smaller fish and cephalopods.
Turbot cultivation started in UK in the 1970s. And then France and Spain
started the cultivation. Although turbot is also grown in other EU countries,
Spain's Galicia region is the main producer. As with sea bream and sea bass
larvae, shield larvae are also produced in technological facilities that require
qualified personnel. Controlled breeding is carried out under disciplined
conditions. Rootstock individuals are kept in concrete tanks, at low density,
under certain light and temperature conditions, and are fed with specially
formulated moist feeds. These procedures make it easier to get eggs all year
round. Eggs are pelagic and are placed in incubation tanks in the time that
elapses until the larvadave hatches. Larvae are grown in semi-dense systems
[five larvae per liter] or dense systems [twenty to forty larvae per liter]. When
their mouth structure becomes clear, they begin to intake zooplankton and
artemia. Phytoplankton is also added to the tanks. Commercial artificial
feeding is performed at the end of the second month. Up to 4 months of age,
the offspring are fed with dry feed and weigh 5-10 grams. The juveniles are
then taken into larger tanks in size so that they can reach a weight of about
100 g for the pre-fattening period. The enlargement process is carried out in
circular or square-shaped tanks with a black background that can pump open
circuit seawater. The upper part of the tanks is partially covered to protect
living things from excessive sunlight. Individual density should be between
20-40 kg per square meter. To a small extent, this species can be produced in
recirculating aquaculture systems [RAS]. It takes about 26-30 months for the
fish to reach a commercial size of 1.5-2 kg [37].
The total production of marine and inland water fishing in the world has been
at a relatively stable level, around 90 million tons in recent years; however,
aquaculture production is constantly increasing. World aquaculture
production was 172.7 million tons in 2017; 92.5 million tons [53.6%] of this
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 47
production was obtained from hunting and 80.1 million tons [46.4%] from
aquaculture [5].
increase in the demand for food, especially for protein-based food, primarily
with the increase in the world population and also in per capita income.
Considering the projection of the population of 7 billion to reach 8 billion in
the next 20 years, it is inevitable that the demand for fisheries will increase.
There is a huge problem in the world of fisheries resources and their
management. Some of these are legal administrative control-supervision
problems, and some of them are problems arising from the inability to manage
the fishing fleet effectively. The increase in the digital and technological
capacity of the fishing fleet in developed and developing countries has brought
serious problems in the sharing of limited living resources and fishing
revenues. Fisheries authorities state that sustainable production is possible if
resources are managed in line with effective management plan. It is expected
that aquaculture production will continue to increase in the future and its share
in total production will increase. Aquaculture exports will continue to increase
in parallel with the developments in aquaculture production and processing
technologies. It is estimated that fishing production will be adversely affected
and hunting production will not increase further due to possible reasons such
as pollution of water resources, deterioration of habitats, increase in coastal
areas, climate change, hunting pressure and decrease in fisheries stocks. For
this reason, the basic principle of fisheries today is to continue the current
production. In order to benefit from aquaculture resources effectively in the
future, it is necessary to focus on measures to ensure the protection and
sustainable use of resources [Fig. 15] [39].
In the evaluations made by the FAO, it is stated that the sector with the most
development in the agriculture sector in the last 10 years is the fisheries sector.
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 51
Considering the main factors in the rapid increase in aquaculture, the increase
in the world population and the per capita income also increases the demand
for food, especially protein-based food. Considering the projection of the
population of 7 billion to reach 8 billion in the next 20 years, it is inevitable
that the demand for fisheries will increase. In the 2050s, in order to feed the
increasing world population sufficiently and in a balanced way, the world food
production It is stated by experts that it will need to be doubled [41].
9. BIOTECHNOLOGY
-Use of genetic products to treat and prevent various diseases such as cancer,
AIDS, leukemia, Mediterranean anemia,
At the same time, steps have been taken to develop antibiotics that fight
pathogens for human health.
Biotechnology is a biotech-based method that uses cellular and biomolecular
stages to produce technologies and products that help protect the quality of
life and the well-being of the planet. Microorganisms have been used for over
6,000 years to produce and preserve foodstuffs such as bread and cheese.
Modern biotechnology provides products and technological methods to
combat diseases, reduce our damage to nature, obtain nutrients, use sufficient
and clean energy, and have safer and more efficient industrial production
processes.
54 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
In order to improve our planet, biotechnology uses our genetic material and
the remedies inherent in nature to improve and guide our living conditions.
For this reason, reducing the amount of infectious diseases, increasing the life
expectancy of children, reducing serious life-threatening problems affecting
human health globally, developing individual treatments to minimize health
risks and negative effects of diseases, developing more sensitive methods to
diagnose diseases and It is the fight against serious diseases and daily threats
that emerge in parallel with today's technological developments. Microscopic
plant products are used to produce biocatalysts such as enzymes, yeasts and
other microbes using biological processes such as biotech, fermentation.
Biotech helps feed the world by:
Using biofuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reducing water use and
waste generation; and
On the other hand, the losses that may arise from biased opposition to modern
biotechnological applications and products that do not pose a risk should not
be ignored. Therefore, the benefits and known and foreseeable risks of modern
biotechnology should be explained to the public in a balanced and impartial
manner. The informed society will thus be able to consciously make its own
choice. On the other hand, it is possible for all parties interested in modern
biotechnology [especially producers, scientists and consumers] to unite in
middle grounds in a dialogue environment based on good intentions, unbiased
and honesty. The most basic requirement for this is that discussion platforms
based on accurate and complete information can be created. Although
biotechnology has been a frequently mentioned concept in documents related
to science and technology policies for the last thirty years in our country, a
national identity and concrete accumulation has not emerged in both basic
science and research and development [R&D] studies and industrial
applications related to biotechnology. In parallel with this, necessary legal
58 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
more productive individuals are obtained and the genes of the endangered
species are taken under protection [51].
species. However, the gonads account for most of the energy that all female
populations receive during sexual maturation. Its spending on development
leads to a reduction in meat yield. Individuals can be sterilized so that energy
is not wasted on reproductive activities. Biotechnological methods applied in
fish culture can be divided into three headings gender control, chromosome
manipulation and gene manipulation [53].
this occurs, the fish becomes phenotypic female or phenotypic male. After
that, it is impossible to change the phenotypic sex except for radical
techniques such as surgical intervention. If the fish absorb or swallow anabolic
steroids during this period, the development of totip component cells is
ensured [56, 57]. Sex control in fish is done by three different methods. These
are feminization, masculinization and sterilization [Fig. 19].
11.1.1. Feminization
Figure 19. Sex control in fish is done by applying different methods [63].
11.1.2. Masculinization
11.1.3. Sterilization
Creatures that reproduce with males and females develop from fertilized eggs
formed by the fusion of germ cells belonging to their parents. Germ cells
provide the link of parents with the next generation. The most important asset
of a germ cell is the chromosomes that carry heredity factors from generation
to generation. Homologous chromosomes of the same shape and size, one
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 67
from the mother and the other from the father, separate from each other as the
gametes are formed, and each gamete goes to one of each partner. With the
merger of male and female gametes, the spouses come together again and the
chromosome numbers remain constant between generations [Fig. 21]. There
are various manipulations performed for different purposes against meiotic
and mitotic events during chromosome division. These manipulation
processes; gynogenesis, androgenesis, triploidization and tetraploidization
techniques. There are various environmental shocks used to alter chromosome
numbers. These; temperature shock [cold or hot], hydrostatic pressure,
chemicals [Colchicine], Cytochalasin B [Cytochalasin B], N2O [Dinitrogen
monoxide]. The most efficient of these methods is pressure shock [54].
11.2.1. Triploidization
Normal spermatozoa are the main target in the triploidization technique using
to produce sterile fish. Infertility can be achieved by producing triploid by
environmental shock immediately after fertilization [55]. Providing triploidy
can be achieved by blocking the second meiosis division and keeping the
second pole cell after fertilization [66]. Hot or cold shock, hydrostatic pressure
and chemicals such as colchicine, cytochalasin B, N 2O are used in the
shocking performed during triploid application. Triploids can also be
produced from tetraploid and diploid coupling [54]. In aquaculture, triploid
fish sometimes exhibit significantly better survival rate, growth rate and feed
conversion rate than diploids. In addition, since there is no gonad
development, the energy to be spent for gonad development is spent on growth
[67], but these features do not show themselves until the beginning of sexual
maturation. Arai and Wilkins [1987] [68] applied shocks in Salmo trutta at
different temperatures, at different minutes after fertilization and at different
times, and different triploid ratios were obtained [Fig. 22].
Functions are normal. Research has shown that male triploid fish mature and
produce gametes, but these sperms carry aneuploid chromosome complements
and are far from the ability to give viable offspring. Triploid females are
infertile and have a few immature bodies in their ovaries, which are mostly
connective tissue egg cells are found [53].
Chromosome preparation
and anterior kidney tissues of the fish were removed and 35 minutes at 0.56%
KCl at 180C. has been suspended. Treatment with freshly prepared cold
Carnoy fixative [3:1 methanol: glacial acetic acid] has been. The slides
washed and dried with distilled water are kept at 0 oC, and then taken with a
pipette without any temperature loss and placed at a height of 35cm. It was
distributed thoroughly on the slide.
Giemsa painting
For this purpose, Giemsa staining method suggested by Denton [1973] [69]
was used. According to this; slides after chromosome release, Giemsa 5%
prepared with Sorenson phosphate buffer solution [1/15M pH 6.8] at room
temperature for 30 min. It has been painted.
11.2.2. Tetraploidization
The purpose of tetraploidization is fish production process with four
chromosomes. Also, when tetraploid fish are crossed with diploid fish, triploid
individuals can be obtained. After fertilization of a normal egg by an active
spermatozoa, individuals with 4N chromosomes are obtained by shock during
the first mitotoic division. The fertilization rate of diploid females by
tetraploid males is lower than normal males. This is the case with the diameter
of the spermatozoite. Therefore, it is more logical for tetraploid females to be
fertilized by diploid males. However, tetraploid production is not easy, but
tetraploid production has been achieved in rainbow trout [55].
72 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
11.2.3. Gynogenesis
Mature eggs of the ginogenetic species do not take action to form the embryo
when there are no male germ cells in the environment. Therefore, in
gynogenetic reproduction, male germ cells must be found to activate mature
eggs for success. The aim in ginogenesis is the production of related lines and
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 73
Since the inheritance material of the sperm is destroyed, the sperm taken from
different fish species can also be used for fertilization of the eggs. To activate
the eggs, artificial reproduction using sperm with UV radiation is required,
and then physical or chemical shocks are required to restore the embryo's
diploid state. These shocks prevent nuclear division by destroying
microtubules. In cases where environmental shock is not applied, haploid
embryos become deformed [53].
Gynogenesis was one of the established techniques used to produce all type
of female diploid offspring in aquatic organisms. Other than triploids,
gynogenesis also proved as one of the methods for monosex culture for
enhancing the aquaculture production. This method has been successfully
applied to produce all type of female fish. UV irradiated sperms were fused
with the unfertilized egg to produce gynogens larvae. Then procedure were
continued by cold shock, chemical shock or pressure shock to retain the
second polar body from extrude out of to induce diploid gynogens. Overall,
gynogenesis was identified as successful approach and it can be applied in
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 75
fishes, marine shrimps, and molluscs species such as oyster, abalone and
scallops in order to produce all fe-male gynogen products which further
enhance and increases the aqua-culture yield production. With improvement
of the gynogenesis method will increase the hatching rate, survival rate and
quality of the gynogenesis larvae in the future [74].
11.2.4. Androgenesis
Studies on induced androgenesis are carried in since 1989 with the aim of
producing viable androgenetic nucleocytoplasmic hybrids. In dispermic
androgenesis, the diploid status of androgenetic individuals is achieved by
fusion of the chromosome sets of two spermatozoa. If the spermatozoa
originate from different males, the level of heterozygosity in a given
androgenetic individual will be similar to that upon usual hybridization. If the
spermatozoa originate from the same male, the coefficient of inbreeding is 0.5.
When developing this method, it was taken into account specific features of
fishes, such as the presence of several micropyles in the egg, which allows
simultaneous penetration of several spermatozoa, and physiological
monospermy implying the absence of mechanisms blocking the involvement
of supernumerary spermatozoa in development [75].
76 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
Androgenesis, unlike ginogenes, is the genetic factor of the egg. After the
material is eliminated, fertilization and embryo development continues from
the chromosome set of spermatozoa [76]. When the androgenetic zygote
undergoes the first division, it is shocked and cell division is inhibited. Thus
in individuals possesses the chromosome sets from the father [77]. In the
fertilized egg, the nuclear DNA coming from the mother is successfully
destroyed by ionized or ultraviolet radiation [58]. For example; trout [67],
sturgeon [78], carp [79]. Since self-replicating chromosomes come from a
single set of chromosomes, they are highly related and 100% homozygous.
The mortality rate in such fish is high, because any mutant recessive allele is
revealed [53].
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The first experimental study showing that gene transfer can be done was
carried out by Griffith in 1928. In the experimental study, it was determined
that non-pathogenic pneumococcus bacteria acquired pathogenic
characteristics when they were placed in the same environment with
pathogenic pneumococci that were killed by heat, and the idea that genetic
material transfer is possible was put forward for the first time [82]. Avery et
al. [83] determined at the end of their study that DNA, which is the genetic
material, can be transformed, in other words, gene transfer is possible. In
addition, rapid developments in recombinant DNA technology increase the
importance of gene transfer technologies day by day. Gene transfer;
Microinjection is performed by viral vector technique, embryonic stem cell,
cloning and electroporation methods.
Different levels of damage occur in DNA due to various internal and external
reasons. The main ones of these damages in DNA are; Chromatin structure
disruption, DNA bases oxidation, mismatch and suppression of tubulin
polymerization, chemical change of bases, chromatin structure anomalies,
DNA chain breakage, DNA-DNA, DNA-protein crosses and DNA mutations.
Biotechnological methods such as cell gel electrophoresis, tunnel method,
measurement of spermatozoa chromatin structure and 8-hydroxy 2-
deoxyguanosine are used in order to detect these damages shaped in
spermatozoa DNA [88] [Fig. 26].
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 79
11.6. Hybridization
precautions are taken against this situation, it has been adopted by the
stakeholders in the sector that the production made by hunting will not
increase more and that the increase in production can only be achieved by
aquaculture.
Hunting production fluctuated from year to year showed Turkey aquaculture
production has increased every year since 2002. This development is similar
to the development of aquaculture in the world. Turkey increased from year
to year the share of total fishery products in the aquaculture production in 2017
to 43.8%, in 2018 it increased to 50%. In parallel with the developments in
aquaculture production and processing technologies, there is a significant
increase in aquaculture exports. In the period after 2000, the increase in
exports continued, and imports, on the other hand, showed a partially
fluctuating and partially stable course.
Despite the current level and fluctuation of the fishing production in the waters
of the country, the fact that some fishermen have been hunting in Georgia and
Mauritania in recent years, and the significant increases in aquaculture
production and exports are important indicators for the development of the
sector. However, when the current production and foreign trade amounts are
compared with the population of the country; it is seen that especially
domestic consumption per capita is below the world average. Production and
consumption will provide a further rise in the available potential in Turkey.
Self-sufficiency ratio and import dependency indices are used to measure the
size of self-sufficiency of countries. Both of these indices measure how much
of the total supply in a country is met externally through domestic production
or imports. In addition to these, the exportability index can be used to show
how much of the production is exported. Using these indexes together to make
an overall assessment, despite several shortcomings With respect to the
84 | L a t i f e C e y d a İ R K İ N
The stocks of important fish catches in inland waters, especially pearl mullet,
silver and silvery crucian fish, should be monitored routinely. Policy
recommendations for sustainable management should be developed by
determining the stocks of species such as eels and leeches within the scope of
CITES. With the non-target fishing methods and gears used in Turkey and
determining the percentage of the total amount of game hunting species
research into and reduction of rejects must be performed.
In inland fisheries, studies should be carried out for hunting and fishing
efforts. Breeding studies should be carried out in order to increase production
efficiency in species such as trout, sea bream and sea bass, which are widely
grown. Besides species widely grown in the culture of the species found
naturally in the waters of Turkey, aquaculture production through the
dissemination of research breeding species were cultured in conditions must
be improved. Studies should be conducted to reduce the prices of feed used in
breeding and to use alternative feed ingredients.
A Q U A C U L T U R E a n d B I O T E C H N O L O G Y | 85
Obtaining data on the socio-economic status of the fisheries sector and policy
recommendations should be developed in the light of this information. Some
physical and chemical water parameters that show the change in water
resources should be continuously monitored. Researches should be conducted
to protect the traditional structure of small-scale fisheries, to collect scientific
data on the sector and to ensure sustainable management of the sector.
Due to the limited land availability and the increasing environmental stress
factors, the concern that the increasing world population will not be
adequately fed in the near future is increasing.
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