E-Book - UniStep Business Academic Skills Guide 2007

Academic skills guide
Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney

© University of Western Sydney
Fourth Edition: February 2007
Published by
Student Learning Unit
University of Western Sydney
Locked Bag 1797
Penrith South DC NSW 1797
Contributions to this evolving workbook:

Clare Power, Neera Handa, Helen Farrell, Erst Carmichael, Leighana Thornton, Paul
Parker, Robyn Heath, Penny Shore, Kristine Brown and Rosalie Goldsmith
Edited and adapted for online delivery by Maria Inglis
Acknowledgments:
These materials draw primarily on the following works developed by John Grierson:
Unistart: Academic Literacy 1 (2000) Distance study guide
Unistart: Academic Literacy 2 (2002) Resource book
Academic writing for postgraduate students in public health (2002) Study guide
Material has also been adapted from:

An introduction to writing at university, originally published by the Academic Development Unit at the
University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury in 2000; reprinted by the Student Learning Unit in 2002.
Reaching for Success resource booklet compiled for the Academic Preparation Program, 2003; a
joint publication of the Counselling Service and Student Learning Unit, Student Services, UWS.
This resource has been adapted for online delivery from print materials used in
the academic literacy component of UniStep, 2007.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior permission.
In memory of
John Grierson
Table of Contents
Introduction
What this guide contains
How to use this guide
Who we are
Chapter 1: Beginning university studies

Introduction 1
Adapting to university 1
Studying as an adult student 2
Expectations 2
Your expectations 2
Lecturers' expectations 3
Expectations of UWS 4
University survival kit 5
Identifying skills and potential 5
Rules for survival 6
Stress management 7
Time management 9
The time management matrix 10
Combating procrastination 13
Modes of learning 14
Learning in lectures 14
Learning in tutorials 18
Self-directed learning 19
In conclusion... 21
Answers to activities 22
Chapter 2: Managing your writing
Introduction 24
Purposes of written work 24
Writing helps learning 25
Learning can be assessed through writing 25
Writing skills are an important university outcome 26
Planning the writing process 26
Making sense of a unit outline 27
Getting more information 41
Planning your study time 42
Presenting your assignment 49
Word processing 49
Presentation 50
Security 51
Meeting deadlines 51
In conclusion... 52
Chapter 3: Understanding the task

Introduction 56
Checking your understanding of the task 56
Clarifying the task 57
Identifying the audience 65
Establishing the purpose 65
In conclusion... 66
Chapter 4: Thinking critically

Introduction 70
A critical thinker is... 71
The process of critical thinking 72
Knowledge 73
Comprehension 73
Application 73
Analysis 74
Synthesis 74
Evaluation 74
How to develop critical thinking skills 77
Reading and listening 77
Writing 84
Critical thinking materials available at UWS 88
In conclusion... 88
Chapter 5: Reading and notemaking
Introduction 94
Reading 95
Reading effectively 97
Reading for understanding 99
Reading for research 108
Note making 120
Strategies for note making 120
Methods of note making 123
Using quotations, paraphrases and summaries 129
In conclusion... 132
Chapter 6: The academic essay

Introduction 137
Recognising the structure of texts 138
Structure and purpose of academic texts 138
Writing style 140
The academic essay 143
Structure 144
Introduction 144
Body 149
Conclusion 152
Variations in essay structure 154
Marking criteria 154
Chapter 7: Other academic genres

Introduction 170
Research report 170
Format 171
Critical review 179
Understanding the assignment 179
Format 180
Annotated bibliography 187
Format 187
Reflective journal 189
Structure 189
Chapter 8: Academic argument and evidence
Introduction 196
Academic argument 197
Constructing your argument 198
Using the language of argument 199
Using evidence 205
Using published sources as evidence 205
Analysing and synthesising sources 212
Integrating evidence with your comments 213
Using note making to achieve a balance 215
Incorporating evidence with quotations, paraphrases and summaries 221
Quoting 221
Paraphrasing 227
Summarising 229
Plagiarism and your own voice 232
Avoiding plagiarism 233
Referencing 234
In-text references 234
The reference list 236
Referencing systems 237
Chapter 9: Features of academic writing

Introduction 246
Paragraph writing 246
Topic sentences 246
Ways of organising and developing paragraphs 249
Cohesion 258
Connective words 259
Pronoun reference 264
Formal language 271
Guidelines for writing in a formal academic style 271
Specialised vocabulary 272
Scholarly vocabulary 272
Formal forms 274
Chapter 10: Grammar in academic writing
Introduction 284
Grammatical terms 285
Sentence construction 288
The role of punctuation 288
Comma misuse creating ambiguity 289
Punctuation in sentence construction 292
Overview of phrases, clauses, and sentences 292
Sentence fragments 298
Punctuation overview 300
Apostrophes 301
Agreement and consistency 304
Subject and verb agreement 306
Consistency in point of view 311
Consistency of tense 313
Consistency of mood 314
Recognising grammatical errors 315
Chapter 11: Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback

Introduction 323
Editing and proofreading 324
Revising initial ideas 324
Editing for content and structure 325
Checking the validity of content 327
Proofreading for grammar, punctuation, and spelling 327
Receiving feedback on your assignment 329
Lecturer expectations 330
Marker comments 331
Chapter 12: Tutorials, oral presentations, and group work
Introduction 335
Tutorials 336
Tutorial participation 336
Assessment of tutorial participation 337
Oral presentations 337
Preparing your presentation 338
Organising your presentation 340
Creating your visual aids 341
Assessing oral presentations 343
Group work 345
Developing a team 345
Addressing the task 350
Writing collaboratively 352
Introduction
This guide has been developed to help you in your transition to tertiary study as.
It focuses specifically on the skills and strategies you need to adapt to the univer-
sity environment. It specifically focuses on understanding and preparing assess-
ment tasks, which often require you to write in a particular way. Sometimes, new
students find this process to be overwhelming; our hope that this guide will reduce
the anxiety you may feel.
What this guide contains

The guide is structured to loosely follow the process of writing an assignment from
beginning to end. The writing process is much more than simply sitting down at
your computer to produce a text; it involves the research you do, the notes you
make from the reading you encounter, the format you choose and much, much more!
To help you better understand this process, this guide contains explanations,
examples, models, and activities to acquaint you with the basic skills you will
need to succeed at university study.
How to use this guide

You may have received this guide in conjunction with a university preparation
course at UWS. While this material can be used to support classroom activities, it
is also valuable as a stand-alone resource. You can work through the entire book
from beginning to end – doing so will give you a complete picture of what the writing
process and other study activities at university entail. However, you may also find
it useful to come back to certain sections as a reference when the need arises.
Many activities in this guide have suggested answers at the end of each chapter.
In most cases, the answers we provide are one of several possibilities. When there
is more than one way to accurately respond to a question, this will be indicated in
the answer key.
Other activities do not have a set of answers for you to refer to. These activities are
designed to stimulate your thinking about a topic or an idea and there is often not
one correct answer. Take advantage of this opportunity to exercise your own thought
processes. It will still be worthwhile to consider the questions raised on your own.
Who we are
This book was produced by the Student Learning Unit at the University of Western
Sydney. We aim to enhance your academic achievement through development of
your academic language, mathematics and learning skills. We work with under-
graduates and postgraduates through our collaborations with lecturers and other
student and educational services.
Chapter 1
Beginning university studies
Academic skills guide: Chapter 1
Introduction
Deciding to study at university will change many aspects of your life. The
information in this book is designed to help you adjust to those changes, and to
give you the tools you need to succeed in this new environment.
The early chapters will focus on general aspects of university study; later
chapters will discuss how to deal with specific writing and study situations.
By the time you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
• Identify the expectations (both yours and others) surrounding university

study
• Identify your personality traits and strengths that will help you manage
your studies
• Describe different techniques to deal with stress and to manage your time
• Define how lectures and tutorials relate to each other and describe how
you can participate successfully in both
• Examine ways you can direct your own learning.
Adapting to university
Often students who enter university experience a kind of ‘culture shock’. You will
have to set yourself new goals, develop effective ways of managing your time,
and develop effective reading and note-making strategies. You might not be used
to writing essays, or you might be intimidated by academic language.
Whatever challenges you face, you are not alone. Most students share the doubts
and excitement you feel. The following sections of this chapter will help you to
understand some of the demands of university studies, and respond appropriately
to them.
© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 1

Studying as an adult student

Whether you are returning to study as a mature age learner, or beginning university
immediately after completing high school studies, you are taking a major step in
your life. Full or part time study will probably lead to great changes in the way you
spend your time, in your relationships, your goals, and your attitude to yourself
and to social issues.
Strategies
If you take your studies seriously, use your time effectively, read carefully,
participate in tutorial discussions, complete all assignments on time, get feedback
on your progress and act on this advice, you are well on the way to becoming a
successful student.
Whatever your age, you are probably studying because you want to. Even though
lecturers set readings and assignments, you need to be self-motivated and self-
directed. Question your tutors and ask for feedback. Get involved in study groups,
and build up networks of friends who can discuss lectures and assignments and
support each other in difficult times.
Don't think that success at university depends only on intelligence, or on the ability
to recall, analyse and use knowledge. Your success also rests on the wisdom and
understanding you have developed during your life, and on being creative and
imaginative in solving problems beyond conventions and predictable answers.
Expectations
You will be surrounded by expectations during your university studies – the

expectations you have of your study experience, the expectations your lecturers
have of you, what you can expect from your university.
The more you understand about what is expected from you, and what you can
expect from others, the better equipped you will be to manage those expectations.
Your expectations
What do you expect to gain from your university studies? To be challenged and
intellectually stimulated? To acquire new and useful knowledge? To gain a
'passport' to a better career? High grades? Greater self-confidence? A more
interesting social life?

Your answer to this question will be different from the answer another student will
give. A mature age student and a student straight out of school, a working and an
unemployed student, a student who has had recent study success and a student
who has not studied for a long time, might all answer this question differently. Not
one of the answers will be wrong, but your expectations might change as you
continue your studies.
Some students are constantly excited and stimulated by university. It meets and
exceeds their expectations. Other students are sometimes disappointed. They
might not get the results they hoped for, or the attention or support they feel they
need.
On the other hand, the university itself might not live up to their expectations.
They might think a course is not as practical or as intellectually stimulating as
they had hoped. If this happens, you need to consider what you have to accept,
and what you have the power and willingness to change. Lecturers are often
responsive to students who ask for more tutorial discussion, clearer guidelines for
assignments, or more explicit feedback on their progress. Students do not need
to passively accept poor teaching (just as lecturers may demand more active,
thoughtful learning from their students).
Lecturers' expectations
Students often say they do not know clearly enough what their lecturers expect of
them. In first year studies, this uncertainty might be unavoidable. With experience,
you learn what standards are expected.
However, you may also find that expectations differ from one subject to another.
For example, there is a common expectation that students will analyse and think
critically about issues discussed in lectures, tutorials and readings. Yet in some
subjects, there might be more of an emphasis on memorisation, rote learning,
and recalling information. Although these seem to be more basic skills than the
skills of critical thinking, they are still important in subjects where students are
expected to learn information before they are ready to carefully analyse and
evaluate it.
Thus you need to pay close attention to what your lecturers say to gain insights
into what they expect. You also need to read your subject outlines carefully,
noting the kinds of assignments you have to do (and whether the marks are
weighted towards information recall or application and evaluation) and the course
objectives. (See Chapter 2, Managing your writing, for more information on how
to use a unit outline.)

Expectations of UWS
The graduate attributes presented below have been endorsed by the University of
Western Sydney; they describe the skills and abilities that students committed to
their course of study can expect to have developed by the time they graduate.
A UWS graduate:
communication communicates effectively through reading, listening,
skills speaking and writing in diverse contexts
applies appropriate numerical skills to understand,

numeracy
interpret and solve problems
commands multiple
skills and literacies to social
is a self-reliant learner who works effectively in
enable adaptable interaction
groups and teams
skills
lifelong learning
information accesses, evaluates and uses relevant information
literacy to solve problems and to continue learning
technology applies communication and other technologies
literacy effectively in personal and professional learning
has in-depth knowledge in one or more chosen fields of study

demonstrates understands how this knowledge is connected with other fields and
comprehensive, disciplines
coherent and understands the local and international relevance of their chosen
connected knowledge field(s) of study
understands the values and principles of scholarly inquiry
applies knowledge integrates theoretical and practical knowledge to analyse and solve
through intellectual complex and novel problems
applies critical, reflective, and creative skills to make informed
inquiry in professional decisions in professional or applied contexts
or applied contexts engages effectively in advancing knowledge both independently and
collaboratively
brings knowledge to
life through understands and values ethical conduct, intellectual integrity, and
responsible professionalism in work and civic life
engages responsibly in work and civic life with respect for diversity and
engagement and social justice principles
appreciation of can initiate and contribute positively to sustainable change in a diverse
diversity in an and evolving world
evolving world
Figure 1: UWS Graduate Attributes (approved by Academic Senate, 12 September 2003)

University survival kit
You will face many challenges during your university experiences. Many people
find that managing their time and their stress levels can be quite difficult;
identifying your own skills and potential can help you meet these challenges and
learn more about yourself in the process. You can use the information in this
section as a university “survival kit”. It will help you figure out what your strengths
are and how you can use them to succeed at university.
Identifying skills and potential

It is important to recognise that you have some skills already that will help you to
both survive and succeed at university. You may not recognise this, but some of
the skills that you have developed — as a person, as a student, as a parent, as a
worker or in any of the other roles you fill — will assist you in the university
environment.
You have personality traits and skills that you use every day to survive, and these
can be transferred to this new situation.
Activity 1.1: Identifying the positive
Have a look at the following checklist and tick the boxes that describe you.
9 9 9
punctual ambitious hardworking/ productive
curious good attendance willing to ask questions
honest enthusiastic able to solve problems
patient logical mind good at speaking in public
able to negotiate good communicator willing to learn new things
mature assertive able to manage projects
able to learn quickly sincere able to follow instructions
good sense of humour friendly able to get along with others
self-motivated results-oriented willing to take risks
dependable strong research skills able to motivate others
intelligent creative pride in doing a good job
willing to be a leader decisive persistent
Figure 2: List of personality traits and skills

My top three skills are:

1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
List some ways that you think these skills will be useful to you at university:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Rules for survival

Surviving at university requires you to think consciously about your studies and
your approach to them. The following suggestions are a broad overview of some
of the ways you can become a better student. Most of these will be covered in
more detail later in this book.
• Be clear about why you are studying and why you have chosen your
subjects. Sometimes the going will get tough and, when it does, you will
need motivation. Be clear about what your long-term goals are because
this focus can help you get through. Think carefully about your subject
choices and how they will contribute to your goals.
• Attend, and be prepared for, all lectures, tutorials & practicals. Some
students miss lectures and tutorials to the point where it’s hard to make up
the work. Reading the textbook and friends’ notes are no substitute for
attending lectures. It’s also important to get to know your lecturers and
tutors so you can ask for help if you need it. Most courses have attendance
requirements for tutorials (and some for lectures), and you are expected to
participate. (For more information, see the section titled Modes of learning
later in this chapter).
• Plan your time. Poor time management is one of the main reasons
students fail. Make a rule with yourself that you will get work in on time.
Plan your time carefully to achieve this. Remember—penalties apply for
late submission. (See the section on Time management later in this
chapter for more help.)
• Put an effort into developing and maintaining supportive friendships.

This will make your time at university much more enjoyable. While you
can’t socialise all the time, you will need a local support network. Take the
time to seek out a number of compatible friends. Find friends who study.

• Ask for extra help and feedback. Make use of your tutors and lecturers
for extra help or advice when you are struggling. If you don’t understand
something, don’t hide out. You can also ask for help on what went wrong in
an exam or whether you’re on the right track with an assignment. (See
Chapter 10, Editing, proofreading and receiving feedback, for more
information on interpreting and using instructor feedback.)
• Plan your written work and oral presentations. In general, the most
effective essays, presentations and reports are developed from a written
plan. Experiment to find the method that suits you best, but get into the
habit of working from a plan every time you write. (See Chapter 2,
Managing your writing, for information about developing a study plan.)
• Manage your stress. Excessive stress can interfere with your studies by
causing memory and concentration difficulties, loss of focus,
procrastination and specific difficulties in presentations and exams. You
need to practise effective stress management strategies to avoid these
problems. (See the Stress management section of this chapter.)
• Make use of support services. There are many sources of help around
the university, so take advantage of these when necessary. For example,
help is available for personal problems, study difficulties, finance,
accommodation and careers.
• Combat perfectionism. Many students suffer from unrealistic

expectations. Wanting to submit perfect work or to consistently achieve
high marks can create so much stress that some people stop working
altogether. Be realistic and accept that you will develop skills as you go
along. Your first semester is a time for settling in and adjusting to
university, especially if you have not studied for a while.
• Attack problems quickly. If things do go wrong, do something about it as

soon as possible. Letting problems develop will lead to failing by default.
See your lecturer or one of the counsellors sooner rather than later.
• Strike a balance. Your university studies are certainly an important part of

your life, but they aren’t the only things in your life. Save time for the things
you enjoy!
Stress management
Stress is a natural part of life. We need some stress (eustress), but not too much
stress for too long (distress). Our body is designed to react to both types of
stress.
Eustress keeps us alert, motivates us to face challenges and drives us to solve
problems. These low levels of stress are manageable, necessary and normal.
Distress, however, results when our bodies over-react to events.

The following suggestions are designed to reduce distress. Try them. They work!
• Learn to relax. Take ‘minibreaks’. Sit down and get comfortable. Slowly,
take a deep breath in, hold it and then exhale very slowly. At the same
time, relax your shoulders, smile and say something positive like, “I am
relaxed”. Also, be sure to get sufficient sleep at night.
• Practise acceptance. Many people get distressed over things they won’t
let themselves accept. Often these are things that can’t be changed, like
someone else’s feelings or beliefs.
• Talk rationally to yourself. Ask yourself what impact the stressful

situation will have on you in a day or a week and see if you can let the
negative thoughts go. Rather than thinking “I should have...”, think about
what you can learn from the error and plan for the future.
• Get organised. Develop a realistic schedule of daily activities including

time for work, sleep, relationships and recreation. Use a daily ‘things-to-do’
list. Improve your surroundings by cleaning your house and straightening
up your office. Use your time and energy as efficiently as possible. Beware
of procrastination. Breaking tasks into smaller units and prioritising will help
get things done.
• Exercise. Physical activity has always provided relief from stress. In the
past, daily work was mostly physical. Now we don’t get rid of stress so
easily. Develop a regular exercise program to help reduce stress before it
becomes distress. Try aerobics, walking, jogging, dancing, swimming etc.
• Reduce time urgency. If you frequently check your watch or worry about
what you do with your time, learn to take things a bit slower. Allow plenty of
time to get things done. Plan your schedule. Recognise that you can only
do so much in a given period. Practise the notion of ‘pace, not race’.
• Allow for quiet time. Balance your family, social and work demands with
special private times. Hobbies are good antidotes for daily pressures.
Unwind by taking a quiet stroll, soaking in a hot bath, watching a sunset or
listening to calming music.
• Watch your habits. Eat sensibly. A balanced diet will provide the energy
you need. Avoid non-prescription drugs and minimise alcohol use. You
need to be alert to deal with stress. Be mindful of the effects of excessive
caffeine and sugar on nervousness. Put out the cigarettes—they restrict
blood circulation and affect your stress response.
• Talk to friends. Friends can be good medicine. Daily doses of

conversation, regular social engagements and occasional sharing of deep
feelings and thoughts can reduce stress.
• Seek professional counselling help before your problems become

unmanageable or distressing.

Time management
Another important method of managing your stress involves how you plan your
time; poor time management will cause you a great deal of stress.
Five symptoms of poor time management
These five symptoms are an indication that you are not managing your time well.
After reading through them, ask yourself if you exhibit any of these symptoms.
• Rushing.
• Chronic indecision.
• Fatigue/tiredness even after many hours of non-productive activity.
• Constantly intending to complete tasks but never really getting anything

done.
• Sense of having to do what you don’t want to do most of the time.
Ten strategies for better time management
Almost everyone could manage time more efficiently. If you identified with any of
the five symptoms listed above, these tips might be especially useful for you.
• Write down goals for the day/week/month/year and set time limits for them.
• Set at least one major objective each day and achieve it.
• Keep a study time log and occasionally analyse how you use your time.
• Keep track of what you do and eliminate the unnecessary.
• Write out a plan each week.
• Schedule your day, but leave time for the unexpected.
• Make sure the first hour of your study day is productive.
• Do it right the first time so you don’t have to repeat it.
• Set aside a quiet hour in your day.
• Develop the habit of finishing tasks before starting new ones.

In Chapter 2, Managing your writing, you will learn some more ways to plan your
time, especially in relation to your writing assignments.

The time management matrix

In the previous section, you learned some general ways to improve the way you
manage your time. The time management matrix can be another very powerful
tool in your study skills tool kit.
This chart categorises our activities into four groups. We spend time in one of
these four ways:
Urgent Not Urgent

Important
I II
Crises Preparation
Pressing problems Prevention
Deadline-driven projects meetings, Values clarification

preparations
Planning
Relationship building
True recreation
Empowerment
Unimportant
III IV
Interruptions, some phone calls Trivia, busywork
Some mail, some reports Junk mail
Some meetings Some phone calls
Many proximate, pressing matters Time wasters
Many popular activities ‘Escape’ activities
Covey Leadership Quadrants © 1994 Covey Leadership Center, Inc.
Figure 3: Time management matrix

A definition of each quadrant
Urgent Not Urgent

Important I II
This quadrant represents This includes activities that are
things that are both ‘urgent’ and ‘important but are not urgent’. This is the
‘important’. Here we handle an quadrant of quality. Here’s where we do
irate client, meet a deadline, our long-range planning, anticipate and
undergo heart surgery or help a prevent problems, empower others,
crying child who has been hurt. broaden our minds and increase our skills
through reading and continuous
We need to spend time in professional development.
Quadrant I. This is where we
manage, produce and bring our Increasing the amount of time
experience and judgement to bear spent in this quadrant increases our ability
in responding to many needs and to get things done. Ignoring this quadrant
challenges. feeds and enlarges Quadrant I, creating
stress, burnout and deeper crises for the
If we ignore it, we become person consumed by it. On the other
buried alive. But we also need to hand, investing in this quadrant shrinks
realise that many important Quadrant I. Planning, preparation and
activities become urgent through prevention keep many things from
procrastination, or because we becoming urgent.
don’t do enough prevention and
planning. This quadrant does not act on us;
we must act on it. This is the quadrant of
personal leadership.
Unimportant
III IV
This quadrant is almost This quadrant is reserved for
the phantom of Quadrant I. It those activities that are ‘not urgent and
includes things that are ‘urgent, not important.’ This is the quadrant of
but not important.’ This is the waste. Of course, we really shouldn’t be
quadrant of deception. The noise there at all. But we get so battle-scarred
of urgency creates the illusion of from being tossed around in Quadrants I
importance. But the actual and III that we often ‘escape’ to this
activities, if they’re important at quadrant for survival.
all, are only important to someone
else. Many phone calls, meetings In here are the reading of
and drop in visitors fall into this addictive light novels, habitually watching
category. We spend a lot of time ‘mindless’ television shows or gossiping
in Quadrant III meeting other around the water fountain at the office—
people’s priorities and time wasters. This quadrant is not
expectations, thinking we’re really survival; it’s deterioration. It may have an
in Quadrant I. initial ‘fairy floss’ feel, but we quickly find
there’s nothing there.
Figure 4: Quadrant definitions

Activity 1.2: Creating your own time management matrix

Try filling in the quadrants below with your own activities.
Urgent Not Urgent

Important
I II
Unimportant
III IV
Figure 5: Personal time management matrix
How to limit quadrants III and IV
Now that you’ve identified how you spend your time, how can you limit the
activities in quadrants III and IV? These suggestions may help you:
• Have all that you need when you sit down to study.
• Break the task up into smaller blocks.
• Set yourself goals that are small, achievable and specific.
• List what you can realistically achieve in a day. Tick what you’ve done at
the end of the day.

• Prioritise your tasks and focus on the most urgent.
• Be selective in your TV watching. Read the TV guide and set yourself a

time limit; for example, set the oven timer to go off when a program is
finished.
• Set aside a time to make phone calls. Be prepared to say when it is time to
terminate the call. If calls are disturbing you, take the phone off the hook,
get someone to screen the calls or let the answering machine record a
message.
• Use spare time (like waiting for public transport) to go over notes or readings.
• Let family and friends know your study times so they don’t disturb you at
those times.
• Reward yourself when you achieve something or when you receive a

good mark.
• Talk to someone you trust if a personal problem is continually disturbing

you, such as friends, parents, family, a counsellor or teacher.
Combating procrastination
Procrastination means putting things off until another time. Most of you will find
yourselves getting ‘stuck’ on something you have to do, at some stage of your
studies and it can sometimes help to take a break and try again. But putting
things off can become a habit or a way of responding to stress.
One form of procrastination can involve doing other, less urgent or less important
things (activities you would locate in quadrants III and IV of your time
management matrix) as a way of delaying more necessary tasks.
Here are some suggestions for dealing with procrastination (adapted from Davis,
M., Eshelman, E. R. & McKay, M (1995). The relaxation and stress reduction
workbook, 4th ed., Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, pp. 183-4).
• Stop worrying. You probably spend more time worrying about the things
you don’t want to do (like set readings, revising notes, preparing for
tutorials) than you spend actually doing them. To check this, time how long
it actually takes you to do the task.
• Start small. Once you start doing a task that seems unpleasant, you may
find that it isn’t so bad. You may want to start on a small but related task to
get yourself going.
• Make a list of all the unpleasant aspects of what you are avoiding and
then make a second list of the consequences of putting it off. Look
honestly at these two lists and ask yourself where the greatest
unpleasantness is.

• Look for hidden rewards. Look for any payoff that you may be receiving
for not getting the unpleasant task done. For example, by procrastinating
you may be avoiding feeling anxious or facing the possibility of failure. Also
examine the advantages of avoiding whatever changes might follow from
completing the task. For example, success might mean that you lose the
attention that you now get from people who nag you or sympathise with
your predicament.
• Confront negative beliefs. You may be making statements to yourself like

“No way am I going to do this” or “I must do it perfectly” or “I can’t stand the
thought of giving a speech in front of a group of strangers” or “What if I
succeed, they’ll expect even more out of me” or “I’ll fail, so why try".
• Take responsibility for each delay. You are the one wasting your own
precious time. Make a list of each procrastination or escape activity and
note how long it took. Add up the total and list all the positive things you
could have done with the time.
• Link a distasteful activity to an activity that you know you will do.
• Reward yourself for doing activities that are unpleasant to you.
• Finish things.
(Source: pp. 5 – 14 adapted from Reaching for Success, a resource booklet developed by the
UWS Counselling Unit.)
Modes of learning
Different academic disciplines emphasise different modes of learning; however,

lectures and tutorials are still the most common teaching modes at university.
Learning in lectures
Lectures are an important way of learning at university. Anywhere between 30
and 200 students may be seated in a lecture room. This obviously limits the
interaction between lecturer and students. Nevertheless, lectures are a convenient
way of sharing information. Lectures will generally give an overview of the day's
topic, relate it to topics already lectured on, and indicate important readings,
debates and issues for further study.

Organisation of a lecture
It is important to distinguish between:
• the main points,
• illustrators or examples of these main points, and
• other issues less central to the overall development of the argument.

Within a lecture, various topics may be discussed. Speakers often introduce
changes of topic by phrases that suggest the direction or order of their ideas.
These discourse markers may indicate time (“nine years ago”) or order (“first
second”) or importance (“one of the most fundamental”) or relationships (“at the
other end of...”).
Lectures are often given in a formal register. Although different lecturers have
different ways of communicating, many lectures have the following characteristics:
• Structure – e.g., an introduction to the topic and purpose of the lecture, an

overview of the theories or principles of the topic, a discussion of
competing theories or approaches, an application of theory to practical
concerns, a summary.
• Formal and technical language (in explanations and elaboration of concepts).
• Repetition of key phrases.
Organisation of lecture notes
Most students find that taking notes during the lecture is a helpful study tool.
Although your lecturer may provide you with a summary of the lecture, taking your
own notes can help to solidify the information in your memory.
A key point to remember is that you will not need to write down every word that
comes out of your lecturer’s mouth. Identifying main points and important
information is an essential skill for university study.
The following suggestions relate to ways you can take organised, effective notes:
• Leave a 5 cm margin on either side of your page so you can add extra
notes later. One side can be kept for notes added from textbooks, journals,
your own ideas, etc.
• Leave plenty of room (3 lines) between one main heading/point and the next.
This makes your notes clear and you can leave space for additional notes.

• Use headings and sub-headings to help organise your notes. Underline

these.
• Make sure you write clearly so that you can reread your notes later.
• Use note-form, symbols and abbreviations when writing. The following

table provides some common examples of abbreviations. You will probably
develop your own abbreviations as you become more acquainted with your
subject matter.
+ and w/ with w/o without

= is the same as > more than ? follow up later
e.g. for example i.e. that means nb important
p. page para. paragraph ch. chapter
info. information cd could v. very
Figure 6: Symbols and abbreviations for note taking
For more information on structuring your notes, see Chapter 5, Reading and note
making.
Organising your lecture activities
Successfully participating in a lecture means more than just showing up in the

right room at the right time. To get the most out of the information provided, there
are things you can do
• before the lecture
• during the lecture, and
• after the lecture.
Before the lecture
Spend time before the lecture preparing for the topic. Check your subject outline
to see if there are set readings you should read for the lecture. Ask yourself
questions such as:
What do I already know about this topic?
What do I want to know?
How does this topic relate to previous ones?
What questions do I have about this topic?

Before the lecture begins, mark your lecture notes with the following information:
• Date
• Subject and title of the lecture
• Name of the lecturer
During the lecture
• Don’t attempt to write everything that is said.
• Write down the series of major/minor headings used by the lecturer.
• Write down the major point(s) made under each heading.
• Write down one clear example or supporting idea for each major point.
• Write down summary statements.
• Monitor and focus your attention – remind yourself to pay attention!
• Think critically about what you hear by asking questions such as:
What is the main idea here?
What does … mean by …?
What is the difference between … and …?
How are … and … similar?
How does … affect …?
What conclusions can I draw from …?
Which … is preferable, and why?
What do I still not understand about …?
After the lecture
To fix your notes in your long-term memory:
• review them that evening,
• review them again within a week, and
• review them again a month later.

Learning in tutorials
A tutorial is usually a period of class time that builds on and goes into greater
depth than the lecture. Small group discussion in universities is mostly conducted
in tutorials and seminars. Tutorials typically contain 12-15 students although
tutorial classes can have up to 30 students, and in some subjects, lecture-size
classes are called tutorials when the students are solving problems or carrying
out exercises.
Tutorials vary widely in structure and content and may be:
• a mini-lecture where the teacher imparts information;
• a group where each person takes a turn as chairperson; or
• a discussion structured around a ‘paper’ that has been given by a group

member, based on a set reading.
For more information about tutorials and the assignments you may be expected
to complete during your tutorial participation, see Chapter 12, Tutorials and oral
presentations.
Why are tutorials important?
• They can help you to integrate what you learn from your reading, writing
and lectures.
• They clarify your ideas and feelings on a subject.
• They help you to sort out misunderstandings and problems in your work.
• You can practise communicating ideas to others.
• You have relatively close contact with a staff member.
• You learn about the uses and dynamics of formal discussion groups.

How can I get the most out of tutorials?
You need to do the right kind of preparation:
• Read as many of the listed sources as possible.
• Check reference books and audio-visual materials in the library on and

around the topic.
• Read over notes made from the last tutorial or lecture.
• Formulate in writing at least one brief item to contribute to the discussion –

a thought, a question, a piece of information, or a comment on your
reading or lecturers on the topic.
• Research, plan and prepare what to say and what activities to use if you
are responsible for giving a discussion/seminar paper.
Self-directed learning
Self-direction means taking responsibility for your own learning, rather than
handing over that responsibility to your lecturers. Because lecturers control much
of the content of traditional lectures and tutorials, because they give you lists of
what to read, and because they set and mark assignments, there is a considerable
amount of teacher-direction and “knowledge-telling”.
Nevertheless, there are large areas where self-direction is important. You decide
how much reading and study you will do and whether you will go beyond the
recommended texts. You decide whether you wish to critically reflect on your
learning and critically analyse issues, rather than being content to retell
knowledge you have picked up from classes and readings. Some assignments
may require you to define the task you undertake or you may have to enter a
learning contract that is negotiated with a lecturer. You may have to suggest and
plan your own topic for research and reporting.
Being self-directed means being willing to take responsibility for your own
learning. It also means reflecting on what you learn, and showing respect for your
teachers and fellow students. You learn to co-operate and to think critically about
your tasks.
Asking questions like these may help you to monitor your learning:
What are my goals for this task?
Is this (book, activity) relevant?
Am I keeping to my timeline or deadline?
What feedback do I need?

Activity 1.3: Thinking about the modes of learning
Write short answers to Questions 1-3, below.

1. What are your preferred ways of learning (or, what ways of learning have
you been used to in the past)? For example, do you learn best when you
are able to discuss ideas with others, or do you prefer to learn on your
own, perhaps through your reading and research?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Do you foresee any problems that you might face in undertaking the kinds
of learning that are common at university?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What do you think are the most important factors for achieving success in
your university studies?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

In conclusion...
Your decision to begin university study will change your life in many ways. To
deal with these changes, you can make use of both the services provided by the
university and the skills you already have.
With these changes come expectations – those you have of your university
experience and those the university has of you. Identifying your strengths and
potential will help you meet those expectations.
Managing your time and your stress level will make your studies far more
productive. The tools you can use to do this will benefit you not only as a student,
but also in your life outside of the university.
In addition to thinking about time and stress management, you should be aware
of the different modes of learning at university, specifically lectures, tutorials, and
self-directed learning.
Making conscious decisions about how you manage expectations, time/stress,
and learning is an important foundation for the information and activities you will
encounter in Chapter 2, Managing your writing.

Answers to activities
The answers to the activities in this chapter will vary from student to student.

Chapter 2
Managing your writing
Introduction
During your studies at university, you will be required to undertake various types
of writing tasks that may include essays, tutorial papers, quizzes and exam
answers, reports on case studies, and project reports. In this chapter, we will
consider why your instructors have these requirements; we will also look at how
courses may incorporate these tasks into their study requirements.
This chapter will help you better understand the purpose of academic writing
tasks and how they relate to your learning. After you have read this chapter, you
will be able to:
• State the reasons why writing tasks are an important part of your univer-
sity education
• Analyse a unit outline to determine how to best plan your study time for
reading, thinking, and writing in your course units
• Create a study plan for each of your units, and a general semester plan
to help you manage your entire study schedule
• Identify the aspects of presentation that could affect your marks.
Purposes of written work
There are many reasons why you will be asked to undertake writing as part of
your learning. Writing can help you develop a deeper understanding of your
subject material, and it can help your lecturers and tutors assess the learning you
are doing. Additionally, the ability to write well is in itself an important goal of
university study.

Writing helps learning

The process of writing at university involves many different activities:
• reading
• making notes
• synthesising ideas from different sources
• analysing
• criticising
These activities are all for the purpose of solving a particular problem. They all
contribute to your developing understanding of a topic.
Having to write about a topic engages you in a process that goes beyond
'learning things by heart'. Instead, you need to:
• explain things in your own words,
• select things that are relevant to a problem,
• work out how different things are related to each other,
• understand many different points of view on the same thing, and
• ask critical questions about things.

You should be engaging in all these 'thinking' processes all the time as you are
reading, listening to lectures, and taking part in tutorial discussions. However, it
may not be until you try to put your thinking into words for someone else to read
that you can really grasp what you are learning. So, the writing process can really
help you in learning your units more deeply.
Learning can be assessed through writing

Through your writing, it is possible to make assessments of whether you have
carried out the required reading in your units and, more importantly, whether you
seem to understand the substance of the units you are studying. It is also
possible to assess whether you can use this understanding to develop a point of
view and argue it well, to solve problems, and so on.
Thus, the writing process provides evidence of your learning, which is necessary
for teachers to assess your progress. The assessment of your written work,
however, should not signal the end of your learning process. You should instead
take the opportunity to learn from the feedback you receive so that your next
written assignment can be even better.

There are many different types of feedback on your writing that you can use to
help your learning. For example, you will probably receive comments on your
written work. These are often of much more value to your learning than your
grade, and you should read them carefully and think about what you have learnt
for your next assignment.
You will learn more about interpreting written comments on your work in Chapter
11, Editing, proofreading and receiving feedback.
Writing skills are an important university outcome

Communication skills are being valued more and more by employers, and your
ability to communicate well is considered to be an important outcome of having
studied at university. Although communication skills include listening, speaking,
reading and writing, your ability to write well is closely related to these other
channels of communication.
When you write, you need to draw on the material that you have heard in
lectures, read in the library, and spoken about in tutorials. Some would argue that
this makes writing the most difficult skill — it certainly is the most critical for your
progress when so much of the assessment load in most courses is based on your
writing. The skills of writing well are equally important in the workplace and
employers tend to place a high value on the ability to communicate ideas clearly,
precisely, and persuasively.
For all these reasons, you should approach every writing task as an opportunity
to learn more deeply, to demonstrate your understanding and problem-solving
skills to your lecturers, and to develop effective writing skills to carry with you
throughout your academic and work career.
Planning the writing process
So far in this chapter, we’ve explored in a general way why writing tasks are an
important part of your university studies. Now we will turn to a more specific
examination of the place writing has within a particular course.
Almost every assessment task you face will demand some kind of writing from
you, even your oral presentations. And most experts now agree that successful
writing rarely results from a single marathon session at your computer. The more
preparation and prewriting planning you put into your assignments, the more
likely you are to receive the kind of mark you want. Successful academic writing
is a process, and planning for that process is a worthwhile investment.

In Chapter 3, Understanding the task, you will learn how to examine a writing task
carefully to ensure you understand what is required and how you will go about
responding to the task. In this section, however, we will look at the unit outline as
a guide to planning your writing process throughout the term; these are some
areas we will consider:
• Identifying the different sections of a unit outline.
• Estimating how much time you will need for each stage of an assignment.
• Locating deadlines and incorporating them into a study plan.
• Creating a study plan for a course you are currently taking.
Making sense of a unit outline

The unit outline is a valuable source of information that can help you understand
and research your assignments, as well as enable you to participate more
effectively in your course or subject.
Most unit outlines include some, if not all, of the following information:
• General subject information (e.g., course number, code and name; credit
points; prerequisites; meeting dates and times).
• Instructor information (e.g., name, contact information, office hours).
• Aims and objectives of the course.
• Week-by-week plan – may be as brief as a lecture title or as detailed as a

lecture outline, and often includes a weekly schedule of tutorial readings.
• Course requirements (e.g., attendance policy, assessment tasks and criteria,

student obligations for assignment submission, and plagiarism policy).
• Description of major assignments.
• Reading list/required texts.

Activity 2.1: Analysing a unit outline
Over the next few pages, you will find a sample unit outline from a unit similar to
one taught at UWS. Imagine this is a unit you are studying this semester and use
the information provided in the unit outline to fill in the following table:
Questions Comments
In your own words, what is

the aim of the course?
What are the major

assignments for this course?
Which assignment is worth

the most?
Where can you find the task

requirements for the essay
assignment?
What referencing system

should you use for this
subject?
Which lectures/readings will

provide relevant material for
the essay assignment?
What format will the course

meetings take (e.g., formal
lectures, study groups, etc.)?
What will be required of me?
What percentage of course

sessions must you attend?
What is the set text for the

course?
How can the marking

schedule for each
assignment help you in your
planning?
What two important points

are made about getting
extensions?
Figure 7: Unit plan analysis

Sample course outline
ACADEMIC DISCOURSE
Unit Number 12345
SPRING 2005
Unit Convenor and Lecturer (Bankstown): James Brown

Phone: 1234-5678 Ext 5678
e-mail: j.brown@uws.edu.au
Unit Advisor and Lecturer (Penrith): Alice Green

Phone: 2345-6789 Ext 6789
e-mail: a.green@uws.edu.au
Postal Address:
Locked Bag 1797
Penrith South DC NSW 1797
Telephone: (02) 9852 5222

Unit 12345 Outline
UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY
Academic Discourse
Unit Number 12345
Assumed Knowledge: Nil

Pre -Requisite/Co-Requisite: Nil
Duration: One Semester
Credit Points: 10
1. RATIONALE
The unit is available to students wanting to develop their tertiary literacy
skills. The aim of the unit is to increase students’ understanding of
academic discourse while developing academic literacies. The emphasis is
on consolidating clear written and oral expression in appropriate genres,
achieved through critical reading, writing, speaking and thinking in contexts
relevant to study and professional life.
2. OUTCOMES
Through successful completion of this unit, students will:
2.1 Read, analyse and evaluate the information gained through the
course reading materials
2.2 Develop skills to summarise and critique academic articles
2.3 Recognise the value of critical thinking in academic reading, writing
and speaking
2.4 Competently use appropriate oral and written communication to
clearly express ideas that incorporate well-developed argument and
structure
Page 1

Unit 12345 Outline
2.5 Develop written arguments that use appropriate evidence and

stylistic conventions
2.6 Refine skills in the academic genres of annotated bibliography,
essay and oral presentations.
3. CONTENT
3.1 Academic discourse at UWS;
3.2 Relevant academic conventions of style, citation and structure;
3.3 Analysis and argument: criticism and justification;
3.4 Major written academic genres;
3.5 Oral presentation skills;
3.6 An introduction to major debates surrounding language and
learning.
4. PRESENTATION
This unit will be presented through a program of weekly three-hour
sessions over twelve weeks. The subject is presented using a combination
of small group activities and discussions, lectures, workshops and tutorials.
Students are expected to prepare for and contribute to each class so that
the skills and knowledge can be developed over the twelve weeks.
Attendance
This is a workshop/discussion based subject. Your participation in tutorials
is an essential part of learning both as an individual and member of the
group.
You are expected to attend 80% of tutorials and provide documentation,
such as a medical certificate, to cover absences.
Page 2

Unit 12345 Outline
WEEKLY CALENDAR
Date Topic Learning Tasks

·Introduction to the subject
·Course overview
Week 1: ·University culture and academic
expectations
commencing ·Introduction to the annotated
28/7/03 bibliography
·Learning from texts: Understanding
difficult texts
·The annotated bibliography:

Students receive oral presentation
Week 2: Structure
Summarising topics and dates for presentation
4/8/03 ·From reading to note making and
Read Barratt-Pugh (2000).
summarising
·Annotated bibliography continued Read Botterill (1997) and

Week 3: ·Developing a critique of academic Campbell (1996).
texts
11/8/03 ·Comparing and contrasting
Week 4: ·Oral presentation skills for university

Annotated bibliography: Draft due,
·Collecting, organising and presenting
Week beginning 18/8/03
18/8/03 information
·Feedback on first draft

·The assignment writing process Hand in first page of chosen
Week 5:
·Research article for review.
25/8/03 ·Task analysis and planning
Read Comber (2002).
·Structure and purpose
·Critical thinking and argument in Read Freebody & Luke (1990)

Week 6: essays and Gibbs (1994).
·Descriptive and analytical writing
1/9/03 ·Paragraph structure
·Essay writing
Week 7: Completed Annotated
·Using evidence with appropriate
bibliography due, Week beginning
citation
8/9/03 ·Introductions and conclusions
8/9/03
·Essay writing continued Read Grenn, Hodgens & Luke

Week 8: ·Linking paragraphs, linking the (1997) and Kress & Leeuwen
argument (1996).
15/9/03 ·Meta discourse and cohesion
Week 9: ·Academic language Read Lanksher & Synder (2000)

·Register – appropriate language and Reeves (2002).
22/9/03 ·Writing workshop
Page 3

Unit 12345 Outline
University vacation 29/9/03-5/10/03
Independent Study 6/10/03 – 12/10/03
·Other academic genres Essay due, Week beginning

Week 10:
·Oral presentations; giving and 13/10/03.
13/10/03 receiving feedback Read Street (1994).
Week 11: Oral presentations and class

·Oral presentations
feedback
20/10/03
Week 12: Oral presentations and class

·Oral presentations
feedback
27/10/03
5. ASSESSMENT
Please be sure to read carefully the general notes on assessment at
the end of this section.
ASSESSMENT ITEM PERCENTAGE DUE DATE
Draft of first annotation No mark for draft Week 4 18/8/03
Annotated Bibliography 30% Week 7 8/9/03
Essay 45% Week 10 13/10/03
Oral Presentation 25% Weeks 11 and 12
ASSESSMENT TASKS
5.1. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Percentage mark: 30% Total length: 1000 words
Date Due: Draft of first review due in class, Week 4
A copy of first page of your chosen article is due in class,
Week 5.
Complete assignment due in class, Week 7.
Page 4

Unit 12345 Outline
Description
The annotated bibliography consists of three reviews of texts, each being
approximately 350 words. You will be given the first two readings and you
must choose the third text yourself. Take care to choose a suitable
academic text that allows for comparison with the other two readings and
remember to supply a copy of the first page of your chosen article (i.e.,
the third text you aim to review) in class in Week 5.
Each of the three reviews in your annotated bibliography should include
the following stages:
• Full bibliographic details of the text.
• Summary of main issues.
• Critical comments and reflections.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for
the marking criteria for this assessment item. Please attach a copy of the
Marking Schedule to the back of your assignment.
5.2 ESSAY
Percentage mark: 45% Length: 1,500 – 2,000 words
Date Due: in class Week 10
Topic
“The acquisition of literacy begins early in a child’s life.”
Discuss the role of teachers in preparing children for literacy in a
multicultural society.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for
the marking criteria for this assessment item. Please attach a copy of the
Marking Schedule to the back of your assignment.
5.3 ORAL PRESENTATION
Percentage mark: 25% Length: 10 minutes
Date: Weeks 11 and 12
Description
The due date and the topics for the oral presentations will be determined
during class in Week 4.
Page 5

Unit 12345 Outline
Each presentation will be 10 minutes in duration. Feedback will be given at

the conclusion of the presentation by both peers and lecturers.
Students will receive their grading for the individual oral presentation at the
end of the semester. Final grading for this assessment component will
incorporate peer and personal feedback given on the day as well as
lecturer assessment using the marking schedule.
Please consult the Marking Schedule at the back of your unit outline for the
marking criteria for this assessment item.
In Order to Pass this Subject STUDENTS MUST:
• Satisfactorily complete all assessment tasks.
• Attend no less than 80% tutorial/seminar sessions. Failure to attend or
participate may result in a fail grade.
• Demonstrate an adequate standard of presentation, literacy and academic
writing skills in all written work.
ASSIGNMENTS
• Assignments must be handed in with an Assignment Cover Sheet and
submitted as detailed in Section 5. (Refer to the School Assessment Policy
on the web and the University Assessment Policy in the University
Calendar for other information on Assignments)
• Students are required to keep a copy of all written work submitted.
• Returning of assignments. The lecturer will return assignments in class
as soon as they are marked. If there are no classes (in the case of an end
of session assignment), the lecturer will give the class a time and venue
when the assignments can be collected.
• Alternatively an appropriately sized self-addressed stamped envelope can
be attached to your assignment upon handing in and your marked
assignment will be returned to you via post.
• Extension of time to complete an assignment. You must contact the
Lecturer in the first instance and not assume that the extension will be
granted automatically. Extensions of time requests should normally be
supported by documentary evidence (e.g., medical certificate).
• Referencing should follow the Publication Manual of the APA, copies of
which are in Open Reserve in the Library.
Page 6

Unit 12345 Outline
ACADEMIC MISCONDUCT – Refer to the University Calendar for details

• Cheating, plagiarism, or other academic misconduct with respect to term
work, tests or final examinations will constitute student misconduct.
• Plagiarism is the presenting of the words or ideas of others as if they were
your own. It includes copying sections from books or articles without
indicating a quotation and acknowledging the author. Paraphrasing -
changing a passage into your own words - is also plagiarism when the
author of the original works is not acknowledged. Taking or copying work
from other students and presenting it as your own is also plagiarism.
Cases of plagiarism will be treated with the utmost severity. [Refer to
University calendar].
Note: Any student with a disability who may require reasonable
accommodations in the unit is requested to seek advice and
assistance at the commencement of the session or soon after, from
the unit coordinator, in conjunction with the Disability Advisor and/or
Disability Academic Officer.
6. TEXTS
There is no set text for this course. You will be given a set of readings for
the course and other handouts.
7. REFERENCE LIST
Ballard, B. & Clanchy, J. (1997). Essay writing for students. (3rd ed.).
Melbourne: Longman.
Beecher, B. & Arthur, L. (2001). Play and literacy in children’s words.
Sydney: PETA.
Bonnett, A. (2001). How to argue: A student’s guide. New York: Pearson
Education
Collerson, J. (1997). Grammar in teaching. Sydney: PETA.
Cotterill, S. (1999). The study skills handbook. London: Macmillan.
Green, D. & Campbell, R. (2003). Literacies & Learners (2nd edn). Sydney:
Prentice Hall.
Hay, I., Bochner, D. & Dungey, C. (1997). Making the grade: A guide to
successful communication and study. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Page 7

Unit 12345 Outline
McLaren, S. (1997). Easy writer: A student’s guide to writing essays and

reports. Glebe, NSW: Pascal Press.
Reid, J.M. & Lindstrom, M. (1985). The process of paragraph writing. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Scoufis, M., James, B., Farrell, H., Carmichael, E., Driscoll, K. & Craigie,
D. (1995). Critical analysis: What is it? (2nd ed.) Kingswood, NSW: UWS
Nepean.
Morley-Warner, T. (2002). Academic writing is…: A guide to writing in a
university context. Sydney: CREA Publications.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Australian Journal of Language and Literacy
Available through UWS library (Expanded Academic ASAP Plus)
Primary English Teachers Association (PETA)
Resources and professional links available at: http://www.peta.edu.au/
Page 8

Marking Schedule: Annotated Bibliography

Student Name: ________________________________________________
Criterion Article One Article Two Your article Total (30)
(10) (10) (10)
Introduction (1)
Full bibliographical details
Overview statement
Summary (3)
Accurate summary of main

points with reference to text
Critique (4)
Links with summary (eg

comment on ideas raised in
summary)
Comments are adequately

developed and supported with
evidence
Critical judgements are of

academic concern
Awareness of author’s position

and assumptions
Reasonableness of positive
and negative criticisms
Relevance of chosen article
Presentation and Language

(2)
Clear expression
Coherence and logic (e.g.,

author or text is fore-
grounded)
Appropriate style
Total
Comments
Grand Total:___________

Marking Schedule: Essay

Student Name:____________________________________________________
Criterion Value Mark Comment
Content 10
Acceptable interpretation of question
Thorough understanding of subject
Evidence of wide & relevant reading
Adequate coverage of content
Argument and evidence 10
Clear statement of writer’s position
Logical development of argument
Adequate discussion of relevant issues/concepts

(depth)
Evidence of ability to interpret & incorporate

evidence appropriately
Evidence of critical thinking
Structure 15
Introduction: orientation, thesis, preview
Body:
logical sequence (as per preview)
paragraphs have topic and supporting

sentences
linking between paragraphs
Conclusion: restates thesis & summarises main

arguments
Academic language and presentation 10
Appropriate academic style
Accurate grammar and punctuation
Correct APA referencing
Clear layout
Marking schedule & cover sheet attached
Total Mark 45
Comments

Marking Schedule: Oral Presentation

Student Name: ________________________________________________
Presentation Topic: ___________________________________________
Peer Reviewer: ________________________________________________
Marks Comments
(7) Voice and Audible & comprehensible

Presentation Appropriate volume and
projection
Good timing
Eye contact
Audience rapport
Appropriate & useful visual aids
Appropriate body language
Ability to engage audience
(7) Structure Clear structure:
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Logically sequenced
Well signposted
(9) Content Appropriate to task & audience
Appropriate balance of
description and analysis
Adequate coverage of key

issues eg good explanation and
use of evidence
Well researched
(2) Overall
impression
Comments
Total: ______________

Now that you’ve familiarised yourself with the general structure of a unit outline,
take a look at the course information provided by one of your own lecturers.
Activity 2.2: Analysing your own unit plan
Answer these questions for one of the courses you’re taking now:
1. What are the major assignments? When are they due?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How much does each assignment contribute to your final mark?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the lecturer specify which referencing system you should use? If so,
which one? Have you used this system before?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What is the attendance policy for this course?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. How will the assessment tasks help you further your learning in the
course?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Getting more information

While your unit outline will provide you with a great deal of information, there may
be more you need to know about your course or assignments. One of the best
resources you have as a student is your lecturer or tutor.
Many students find communicating with instructors to be quite intimidating and
are often hesitant to approach them. Most instructors, however, are pleased to

talk with their students and enjoy interacting with them outside of class. The key
is to be prepared. These guidelines can help you make the most of the
opportunity you have to speak with your instructor:
• Make an appointment, if possible. Most instructors keep regular office

hours that they set aside specifically to meet with students. Make use of
them. Let your instructor know that you’ll be coming in during those office
hours, and find out if it is possible to schedule an appointment so that you’ll
be guaranteed some time. (Some lecturers and tutors prefer a first-come,
first-serve approach to their office hours and won’t accept appointments
during that time.) Almost all your teachers, however, will schedule an
appointment with you if you are unable to come to their office hours due to
an unavoidable scheduling conflict.
• Have a specific question in mind. Few things are more frustrating to a

lecturer than to be confronted with a student whose only comment is “I
don’t understand.” This may very well be true; after all, you wouldn’t need
an appointment if you understood everything perfectly. You must, however,
be more specific when you ask for assistance. Before you meet with your
instructor, plan your request. What exactly is causing you difficulty? Are
you having problems interpreting an assignment topic? Did you find a
particular section of a lecture to be confusing? Also, give some thought to
what kind of assistance you’d like your instructor to provide. He or she will
not be able to give you information that could give you an unfair advantage
over other students (answers to possible exam questions, for example);
make sure you are asking for reasonable assistance.
• Don’t go empty-handed. If you have a question about a specific

assignment, try preparing something before you meet with your instructor.
Your session will be much more productive if you can present some ideas
and ask if you’re on the right track than if you go with nothing prepared and
ask to be told what to do.
Planning your study time

Budgeting your time is an important skill you will need to develop as a university
student. In Chapter 1, Beginning university studies, you learned some ways to
make the most of your time. In this section, you will find some tools designed to
help you create a study schedule for yourself that can be as general or as
detailed as you like.
All of these tools are different types of study planners. A study planner, used in
conjunction with your course outline, can be a very useful tool for organising your
study time. In this section, we will look at:
• course plans
• semester planners
• weekly planners.

Study plan
Below is a possible plan for the unit of study described in the sample unit outline
presented earlier in this chapter. For every week in the unit, tasks are scheduled
based upon major assignments and their due dates.
Week 1 Analyse oral presentation assignment; begin brainstorming

potential topics for presentation.
Week 2 Analyse annotated bibliography assignment; read recommended

texts.
Week 3 Begin note taking and draft review of first assigned text; visit
library to begin research for third text; select third text.
Week 4 Begin note taking and draft review of second text; begin note
making and drafting third review; submit draft of first review.
Week 5 Write second drafts of all three reviews; review marking schedule
in course outline to ensure you’re on track; submit first page of
third article.
Week 6 Write and edit third and final draft of complete annotated
bibliography assignment.
Week 7 Submit annotated bibliography assignment; analyse essay

assignment; read relevant articles; brainstorm ideas.
Week 8 Visit library to select additional resources; read additional

resources; review essay marking schedule in course outline to
ensure you’re on track; develop an essay plan.
Week 9 Clarify essay task and plan with subject lecturer(s); modify
plan/add research if necessary; write first draft of essay
Vacation Write and edit second draft; analyse oral presentation

assignment; brainstorm for ideas.
Independent Make an appointment with the Student Learning Unit to review

Study draft; write and edit final draft for content and essay structure,
referencing, grammar, and spelling; develop a plan for oral
presentation; locate and read additional resources, if necessary.
Week 10 Submit essay; review oral presentation marking schedule to

ensure you’re on track; write first draft of presentation.
Week 11 Write and edit second draft of presentation; practice presentation

out loud for timing and delivery; deliver presentation (if
scheduled).
Week 12 Deliver presentation (if scheduled).

Figure 8: Possible course plan

Your attendance at lectures and tutorials is assumed and not specifically referred
to in the above plan. However, it is to your benefit to attend all the lectures and
tutorials; in most units at UWS you will be required to attend at least 80 percent of
the scheduled class meetings in order to pass.
Notice that in this plan plenty of time is reserved for research, drafting, and
editing. Preparing your assignments is a process; planning ahead for each step of
the process can save you a great deal of time and frustration throughout the
semester.
Activity 2.3: Preparing your own study plan
Using a unit outline for a unit you are currently taking, create a plan below.
WEEK Week Tasks

commences
(date)
Figure 9: Personal course plan

Semester planners
If you were only taking one unit of study in a semester, the table above would be
enough to plan for all your assignments. Most students, however, take anywhere
from two to six courses each semester.
Using a semester planner can help you organise your study tasks over several
units. For each course, identify the major assignment due dates and other
important events; then enter those dates onto your semester planner. This will
give you an overall picture of how your assignments will overlap throughout the
term and allow you to allocate time in advance for the research, thinking, and
writing needed for each task.
On the next page, you will find a schedule that you could use for this large-scale
kind of planning.
Activity 2.4: Using a semester planner
Photocopy the semester planner on the next page; then follow these steps to fill
in the planner:
1. Fill in the weeks (1-14) and dates of the Semester. There is a 1-2 week
mid-semester break that usually occurs after Week 6, 7 or 8 (see your
UWS CALENDAR to determine when it will occur). Weeks 15-16 are
usually reserved for centrally coordinated exams.
2. Fill in the Planner with all your assessment tasks for the Semester.
Remember, if an essay is not due until Week 9, you may need to start
working on it in Week 6 or 7 (if not sooner).
Often students find that many of their major assignments are due at
roughly the same time. For most, it is simply impossible to work on four
assignments at once. Therefore, if you have four assignments due in
Week 9, you may need to commence working in Week 3, aiming to
complete one in Week 6, and then one each in Weeks 7, 8 and 9.
3. Add other events that will affect your capacity for study to the Semester
Planner (e.g. your sister's wedding; a football trip, etc).
4. Talk to your lecturer BEFORE an assignment due date if you are unable
to meet the deadline. In this way, your lecturer may be more open to
negotiate an extension.
If the reasons are quite personal and you would not feel comfortable
talking to the lecturer, you should make an appointment on your campus to
talk with a counsellor. The counsellor may be able to assist you with your
concern and can recommend an extension without disclosing the details of
what you have discussed.
DO NOT LEAVE IT UNTIL AFTER THE ASSIGNMENT IS DUE - THIS IS

ALMOST ALWAYS TOO LATE!

SUBJECT
Begins
Week
WEEK
1
2
3
4
5
6
SEMESTER PLANNER
7
8
PERIOD
EXAM
Figure 10: Semester planner

Weekly planners
You have already done a great deal of planning for your study. You have:
• analysed the unit plan for each unit of study;
• created a study plan for each unit; and
• entered important dates into a semester plan.

Some people find it helpful to break down their study time even further, assigning
time each day to specific tasks. If you find this detailed kind of planning helpful, a
weekly planner can be a useful tool.
The weekly planner on the next page is an example of this kind of schedule.
Activity 2.5: Using a weekly planner
Photocopy the weekly planner on the next page; then follow these steps to fill in
the planner:
1. When filling out your Planner, make sure you leave time for everything in
your life: sleeping, eating, travel, exercise, relaxing/having fun with family
and friends, earning money, domestic duties and, of course, attending
classes and studying.
2. You may wish to colour code your Planner (e.g., classes in black, study in
red, time at work in green, etc).
3. Once you've filled it in, look over your Planner - does your life appear
balanced?
Students often ask how much time a week they should allocate to study.
Estimates vary, usually between one and two hours of study for every hour in
class, depending upon how many class hours you are required to attend. That is,
if you only have 15 hours/week in class, you might need to spend 30 hours
studying; if you have 25 hours/week in class, you might only be able to spend 25
hours studying. It also of course differs from individual to individual and from time
to time throughout the Semester.

9 – 10
7–8
5–6
4–5
2–3
1–2
12 – 1 PM
10 – 11
9 – 10
8–9
7 – 8 AM
TIME
MON
TUES
WEEKLY PLANNER
WED
THURS
FRI
SAT
SUN
Figure 11: Weekly planner

Presenting your assignment
For your assignments, the process of composing your writing is important and
can be difficult. The practical aspects of preparing a final piece of work for
assessment are not intellectually taxing, but require common sense and effort.
Many good assignments have fallen down because of poor presentation. Even
though markers try not to be influenced by the appearance and layout of your
work, their judgement may be affected by surface features over which you have a
great deal of control. It therefore pays to make the effort not to lose marks.
Word processing
A word processor provides, with the minimum expenditure of time and effort, the
opportunity to experiment with the arrangement of words and ideas. Development
of a final draft may involve cutting and pasting words, sentences, paragraphs, or
whole sections a number of times as part of the writing/editing process.
Word processors also make professional presentation easy to achieve. Headings,
italics, tables, and so on can be readily incorporated to improve readability and
graphics can enhance the written word. Be careful, however, not to rely on
presentation to hide poor quality content.
Using “checkers” in your word processing
Most computers have tools like word count, spelling and grammar checkers, a
thesaurus and style checkers, all of which can be a valuable aid to your writing. It
is a good idea to use these tools before printing your final copy.
A few words of warning: these “checker” tools included with your word processing
program can lead you astray as easily as they can help. The grammar and spell
checker are not very sensitive to context – that means they won’t always catch all
your errors, and may even tell you to correct items in your writing that are not wrong.
Because of these issues, many people find these checkers to be very frustrating.
The key is to investigate why the program has identified the item in your writing
for correction; rather than simply accepting that it needs to be changed, consider
the suggested remedies and decide for yourself whether or not they apply to the
context of that particular sentence. You can also use a grammar book or seek
help from a friend who is good at writing in English.

Presentation
The presentation requirements for assignments vary widely. Make sure that you
know exactly what your lecturer requires. Be prepared to adjust your presentation
style to conform to the requirements set out in different units and for individual
assignments.
Generally speaking, though, the following suggestions will help your assignment
to be reader-friendly:
• Make sure your presentation is in keeping with the nature of the assign-
ment, which will usually ask for a scholarly style with a professional layout.
A good presentation does not involve using edge trimmings, pretty pictures
and expensive folders.
• Include the full and correct title of the assignment. Do not abbreviate or
change the title of the set topic.
• Include an accurate and detailed contents page if writing a lengthy report.

Begin numbering your pages from the beginning of the writing proper (i.e.
immediately following the contents page).
• Make sure your written work can stand alone and is comprehensible and
complete. Supporting material is usually better placed in an appendix right
at the end of your work and after your reference list.
• Use headings and sub-headings as an integral part of an assignment if

appropriate. Headings can also be included in conventional essays as they
help to delineate the structure of the piece. As you may be doing electives
from other faculties, you should be aware that the use of headings in
essays is frowned upon within certain disciplines. You must be sure to
check with your lecturer about the policy of using headings. As a general
rule, do not number headings in an essay.
• Acknowledge all sources that you use. It is essential that you make
yourself familiar with the referencing system that is the accepted mode of
acknowledging the sources in your subject.
• Insert page numbers in the final document. These can help your marker to
navigate the assignment and to give you feedback on specific parts.
• Use A4 paper, as this is the widely accepted size to use. Regardless of

which size you use, all pages of your assignment must be the same size
and carefully clipped together. Loose sheets are unacceptable.
• Write on one side of the paper only. The margins should leave plenty of
room for any written comments from your lecturers.
• Use a word processor to generate your assignments, as lecturers, on the

whole, do not accept handwriting.

• Make sure the marker can read the work comfortably and easily. The
quality of the type (font and spacing) influences the reader-friendliness of
your work. Double spaced typing contributes to ease of reading. Two sets
of spaces are left between paragraphs. If handwritten work is acceptable
for an assignment, and your handwriting is not easily read, you should
write on every second line.
• Use a folder for your assignment. However, you should make sure your
name and assignment details are immediately visible. Folders with a
transparent front are marker-friendly. Choose a folder that allows the
reader to turn the pages easily. It is better not to insert your assignment or
individual pages into a plastic sleeve unless requested by the lecturer.
Security
It is your responsibility to keep a copy of the completed assignment in case of
theft or accidental loss. Save it on a USB memory stick.
Meeting deadlines
It is your responsibility to ensure that your assignment is submitted on time and
reaches the person responsible for receiving it.
Your School may have particular rules regarding late submissions. Some Schools
do not accept late submissions at all. It is your responsibility to work within the set
guidelines. Some lecturers may allow you to submit the assignment late but with
a penalty for every day after the due date.
If your School does not have stated rules, you should nevertheless try to present
your assignment by the due date. If it appears that for legitimate reasons you are
unable to meet that commitment you should negotiate courteously with your
lecturer. Prior to the set date, and not on the day the assignment is due, you
should explain your problem and suggest an alternative submission date. The
responsibility is yours to deal with the lateness and offer an acceptable solution.
If you are running late, it is not wise to put your problems on the back burner, and
pretend that they will go away. You will do more for your image as a responsible
and competent student if you have the courage to face up and deal with problems.
Students who stay away from lectures on the day that assignments are due
present a poor picture of their professionalism.
Asking for extensions can have cumulative negative consequences. You may find
yourself with a pile up of demands towards the end of the semester, which might
lead you into further difficulties.
Remember, you will find that good writing always requires effort and commitment.
You cannot expect to become an outstanding writer overnight. Practice with
feedback is the only way to help you refine your writing skills. Developing and

effectively using all the component skills is a long process and if you genuinely
wish to improve you must persist. Remember the effort you expend now will pay
dividends not only for the writing you do in your academic training, but also in
your future profession.
In conclusion...
Before you can manage your writing, you must understand why you are required
to produce academic writing in the first place. Once those reasons are clear to
you, you can begin to plan the writing process.
An invaluable tool in your planning toolbox is the unit outline. Your unit outline
contains a great deal of important information that will help you to effectively
respond to your written tasks.
Understanding why you need to produce academic writing and making the most
of the information contained in your unit outline are important factors in analysing
your writing tasks, which is the focus of Chapter 3, Understanding the task.
Finally, format and presentation are integral to the writing process. Paying
attention to detail will have its benefits.

Activity 2.1
Questions Comments
What are the major Annotated bibliography

assignments for this course? Essay
Oral presentation
(See page 4 and 5 of the unit outline.)
When are they due? Annotated bibliography – due in week 7
Essay – due in week 10
Oral presentation – due in weeks 11 and 12
(See page 4 and 5 of the unit outline.)
Which assignment is worth the The essay is worth 45% of the final mark.
most toward my final mark? (See page 5 of the unit outline.)
Where can I find the task Section 5.2 on page 5 of the unit outline describes the
requirements for the essay essay task, and the marking schedule for the essay
assignment? assignment also contains useful information.
What referencing system should APA system

I use for this subject? (See page 6.)
Which lectures/readings will The lectures in weeks 5 – 9 will be especially relevant.

provide relevant material for the Most of the readings will be useful in some way or
essay assignment? another, but Ballard, Beecher, Green, and McLaren
are most pertinent.
What format will the course The course meetings will be a combination of small
meetings take (e.g., formal group activities and discussions, lectures, workshops
lectures, study groups, etc.)? and tutorials.
What sort of participation will be
required of me? Students are expected to attend at least 80% of class
meetings.
What is the set text for the There is no set text for the course; instead students
course? will use a series of readings and handouts provided by
the lecturer.
How can the marking schedule The marking schedule provides detailed information
for each assignment help me in on how each task will be assessed. It describes
my planning? specifically what the marker is looking for and how the
student can meet the criteria.

Activity 2.2
Answers will vary.
Activity 2.3
Answers will vary.
Activity 2.4
Answers will vary.
Activity 2.5
Answers will vary.

Chapter 3
Understanding the task
Introduction
In the previous chapter, you read about why you will be asked to complete writing
tasks at university; then you were asked to think about the specific courses you
are taking and how that information might relate to them.
In this chapter, you will look closely at the writing tasks themselves and analyse
the different aspects of an assignment. When you have finished this chapter, you
will be able to:
• Analyse a writing task so that you fully understand what is being asked
of you
• Locate and define key words and phrases in the task
• Identify the intended audience of a text
• Establish the purpose of a piece of writing.
Checking your understanding of the task
Before you can start researching for your assignment, you must understand the
task you face. The following three elements are important in checking your
understanding.
• Clarifying the task.
• Identifying the audience.
• Establishing the purpose of the piece of writing.

Clarifying the task

Before you can begin the writing process, you must make sure that you have
clearly understood what it is that you are supposed to be writing about. To do this,
you will need to break the assignment task down into its different parts.
Key words
Locating key words in a writing task will help you decide what kind of approach
you should take in your response. There are three types of key words:
• Topic words/phrases tell you what you are going to write about. They
define the topic, indicating the areas you should concentrate on. These are
generally easy to identify, as they are the topics that you have probably
studied in your Unit.
• Task words/phrases describe how you will write your assignment (what
you will need to do to complete the assignment). These words are usually
verbs, but might be question words, e.g. Why? How?
• Focus words/phrases are the aspects of the topic you are asked to pay
particular attention to.
Topic Focus
Example 1: Schoolies week is an important rite of passage for Australian

teenagers. Discuss.
Task word
Topic
Example 2: Since sustainability is a key concept of the twenty-first century, it

should be included as part of the curriculum of primary and
secondary schools throughout Australia. Do you agree?
Focus Task words
Task words
Making sense of key words, particularly task words, is a very important preliminary
step in the writing process. Following is a table of common task words.

Some common task words/phrases

Account for Explain, clarify, give reasons for
Different from “give an account of”, which is more like “describe in detail”
Analyse Break an issue down into its component parts, discuss them and show how
they interrelate
Argue Make a case, based on appropriate evidence, for and/or against some given
point of view
Assess Consider the value or importance of something, paying due attention to

positive, negative, and disputable aspects, and citing the judgments of any
known authorities, as well as your own.
Comment on More than “describe” or “summarise”; implies a level of analysis and

assessment; see also “discuss”
Compare Identify the characteristics or qualities two or more things have in common (but
probably pointing out their differences as well)
Contrast Point out the differences between two things (but probably point out their
similarities as well)
Criticise Spell out your judgment as to the value or truth of something, indicating the
criteria on which you base your judgment and citing specific instances of how
the criteria apply in this case
Define Make a statement as to the meaning or interpretation of something, giving

sufficient detail so as to allow it to be distinguished from similar things
Describe Spell out the main aspects of an idea or topic or the sequence in which a series
of things happened
Discuss Develop a balanced argument by exploring, analysing and debating the range
of perspectives that apply. Research widely, sort through the available
evidence, weigh up the arguments for and against, and analyse alternatives to
arrive at an informed conclusion. One of the most common task words; similar
to “comment on” (see above)
Enumerate List some relevant items in continuous prose (rather than in note form) and
perhaps “describe” them (see above) as well
Evaluate Like “assess” (see above)
Explain Tell how things work or how they came to be the way they are, including
perhaps some need to “describe” and to “analyse” (see above)
To what extent Explore the case for a stated proposition or explanation, much in the manner of
“assess” and “criticise” (see above), probably arguing for a less than total
acceptance of the proposition
How far Similar to “to what extent” (see above)
Identify Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making
clear the criteria you use
Illustrate Similar to “explain” (see above), but probably asking for the quoting of specific
examples or statistics or possibly the drawing of maps, graphs, sketches, etc.

Interpret Clarify something or “explain” (see above), perhaps indicating how the thing
relates to some other thing or perspective
Justify Express valid reasons for accepting a particular interpretation or conclusion,

probably including the need to “argue” (see above) a case
Outline Indicate the main features of a topic or sequence of events, possibly setting
them within a clear structure or framework to show how they interrelate
Prove Demonstrate the truth of something by offering irrefutable evidence and/or

logical sequence of statements leading from evidence to conclusion
Reconcile Show how two apparently opposed or mutually exclusive ideas or propositions
can be seen to be similar in important respects, if not identical. Involves need
to “analyse” and “justify” (see above)
Relate Either “explain” (see above) how things happened or are connected in a cause-
and-effect sense, or may imply “compare” and “contrast” (see above)
Review Survey a topic, with the emphasis on “assess” rather than “describe” (see
above)
State Express the main points of an idea or topic, perhaps in the manner of
“describe” or “enumerate” (see above)
Summarise “State” (see above) the main features of an argument, omitting all superfluous
detail and side-issues
Trace Identify the connection between one thing and another either in a
developmental sense over a period of time, or else in a cause-and-effect
sense. May imply both “describe” and “explain” (see above)
Adapted from: Rowntree, D. 1998. Learn How to Study – A Realistic Approach. Warner Books: London.
Figure 12: Common task words
Question words
Sometimes the task is set by a question word instead of a verb. Some of the most
common question words are:
• What is/was? What impact/effect? In what ways? How do/did? How far?
(These are usually ‘explain’ type essays.)
• Why? How far? To what extent? How effectively? Was? Do you agree? Is
this fair comment? How important? What do you think?
(These are usually ‘argue’ or ‘discuss’ type essays.)
Of course, these question words only make sense when seen in conjunction with
the focus and topic words. However, even then, it can be difficult to identify what
you actually have to do, and you may need to clarify the task with your lecturer or
tutor before going any further.

Focus words
It is also very important to look closely at the focus words. These significantly
affect what you include or exclude in your essay, and also how much space you
might devote to different areas. Let’s look again at the first essay question on
page 54:
“Schoolies week is an important rite of passage for Australian teenagers”
Discuss.
A change in the focus words of this question (in italics) would very much affect
how you write about schoolies week. Look at these examples and think about
how an essay on these topics would be quite different:
1. “Schoolies week is the most important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers” Discuss.
2. “Schoolies week may be an important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers but it is a time of great anxiety for many parents.” Discuss.
3. “Schoolies week has become an important rite of passage for Australian
teenagers, but it has now degenerated to a spectacle of excess.” Discuss.
To demonstrate the process, a sample question is analysed below:
Account for the rapid spread of HIV AIDS in Africa since the eighties.
How has HIV AIDS affected infant health?
Topic words Task words Focus words
HIV AIDS Account for rapid spread

How Africa since the eighties
affected infant health
Strategies to get started
Brainstorming
Brainstorming means writing down any ideas at all that come to mind when you
read the question. Some of the ideas may end up being irrelevant, but that does
not matter at this stage. The idea is to get you started on thinking about the essay
question. A brainstorm on the HIV AIDS question might look like this:
social factors statistics on Africa, other parts of world
role of women statistics on infant health
civil wars, conflicts availability of medicine
famine world aid – ignored problem? Why?

Mind mapping
Mind mapping is a more organised kind of brainstorming. As well as writing down

ideas, you organise them in categories and sub-categories. For example, on the
HIV AIDS question you might have:
prejudice level of aid

issues
examples ignorance medicine
violence
towards world
women civil wars response
areas
Africa statistics HIV AIDS famine

statistics
in Africa
the rest of social effects

the world
men/women
/children
social
factors
education
poverty
role of
women
Figure 13: Example of mind map

Research focusing questions
Another strategy is to form some questions about the topics and focus aspects.
These will serve as the basis of your research and help you to understand every
aspect of the question. In some cases, these questions might suggest a structure
for your essay as well – giving you the main focuses for your body paragraphs.
This could be the case in this essay.
General Specific
What? What factors aided the spread of HIV AIDS in Africa?
How? How are the effects on infants different from the affects on adults?
Why? Why has HIV AIDS spread more rapidly in Africa than in other places?
Who? Who is most responsible for infant health?
When? When was the extent of the potential danger from HIV AIDS first
recognised?
What if? What if the epidemic is not contained?
Figure 14: Research questions
Sometimes the question will suggest a two-part structure for your essay. The HIV
AIDS question could be dealt with in two parts – HIV AIDS in Africa in general
and the effect of this on infant health.
It is good to start thinking about the essay structure at this early stage, although
you might change your mind about the detail as you start firm planning.
Activity 3.1 Estimating word allocation
Now, let’s assume that the question below requires a response of 2,000 words.
How had HIV AIDS affected infant health?
Discuss:
1. What is a realistic allocation of words to answer each part of the question?
To the introduction? To the conclusion?
2. Why is it beneficial to plan your approximate allocation of words even
before you begin writing?

Activity 3.2 Analysing an assignment question
Here is the task for the major writing assignment from the unit outline provided in
Chapter 2, Managing your writing.
“The acquisition of literacy begins early in a child’s life.” Discuss the role
of teachers in preparing children for literacy in a multicultural society.
1. Analyse this question by identifying the:
(a) Topic words ___________________________________________
(b) Task words ___________________________________________
(c) Focus words ___________________________________________
2. Formulate some questions that could guide your research
General Specific
What?
How?
Why?
Who?
When?
What if?
Figure 15: Creating research questions
Overview of strategies
Listed below are the main strategies that can help you clarify your understanding
of a writing task:
• Read the question/s (and any other supporting material) at least twice.
• Check the definitions of words or phrases you may not fully understand,
especially technical words
• Locate topic words/phrases, directive words/phrases and focus

words/phrases.

• Brainstorm, mind-map or formulate a set of questions to guide your

research (or perhaps all three).
• Paraphrase (or rewrite) the question in your own words.
• Consider how the assignment is to be presented and check guidelines and

assessment criteria.
• Check back to the course objectives, recommended readings and class

topics to see how they relate to the task.
• Discuss your understanding of the task with fellow students.
Seeking further clarification
Even after you have employed these strategies, the task you have been given
may still be unclear to you, perhaps because you do not understand the
terminology, or because it is expressed in very general terms. If that is the case,
you should discuss the topic with your lecturer or tutor.
Remember, speaking with your tutor or lecturer will be more useful if you have
made every effort to analyse the question on your own first. Most lecturers will not
be receptive if you make an appointment having done little or no preparation
yourself. As you discovered in Chapter 2, Managing your writing, being well prepared
for a meeting with your instructor will result in a far more productive session.
A useful strategy is to jot down the points the lecturer makes during your
discussion. At the conclusion of your visit, you should repeat to the lecturer what
you think you have discussed in order to check that you both have the same
understanding of what the topic involves.
As well as checking your understanding of the question, you should make sure
you know what kind of research you'll need to do. Ask yourself questions like:
• Will I have to find a lot of additional material in the library?
• If so, how much will be enough?
• How much will be too much? What kinds of material?
• Where else can I find relevant material?
• If not, do I have the required material already?
• Will I have to carry out surveys or gather my own data?

All of these questions are ones that you may need to confirm with your tutor or
lecturer, if the information is not provided in your course outline or during class
meetings.

Identifying the audience

Assignment writing comes under the general heading of expository writing. When
writing, you usually wish to inform or persuade your reader. Writing for lecturers is
somewhat of an artificial situation in that the audience is generally better informed
about the topic than the writer. Therefore, the lecturer will be reading your assign-
ment from a particular perspective.
Since your lecturer is already an informed audience, you should write to demon-
strate your competence in managing the content under discussion and arguing a
case effectively. Often lecturers will outline or describe their requirements of an
assignment, and you should be alert to what they say. Some students even find it
helpful to use the vocabulary, terminology, expressions and orientation that
lecturers use.
Sometimes assignments are set which specify an imaginary reader such as an
imaginary employer or business client. In these cases, you should be thinking
about the needs of this reader and how different the writing might be compared
with a more strictly academic piece of writing.
It is easy to forget about an audience when you are so involved in the personal
activity of articulating your thoughts. Regardless of whom you are writing for, you
should never forget that writing is communication. You would do well to pause
from time to time to check that what you have written makes sense to the reader
and communicates information in a reader-friendly way.
Establishing the purpose

By combining (1) the task with (2) the reader, you have a lot of information that
helps you to understand the purpose of writing. In addition, you should be careful
to note the advice given in the task requirements, the question, the format of the
assignment, and any other clues to work out exactly what the purpose of the
writing will be.
As you saw in Chapter 2, Managing your writing, your unit outline will also give
you valuable information about the purpose of your writing. Remember to read all
the information provided to you by your instructor as you think about the task.
The following table includes a list of key words and their purposes:
Key words Purpose
list / describe / summarise to inform
explain / justify / critique to persuade
compare / argue / hypothesise to speculate
Figure 16: Essay question key words

When you put all these different aspects together (task, reader, format and
purpose), you should know enough about what you have to do, and what the
'shape' will be of your final piece of writing. In the context of academic writing,
here are some common shapes or “genres” that result:
Written genre Purpose
A summary of published literature on a demonstrates that you have found relevant

topic literature and that you understand it.
A critical review of published literature demonstrates that you can analyse, show
on a topic relationships between, and evaluate the
significance of literature on a certain topic.
An essay justifying your views on a demonstrates that you can develop a clear
topic, supported by relevant published and logical response that is your own
literature interpretation but is supported by evidence.
A case study analysing a particular demonstrates that you can identify key issues
case and recommending a course of and relate theory to a workplace situation.
action
A journal on your learning experiences demonstrates that you have reflected on and
analysed the process of your learning.
A report on a field study or industry describes what happened, and explains how
placement the practice is related to the theory.
Figure 17: Purpose of academic genres
When you are facing the task of writing in a genre or shape that is unfamiliar, and
in a field of knowledge that is new to you, it can be very confusing and sometimes
rather worrying. (You will learn more about academic writing genres in Chapter 6,
Writing your assignment.) It is important to be aware that this could happen and to
try to find out as much as you can about the requirements for each assigned task.
In conclusion...
Making sure you understand all the factors involved in an academic writing task is
an essential early step in the writing process. To do that, you must determine
specifically what the requirements are, what the purpose is, who the audience will
be, as well as developing your own research questions.
Those research questions will guide you as you seek out supporting information
and texts. Making sense of all the information you gather requires you to exercise
you critical thinking skills; ways to develop these skills are the focus of Chapter 4,
Thinking critically.

Activity 3.1 Estimating word allocation - discuss
How has HIV AIDS affected infant health?
1. How you allocate words to section of a task depend on the instruction
given to you by your lecturer. However, one way might be to treat each
section of the question as equally important. If you took this approach, you
might then allocate 800 – 900 words to each section which would then
allow you approximately 100 -150 words for the introduction and 100 -150
words for the conclusion.
Alternatively, you may decide to allocate 1200 words to the first section,
600 to the second section and still have 200 words to ‘share’ between the
introduction and the conclusion.
2. It is beneficial to plan out your word allocation before starting your
research so that you:
• know how much research to gather
• don’t waste time gathering data you can never use
• focus on the important aspects of the task and helps you keep the balance
between the sections of the task.

Activity 3.2 Analysing an assignment question
1. Identify key words in assignment question
(a) Topic words: acquisition of literacy
(b) Task words: Discuss
(c) Focus words: role of teachers, preparing children, multicultural society
2. Formulating questions to guide your research. The questions in the table

below are suggestions; there are many other useful and relevant
questions.
What? What can teachers do to help facilitate the acquisition of

literacy?
How? How is the learning environment in a multicultural environment

different from that in a homogenous culture?
Why? Why is it important to consider literacy issues early in a child’s

education?
Who? Who can help teachers understand the best way to teach
children from varying cultural backgrounds?
When? When did multiculturalism first become an issue in childhood

education?
What if? What if teachers don’t account for children’s cultural

backgrounds in the classroom?

Chapter 4
Thinking critically
Thinking critically
Introduction
Critical thinking means thinking carefully, questioning and testing what you hear
and read, and being prepared to examine and if necessary change your beliefs
and ideas. In the university context, critical thinking often refers to the skills and
attitudes needed for evaluating texts and arguments.
In previous studies, you may have developed ‘surface learning’ skills such as:
• memorizing and rote learning
• summarising and describing
• reproducing (copying or reporting what you read, without comment or

acknowledgement).
At university, you are expected to develop ‘deep learning’ skills, such as:
• acknowledging the source of quotations
• relating ideas (by comparison, contrast and/or synthesis)
• interpreting, analysing and evaluating what you read and hear
• questioning claims and assumptions (by asking ‘What is the evidence for
that? What are the implications of that?)
• using theory to help you understand new ideas and situations.

Skills such as memorisation will always be important, but success and
independence as a learner and practitioner require approaches that are more
critical. Deep or analytical learning is learning where you question what you read.
In other words, you become a critical reader and writer.
This does not mean looking for faults with everything. It means looking for and
evaluating the reasons and evidence for what people (including your own
lecturers) say and do and write. It also means being critical and reflective about
your own beliefs, habits and approaches.
By the time you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe what it means to be a critical thinker
• Identify the different stages of the critical thinking process
• Implement strategies to develop your own critical thinking skills in the

areas of reading, writing, speaking and listening.

Thinking critically
A critical thinker is...
A critical thinker is someone who is able to think well and fair-mindedly not just
about his or her own beliefs and viewpoints, but also about the beliefs and
viewpoints that are opposed to their own.
Critical thinkers don’t only think about others’ beliefs and points of view but try to
explore and appreciate their adequacy, their cohesion, and their reasonableness
when compared to their own.
People who think critically are not just willing and able to explore alien, potentially
threatening viewpoints, but they desire to do so. They question their own deeply
held beliefs, and if there are no opposing viewpoints immediately available, they
seek them out or construct them themselves.
Therefore, critical thinking involves setting aside, or “suspending”, your own
personal beliefs, prejudices, and opinions to sort out the facts and discover the
truth, even at the expense of your basic belief.
Activity 4.1: Identifying critical thinkers
Think of two or three people that you would describe as good critical thinkers.
Now, think of two or three people that you would describe as poor critical thinkers.
Keeping these people in mind, answer the following questions:
1. What is it about these people that led you to categorise them the way you
did? Specifically, what can the good critical thinkers do that the poor critical
thinkers can’t?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What attitudes or approaches do the good critical thinkers have that the
poor critical thinkers don’t seem to possess?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Thinking critically
3. Based on your answers to the previous questions and the description

above, what critical thinking skills do you think you already have? Where
do you think you need to work on your skills?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(Adapted from Facione, P. Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts.)
The process of critical thinking
Critical thinking is a process. Many students are able to proceed through the first
two or three stages of the process, but may not understand how to move further.
Most university assignments cannot be successfully completed, however, without
implementing the later stages of the process as well.
By proceeding through all the stages of this process, you will demonstrate the
level of understanding and awareness that many lecturers classify under the
umbrella of critical thinking or analysis.
Critical thinking can be considered to have six stages:
• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation

Thinking critically
Knowledge
The first stage of critical thinking can be defined as your ability to recall what you
have learned. Assignments that ask you to reproduce information may contain
words like:
name relate
list tell
recognise recall
choose match
label define
Comprehension
The second stage is that of comprehension – understanding what you have
learned. You can demonstrate this comprehension in the following ways:
compare explain
describe rephrase
outline show
organise relate
classify identify
Another way that you can demonstrate your understanding is through inference;
this means you can show you have grasped not only the surface meaning, but
also underlying or unstated facts or ideas. You can do this by:
speculating interpreting
inferring generalising
concluding
Application
The third stage of critical thinking is application – putting to use the information
and knowledge you have gained. You can do this by applying your acquired
knowledge, facts, and techniques in new situations. Words to describe different
methods of application can be:
apply dramatise
construct restructure
model simulate
use translate
practice experiment

Thinking critically
Analysis
The fourth stage of critical thinking involves breaking down ideas or information
into various parts. Assignments that ask you to analyse may use terms like:
analyse simplify
chart summarise
classify relate to
contrast categorise
sequence differentiate
Synthesis
The fifth stage of critical thinking puts back together what you have broken down
during your analysis. The key ingredient here is that you put the information back
together in new ways, to create something unique. Your lecturers or tutors may
ask you synthesise information using words like:
compose elaborate
design formulate
develop originate
propose solve
adapt invent
Evaluation
The sixth and final stage of critical thinking is evaluation – making judgments.
When you evaluate information, you pull together all that you have learned in the
earlier stages of your thinking process to produce and defend your own opinion
about that information.
Some terms associated with evaluation are:
judge defend
rank justify
rate prioritise
evaluate support
recommend prove
(Adapted from Longview Community College’s Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project at
http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/ctac)

Thinking critically
Text comparison
The three texts that follow demonstrate differences at three levels: descriptive,
comparative and evaluative.
Descriptive
In Text A, the writer has simply listed information in a descriptive way. He/she has
not made links between any information or demonstrated why the information is
relevant. There is no sense of the writer’s own view on the two forms of transport.
Text A
A car is a machine for transporting people. Cars usually can carry a
maximum of 5 or 6 people. They use petroleum or diesel fuel although
there are also some electric cars. Many people are killed or injured each
year in car accidents. In Australia, most people drive cars and the roads of
many urban centres are choked with this form of transport.
A bus is a form of public transport. Buses generally operate on urban,
suburban, or inter-urban routes. Other than the buses operated by the
government, there are some private bus companies, particularly for long
distance travel. Many people can be transported in one bus, and so just
one serious accident can claim many lives.
Comparative/synthetical
In Text B, the writer has selected some important points and compared and
contrasted them in a way that shows that he/she has thought about the issues.
Note that the points are the same ones as used in Text A.
Text B
Two of the most common vehicles for transporting people are cars and
buses. Whereas the capacity of the car is usually limited to about 5 or 6
people, the greater passenger capacity of the bus brings savings on fuel
and other costs as well as reducing the amounts of traffic on the road. The
ownership of buses is usually governmental or business, which ensures
that bus travel is generally safer than travel by privately owned cars,
although just one serious accident can claim many lives. However, public
ownership also means that buses are often not as convenient as private
cars in terms of their accessibility to all areas.
Evaluative/analytically critical
In Text C, on the following page, the writer has gone even further. This time
he/she has come to a conclusion about the two forms of transport based on an
evaluation of the points and issues. He/she expresses a viewpoint and supports it
with good reasons. The highlighted text that follows Text C shows you some of
the writing techniques used to do this

Thinking critically
Text C
Of the two main forms of transport for people, buses are more effective
than cars for a number of reasons. The greater passenger capacity of the
bus ensures savings on fuel and other costs as well as reducing the
amounts of traffic on the road. Secondly, the increased safety of bus travel
as a result of ownership being governmental or business ensures that
deaths and injuries from accidents are minimal, compared with the
numerous deaths and injuries from car accidents. Finally, the accessibility
of buses to most areas is strategically possible because buses use the
established road system, so that little development is needed in order to
extend a new bus route. Indeed, the potential for a bus transport system to
be as convenient as private cars, combined with the other advantages of
buses over cars, provides a convincing argument for the expansion of the
bus transport system, rather than the continuation of a costly, inefficient
and unsafe system based on privately owned vehicles.
Text C highlighting the writing techniques used to express a point of view

and support arguments, including references
Of the two main forms of transport for people, buses are more effective
than cars for a number of reasons. The greater passenger capacity of
the bus ensures savings on fuel and other costs as well as reducing the
amounts of traffic on the road (Harris, 1999). Secondly, the increased
safety of bus travel as a result of ownership being governmental or
business ensures that deaths and injuries from accidents are minimal
(RTA, 2001), compared with the numerous deaths and injuries from car
accidents. Finally, the accessibility of buses to most areas is strategically
possible because buses use the established road system (NSW, 2001), so
that little development is needed in order to extend a new bus route.
Indeed, the potential for a bus transport system to be as convenient as
private cars, combined with the other advantages of buses over cars,
provides a convincing argument for the expansion of the bus
transport system, rather than the continuation of a costly, inefficient and
unsafe system based on privately owned vehicles.
[Texts from SWOT lecture series: Learning to learn, Successful essay writing, © Learning Centre,
University of Sydney]

Thinking critically
How to develop critical thinking skills
The critical thinking process described above is an important part of university

study. You can apply your critical thinking skills to the study areas of:
• Reading and listening
• Writing
Reading and listening

Critical thinking when reading or listening involves the following:
• Identifying the line of reasoning
• Critically evaluating the line of reasoning
• Questioning surface appearances and checking for hidden assumptions or

agendas
• Identifying evidence given
• Evaluating the evidence according to valid criteria
• Checking for consistency – are there any contradictions in ideas, and if so,
what is going on beneath that contradiction
• Identifying the writer’s or speaker’s conclusions
• Deciding whether the evidence given supports these conclusions
• Identifying what is not said or written and carefully considering why it has
been left out.
Critical thinking, when listening, also involves:
• Checking that the body language, eye contact, and speed and tone of
voice are consistent (congruent) with what is being said – does the
speaker look and sound as though they believe what they are saying?
See Chapter 5, Reading and note making, for more information about reading
critically.

Thinking critically
Here are some basic ways that you can develop your critical reading and listening
skills. These are also relevant to your own writing or speaking.
• Recognise emotive language. Some words are used specifically to

evoke emotion in an audience, while others are purposefully objective.
• Recognise bias. Knowing when a speaker/writer is deliberately appealing

to your emotions can help you distance yourself from them.
Bias is similar to emotive language, in that the speaker/writer uses certain
words to signal their position (perhaps even unconsciously).This bias can
cause the speaker/writer to skew the facts and evidence that they present.
• Distinguish between fact and opinion. Speakers/writers may try to

present a personal opinion as fact.
While their opinions may not necessarily be wrong, it can be dangerous to
ascribe to them the same weight as you would to proven facts.
• Recognise inferences. Inferences are unstated facts or ideas, and often

take the form of an “educated guess”.
As with opinions, a speaker’s or writer’s inferences must be validated.
• Evaluate sources. When listening or reading, ask yourself the following

questions:
What are this speaker’s/writer’s qualifications?
Does this speaker/writer have experience in this topic?
Is he/she being paid, and if so, by whom?
Does he/she have a hidden reason for discussing this topic?
Where can I find other opinions?

Thinking critically
Activity 4.2: Developing critical reading skills
1. Read the four extracts from a text about sustainability. Then, underline the
emotive language. Think about what the words tell you about the person’s
position. (You don't have to agree with them, but you should take such
language into account.)
a. Not surprisingly, the good ol’ US of A leads the world in energy
consumption per person in the population.
b. Some resources are alarmingly scarce.
c. The way in which we in rich countries are using up resources is grossly
unsustainable.
d. The American energy sector is full of established, cashed-up businesses
that use their influence to combat concern about climate change, to
destroy emerging challengers, and to oppose moves towards greater
energy efficiency.
[Sentences from UniStep Academic Writing: Book of Readings. Feb 2006. Pages 22 (a), 47 (b
and c), and 95 (d).]
2. Rewrite the above sentences so that they appear more objective (eg
change or leave out a word).
a. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Thinking critically
3. Look at the sentences below and consider whether each one is either a
statement expressing a fact or a statement expressing an opinion. Write F
if you think the statement is a fact, and O if you think the statement is an
opinion.
Remember, a fact is a statement about a subject which is true and can be proven
or observed. For example, The Earth is a sphere. An opinion is a statement of
feeling of opinion about a subject. It cannot be objectively proven or observed.
For example, Earth is a beautiful place.
a. Most economic activity uses up materials and resources, including forests
and minerals.
b. Management of the environment is essentially an economic problem.
c. The two words ‘sustainable’ and ‘development’ are in a strict sense
contradictory.
d. The Bruntland report emphasised that the state of our technology and
social organisation limits the world’s ability to meet human needs now and
in the future.
e. There are 6 billion people on this Earth.
f. Therefore, everyone is entitled to about 1.7 hectares of this bio-productive
land to support them.
g. Toynbee analysed the fate of civilisations in terms of their capacity to
respond to challenges.
h. If the thing threatening our survival was a comet headed for Earth, or a
global flu epidemic, or another Hitler, there would instantly be focussed
attention and energetic and massive effort to deal with it.
[Sentences from UniStep Academic Writing: Book of Readings, pages 3 (a), 5(b), 8 (c)11 (d) 22
(e,f), 50 (g,h).]

Thinking critically
Use one of the texts from a course you are currently taking and answer the
following questions:
Reader’s background and value assumptions
What do you already know about the

topic?
What are your beliefs and values

about the topic?
What is your purpose for reading the

material?
Figure 18: Reader's background and value assumptions
Writer’s background and value assumptions
What is the writer’s background?
How might it affect the writer’s

approach to the topic and
interpretation of evidence?
Figure 19: Writer’s background and value assumptions

Thinking critically
Writer’s argument and conclusions
What is the writer’s main argument?
What conclusions does the writer

draw?
How has the writer limited the

argument (e.g., through carefully
defined terms or the use of qualifying
words or phrases)?
Figure 20: Argument and conclusions
Writer’s use of evidence
What sort of evidence does the writer

use to support his/her conclusions?
Does the evidence offer adequate

support for the conclusions?
Do you find the evidence credible?
Figure 21: Use of evidence

Thinking critically
Reader’s reaction
To what degree do you accept the

writer’s conclusions?
How does the conclusion relate to

what you already know and believe
about the topic?
How has the writer’s argument

changed your views on the topic?
Figure 22 Reader’s reaction
(Adapted from Case Western Reserve University’s Office of Educational Support Services How do
I sharpen my critical reading strategies? At http://ess.cwru.edu/onepg/critical.htm)
Activity 4.4: Developing critical listening skills
Public discourse is something we are all exposed to in some way or another. It

sometimes employs language designed to elicit a strong reaction in those who
hear it. Using critical listening skills to evaluate what you hear on television or
radio programs is excellent practice for evaluating other forms of verbal
communication. These same skills can be applied to the texts you read when
researching for academic writing tasks.
Listen to the news on the radio or watch it on TV; pay particular attention to how
politicians or their speeches are reported. Take some notes in the space provided
about the kinds of language that you hear.
1. Do you recognise any emotive language? Give some examples.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Thinking critically
2. Do you think the speaker is biased? Why or why not?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Is it possible to consistently distinguish between fact and opinion? Why or

why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Writing
Critical thinking when writing involves comparable processes:
• Being clear about what your conclusions are
• Showing a clear line of reasoning – an argument leading to your

conclusion
• Presenting evidence to support your reasoning
• Reading your own writing critically, as above, as well as your sources
• Viewing your subject from multiple perspectives.

Basically, you must be able to read your own writing, as critically as you would
any outside source. This also applies when you are preparing a seminar paper or
doing any oral presentation task.
Critical writing at university requires you to do more than just describe. A common
criticism of first year student writing is that it is not analytical enough; it is too
descriptive. The following activity will help you recognise the characteristics of a
piece of writing that goes beyond mere description and can be classified as critical.
It should be noted, however, that there is sometimes a place for descriptive
writing at university. For example, you might be asked to write a paragraph which
describes or outlines a theory, an approach or a situation. Or, you might have to
describe one of these within a larger, more analytical, essay.

Thinking critically
Activity 4.5: Developing critical writing skills
1. Read Text A and Text B (below), and decide whether they are written in an
analytical or a descriptive way. Give reasons to support your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Text A
“Top down” theories about the media assume that the media is an
instrument used by the powerful to support and justify their power
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989). There are two major
components of this general perspective. The first is that the owners of the
media control the style and content in order to serve their own economic,
political and social ambitions. The second major aspect of “top down”
theories is the idea that the media is one of the institutions which
reproduce an ideology that supports the continuation of the capitalist
system (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989).
“Bottom up” theories are based on the notion that the media responds to
and therefore reflects the needs, experiences and interests of most people
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989). The two major areas
emphasised here are the free market and the importance of popular
culture and mythology. The free market idea likens different media to
markets, whose popularity is controlled by the extent to which it meets the
needs of its “customers”. This approach is favoured by market
researchers. The perspective of popular culture and mythology focuses on
the way the media portrays and dramatises daily life, culture, and cultural
traditions (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989).
Text B
Views about the role of television as a socialising agent can be shaped by
the Sociological perspective adopted. For example, television as a
socialiser could be discussed in a “top down” context. This would be

Thinking critically
concerned with illustrating how the media is used as a vehicle for

propaganda which supports attitudes and behaviour that are not in the
interests of most people (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989). In
this case, the idea that television promotes images and stereotypes that
justify and promote the dominant ideology would be supported by
reference to examples such as the way women and men are commonly
portrayed in serials and advertisements. The broad argument here would
be that gender roles are deliberately distorted to reinforce sexist attitudes
that have no relationship with the way most people live (Courtney &
Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982).
By contrast, a “bottom up” view emphasises more interaction between
media and people. In particular, it would argue that people are not passive
recipients who “lack the capacity to interpret the world for themselves”
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989, p 91). In fact, commentators
like Fisk (1987) claim that television viewers do not passively accept
messages, but read meanings into what they see according to such factors
as their social group. A good example is evidence of union activity
because they know from experience that it may be biased against them
(Carroll, 1980).
Related to these interpretations is the view that television programmes and
even advertisements reflect people’s experiences far more than impose
interpretations of the world. For instance, many of the “soap operas”
scorned as superficial distortions of reality actually portray and explore
relevant social images and issues. Cunningham’s analysis of “Prisoner” (in
Tulloch & Turner, 1989) focuses on the way it can be seen as a
representation of Australian popular cultural attitudes to authority and a
source of group identity and meaning: as in the way schoolgirls interviewed
identified with the prisoner’s attitude to authority.
2. How is Text C (on next page) different from Texts A and B?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Thinking critically
Text C
Of the two major Sociological perspectives on television’s socialising role,
the “bottom up” is more realistic and flexible than the “top down”. Certainly,
the “top down” perspectives are right to raise debate about the manipulative
capacity of television as a vehicle for reinforcing attitudes which favour
powerful vested interests. For example, there is no doubt that many
advertisements promote gender roles that don’t portray the way people
really are but do pressure and influence people to support the idealised
roles (Courtney & Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982). The result is that images
and attitudes are often created by television to exploit people. However, to
then make the blanket claim that viewers are passive and mindless and
that all television does in dictate to them what they should think is elitist
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989) and distorts the fact that
social reality does not neatly fit ideological patterns. For example, “bottom
up” theorists show that viewers often read their own meanings into what
they see and hear and critically examine it from their own social
perspectives (Fisk, 1987). Thus, trade unionists’ sceptical attitudes to
media coverage of union activity are based on previous experience of
biased media reports (Carrol, 1980).
Not only is it simplistic to argue that people always believe whatever
television portrays. Television and even advertisements reflect people’s
experience far more than impose interpretations of the world. For instance,
many “soap operas” do portray and explore images and issues that are
relevant and controversial in the lives of most viewers. Cunningham’s view
of “Prisoner” (in Tulloch & Turner, 1989) illustrates this well….
(Adapted from Webb, C. n.d.)

Thinking critically
Critical thinking materials available at UWS
At UWS, several resources have been developed to help students better

understand expectations about critical thinking in university assignments. The
following table provides a brief description of each resource and a call number
you can use to locate it in the library on your campus.
Title Description Call Number

Critical Analysis: What Is It? This book provides a set of sample 808.042 16 [1998]
student essays and reports identified
by lecturers in various disciplines as
containing strong evidence of critical
thinking. Along with these texts are
comments by both the student writer
and the lecturer.
Unravelling the Mysteries of A video narrative about three 370.152 35

Critical Thinking students discovering some of the
ways they can improve their critical
thinking skills.
On the Track: Critical An interactive CD ROM for students 370.152 36 [1999]

Thinking in Assignment of commerce or business studies
Writing BR PC 139 [2006]
Figure 23: Critical thinking materials
In conclusion...
Critical thinking involves purposefully examining your own thought processes and
belief structures. It also requires you to be able to identify and analyse those
same aspects of other people’s reasoning and logic. Once you are able to do this,
you will be better able to discern between useful, academically sound resources,
and those that are not credible in this way.
This distinction will be very important as you begin to research your writing tasks.
Much of your research will involve reading and note making, which we will
consider in Chapter 5, Reading and note making.

Thinking critically
Activity 4.1: Identifying critical thinkers
Answers will vary.
1. Underline emotive language.
a. the good ol’ US of A

b. alarmingly
c. grossly
d. cashed-up, destroy
3. Rewrite sentences. Answers will vary.

a. Not surprisingly, the United States of America/USA leads the world in
energy consumption per person in the population.
b. Some resources are extremely scarce.
c. The way in which we in rich countries are using up resources is

unsustainable.
d. The American energy sector is full of established, wealthy businesses
that use their influence to combat concern about climate change, to
defeat emerging challengers, and to oppose moves towards greater
energy efficiency.
4. Statements expressing fact or opinion.

a. F
b. O
c. O
d. F
e. F
f. O
g. O
h. F
Answers will vary.
Activity 4.4: Developing critical listening skills
Answers will vary.

Thinking critically
Activity 4.5: Developing critical writing skills
1. Text A is descriptive. It simply defines the two theories of the media, one
after the other, and then describes their features. Text B, however, is more
analytical; it places its discussion of the two theories firmly within a
sociological context, and then proceeds to bring in real-world examples
(the Australian TV show “Prisoner”).
Text A
General “Top down” theories about the media assume that the
definition media is an instrument used by the powerful to support
and justify their power (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg &
D’Alton, 1989). There are two major components of this
general perspective. The first is that the owners of the Division into
media control the style and content in order to serve their specific
own economic, political and social ambitions. The second features/
major aspect of “top down” theories is the idea that the characteristic
media is one of the institutions which reproduce an ideology elements
that supports the continuation of the capitalist system
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989).
General “Bottom up” theories are based on the notion that the media
definition responds to and therefore reflects the needs, experiences
and interests of most people (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg
& D’Alton, 1989). The two major areas emphasised here
are the free market and the importance of popular cul- Division into
ture and mythology. The free market idea likens different specific
media to markets, whose popularity is controlled by the features/
extent to which it meets the needs of its “customers”. This characteristic
approach is favoured by market researchers. The perspec- elements
tive of popular culture and mythology focuses on the way
the media portrays and dramatises daily life, culture, and
cultural traditions (Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton,
1989).

Thinking critically
Text B
Analytical Views about the role of television as a socialising
focus agent can be shaped by the Sociological perspective
adopted. For example, television as a socialiser could be
discussed in a “top down” context. This would be concerned
with illustrating how the media is used as a vehicle for
propaganda which supports attitudes and behaviour that
are not in the interests of most people (Windschuttle, in
Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989). In this case, the idea that
television promotes images and stereotypes that justify
and promote the dominant ideology would be supported
by reference to examples such as the way women and
men are commonly portrayed in serials and advertisements.
The broad argument here would be that gender roles are
deliberately distorted to reinforce sexist attitudes that have
no relationship with the way most people live (Courtney &
Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982).
Transitional By contrast, a “bottom up” view emphasises more inter- Qualitative

phrase action between media and people. In particular, it would adjective
argue that people are not passive recipients who “lack the expressing
capacity to interpret the world for themselves” (Windschuttle, contrast
in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989, p 91). In fact, commentators
like Fisk (1987) claim that television viewers do not pas-
sively accept messages, but read meanings into what they
see according to such factors as their social group. A good
example is evidence of union activity because they know
from experience that it may be biased against them
(Carroll, 1980).
Transitional Related to these interpretations is the view that tele-

phrase vision programmes and even advertisements reflect people's
experiences far more than impose interpretations of the
world. For instance, many of the “soap operas” scorned as
superficial distortions of reality actually portray and explore
relevant social images and issues. Cunningham’s analysis
of “Prisoner” (in Tulloch & Turner, 1989) focuses on the
way it can be seen as a representation of Australian pop-
ular cultural attitudes to authority and a source of group
identity and meaning: as in the way schoolgirls interviewed
identified with the prisoner’s attitude to authority.

Thinking critically
2. Text C goes beyond both A and B in that it begins to present a critical eval-
uation of the two theories. It not only places the discussion within a socio-
logical context, but the author also defends the opinion that “bottom up”
theories are better (“more realistic and flexible”). The author is engaged in
academic argument, something missing from the first two texts.
Text C
Qualitative Of the two major Sociological perspectives on television’s Refutation
adjectives socialising role, the “bottom up” is more realistic and structure:
and adverbs flexible than the “top down”. Certainly, the “top down” per- “top down”
(in bold) spectives are right to raise debate about the manipulative theories
expressing capacity of television as a vehicle for reinforcing attitudes
the writer’s which favour powerful vested interests. For example, there
evaluation is no doubt that many advertisements promote gender roles
that don’t portray the way people really are but do pressure + positive
and influence people to support the idealised roles (Courtney aspect
& Whittle, 1974; Howitt, 1982). The result is that images
and attitudes are often created by television to exploit
people. However, to then make the blanket claim that - overall
viewers are passive and mindless and that all television problem
does in dictate to them what they should think is elitist (outweighs
(Windschuttle, in Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1989) and distorts positive)
the fact that social reality does not neatly fit ideological
patterns. For example, “bottom up” theorists show that
viewers often read their own meanings into what they see
and hear and critically examine it from their own social
perspectives (Fisk, 1987). Thus, trade unionists’ sceptical
attitudes to media coverage of union activity are based on
previous experience of biased media reports (Carrol, 1980).
Qualitative Not only is it simplistic to argue that people always believe

adjectives whatever television portrays. Television and even advertise-
and adverbs ments reflect people’s experience far more than impose
(in bold) interpretations of the world. For instance, many “soap
expressing operas” do portray and explore images and issues that are
the writer’s relevant and controversial in the lives of most viewers.
evaluation Cunningham’s view of “Prisoner” (in Tulloch & Turner,
1989) illustrates this well….

Chapter 5
Reading and note making
Introduction
Reading
Reading plays an important role at university, mainly because learning becomes

more student-centred at this level. This means that teachers cease to be the only
source, or even the major source of information for students.
Lectures and tutorials do supply you with vital information, but this information is
more like a set of guidelines about the approach you need to take in acquiring
knowledge in a particular subject. To get a broader outlook, you need to use this
information as a springboard and search for more knowledge in the same area.
Reading is one of the important ways of bridging the gap between knowledge
acquired at lectures/tutorials and the vast amount of knowledge that still needs to
be explored.
Note making
In university studies, note making is closely linked with reading and plays an
important role too. This is mostly because note making enhances reading in many
ways:
• It helps you concentrate on what you are reading and stops your mind from
wandering.
• It helps you understand better as well as evaluate the information you are
reading.
• It helps you store information you acquire for future use.
• It helps you form links between the information you have read and the
knowledge you have already acquired through other means.
• It helps you gather information from different sources and put it together to
get a broader perspective and to draw your own conclusions.

This chapter will introduce you to some strategies to make your reading more
effective and some methods for note taking to help you keep track of the reading
you’ve done. When you finish working through this chapter, you will be able to:
• Employ strategies that are appropriate to your reading purpose
• Explain what it means to read critically and use this skill in your own
course work
• Make a reading plan for a particular assignment or course
• Identify different methods of making notes from your reading texts
• Choose a note taking style that fits your study habits.
Reading
During your university studies, you will be expected to read for a variety of reasons:
Lectures: Pre-reading material before lectures makes them
more relevant.
Tutorials: Tutorials are often based on a set of readings. If you
haven’t read the material, you can’t participate in the
discussion.
Assignments: The majority of your assignments will require
research that will involve a great deal of reading.
Your lecturers expect you to become familiar with your subject and you need to
build a bank of knowledge that you can dip into when you need to discuss or write
about any issue from that area. Therefore, to become knowledgeable in your
subject area, you will need to read a great deal from a variety of sources
(academic journal articles, books, etc.).
Some of these sources will be provided to you in the form of unit readers (a
collection of photocopied academic articles or chapters that usually includes all
those listed in the weekly tutorial reading schedule of the unit outline) purchased
from the campus bookstore as reading packs, and lists of essential texts or
suggested further reading in the unit outline that you will find in the library or on
the Internet.

Activity 5.1: Thinking about reading
Think about the reading you have done before you came to university, and
answer the following questions:
1. What do you read apart from your university studies?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Why do you read these texts?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. How do you think your reading at university is similar to what you read
personally? How is it different?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. What strategies do you use for reading difficult texts?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. What do you think makes a good text?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Reading effectively
Reading at university is quite different from any other reading as it has different
purposes and requires different reading techniques. The purpose of university
reading is to gain an understanding of your topic that you can show in your
assignments. To do this, you will have to complete a large amount of reading in a
limited amount of time. Therefore, it is important that you become an effective
reader.
An effective reader is one who:
• can locate information relevant to the task
• is not distracted by interesting and irrelevant information
• can distinguish between main points and minor points
• can take clear, concise notes.

In other words, at university you have to be:
• a selective reader
• an active reader
• a critical reader
Selective reading
When you read selectively, you separate reading material that is not essential to
your purpose from what is important and relevant. To do this you will need to
identify why you are reading and what kind of information you hope to come away
with from your source.
Two strategies that can help you to identify relevant information effectively, gain
an understanding of the purposes and structures of texts, and locate and
distinguish between main ideas and minor ideas are skimming and scanning.
• Skimming means glancing through a text such as a book to decide

whether it is relevant for your purpose or not. It is not necessary to read
every word.
• Scanning means reading with the purpose of locating specific information

or a relevant chapter/section in a book or journal article.
(These two useful strategies will be explored later in the chapter.)

Active reading
When you read actively, you engage with the text or become an active participant
in the reading process. Taking notes, underlining and highlighting are good ways
to keep you active and focused. This involves:
• underlining key words,
• writing comments in the margins
• making notes of points you find important.
• writing a question for each paragraph or for each set of paragraphs that
make up a section of the text. The answer to the question will sum up the
main idea of the section.
• summarising in your own words key sections of the text.
Critical reading
Being critical does not mean criticising for the sake of being argumentative. It
means understanding how the author arrived at the ideas in the text, and then
evaluating these ideas for their strengths and weaknesses. Consider the following
statement:
Coal is currently Australia’s major export.
A reader could interpret this statement in many ways including:
a. In the recent past Australia’s major export was something else
b. As a non-renewable resource, coal supplies will eventually be exhausted.
Some of the main features of critical reading include:
• Recognising the writer’s purpose
• Recognising the writer’s assumptions and underlying values (social,

cultural and historical influences)
• Recognising patterns of argument
• Linking ideas in the text to other ideas and texts
• Understanding how language choices reflect values and indicate power

relations. (Is the language that of a psychologist? A feminist? Is the writer
intimidating the reader by using obscure words or jargon? Is the writer
persuading you with emotionally charged words, such as ‘democracy’,
‘moral’, ‘humanitarian’, ‘for the future of the world’, ‘forbid’, ‘should’?)

• Recognising how the text positions the reader. (Is the reader being
addressed as an academic colleague or as a prospective teacher, nurse,
pilot, accountant, or a layperson? Does the writer want the reader to agree
or does the writer invite debate?)
• Exploring alternatives to the stated idea
• Recognising the assumptions and underlying values that you bring to your
reading.
Thinking critically overall (not just while you’re reading) is a very important skill
you will need for your university studies; you can find out more about it in Chapter
4: Thinking critically.
Reading for understanding

Reading (in the same way as writing) involves a process. You can break this
process down into three stages:
• Pre-reading
• Reading
• Post-reading
Stage 1: Pre-reading strategies
The purpose of pre-reading is to become familiar with the text you are about to
read. You do this by getting as much general information about the text as
possible. This is similar to what you do when you have to familiarise yourself with
a new place: you usually try to locate the important landmarks rather than taking
in every detail of the landscape.
Pre-reading can be done in three quick steps:
1. Survey
2. Skim
3. Scan
Survey
You survey a text by looking for particular information like:
• the title
• author (name, qualifications, etc.)
• publication details (publisher, date, place of publication, etc.).

For a book, you should also glance through the preface, introduction, and the
content and index pages. For an article, take a quick look at the synopsis and/or
abstract; if these aren’t presented in the article, look over the first and last paragraph.
This kind of survey gives you a very general idea about the text you are going to
read and anticipate some of the information presented in the text.
Activity 5.2: Practising pre-reading strategies
Choose a text from your reader and quickly answer the following questions:
1. What is the title of the text? What kind of clues does the title give you
about the author’s position on the subject?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Who is the author of the text? What kind of qualifications do they have that
give their opinion weight? What can you predict about their position on the
subject based on their qualifications or professional associations?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Who published the text? Is the publisher associated with a particular group
or organisation that you are familiar with? What kind of clues about the text
can this association give you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. When was the text published? Is the information you need the kind that
dates quickly, or will an older text still be useful to you?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Skim
Skimming a text focuses on the general information you have acquired about the
text and leaves you with a good idea about what information is important and
where you can find it. In fact, it provides you with an outline similar to what the
writer may have had when writing up the information as well as a set of questions
about the information you need to get from the text.
You can skim a book by reading:
• chapter headings and sub-headings
• chapter introductions and summaries
• information given special attention by different typeface, different colour

print, boxes, etc.
• graphics (graphs, charts, diagrams, illustrations, etc.) and their captions.

You can skim an article by reading:
• headings and sub-headings
• first and last paragraphs
• highlighted information (see above)
• graphics and their captions.
Scan
Scanning a text helps you to identify the sections that are important for your
purpose
The table below shows some reasons you may need to read a text, and the kinds
of information that you should be seeking when you scan:
Purpose Information needed

Write a summary Detailed information about text structure:
• how major facts and arguments are organised

• controlling idea or thesis and how it is supported by facts
and arguments
• conclusions drawn after main arguments are presented
Write an essay General awareness of the text structure so you can:
• locate information relevant for your assignment

• place this information within a broader frame
Studying for an exam Specific sections than contain answers to a set of anticipated
exam questions
Figure 24: Information needed for different assignment types

Activity 5.3: Determining the information needed for an assignment
Look at the three major assignments in the sample unit outline provided in
Chapter 2. For each assignment, fill in the table below by describing the purpose
(i.e., what are you being asked to do?) in the left-hand column and then the kind
of information you will need to get from your reading to complete the assignment
in the right-hand column.
Figure 25: Analysis of assignments
Stage 2: Reading strategies
Once you have completed your pre-reading activities, you can move into the
second of the three parts of the process: reading. In this part, you should be
practising intensive reading, which means you read carefully and critically.
Steps for intensive reading
You should be prepared to read through the sections you have identified as
important during your pre-reading at least twice.
First reading
The first time you read through a text, do not take notes. Instead, you should:
• try to determine the author’s main thesis
• compare diagrams and illustrations with the written text. Often they can
help you understand the text better
• make sure you understand what you are reading. Reduce your reading
speed for difficult passages.
• Look up difficult words in a dictionary or glossary of terms. Dictionaries of

technical terms and theoretical concepts are available for many fields of

study (e.g., dictionaries of sociological terminology). If the meaning of a

word or passage still evades you, leave it and read on. After more reading
you may find the meaning becomes clear. Consult with your classmates or
speak to your tutor if your difficulty continues. (For more information about
dealing with difficult vocabulary, see the Vocabulary section on page 14.)
• Question the author’s reasoning: is each point justified? Is there enough
evidence? Where is it?
(Adapted from the Learning Centre’s Reading to Remember handout.)
Second reading
During this reading, you should begin to take notes (for specific strategies on note
making, see the next section of this chapter). Some general suggestions:
• Note down the main idea(s) of each paragraph. This is often the first or last
sentence.
• Look for important details (supporting evidence, explanations of important

points, etc.).
• Take notes from the text, but write information in your own words.
• In your notes underline or highlight the important points.
Identifying main ideas
It is very easy to lose your way when reading academic texts. The words and
sentences are often long and complex and the information may be very abstract.
What’s more, the ideas and information may be quite new to you. The trick is to
keep an eye on the main ideas that hold the text together - constantly.
The controlling idea
The first aspect of determining the main ideas is to identify and keep track of the
major ideas that control the whole text – the author’s basic reason for writing. This
will sometimes be only one controlling idea, but other times there will be two or
three. The writer will probably have given you some direction to these controlling
ideas in the title and introduction and by his or her use of headings – which is why
it is important to skim for a preview first.
But, even if you do a good preview and are able to keep the controlling ideas in
mind, you can still ‘lose the thread’. You might find yourself asking:
• Why is the author telling me this?
• What has this got to do with what I read on the last page?
• How does this connect with the last paragraph?
• Is this an important idea that I need to grasp hold of?
• Or is it something minor that I don’t have to worry too much about?

These are all good questions – they show you are reading actively. However if
you can’t answer them you could find yourself drowning in words. And this brings
us to the second aspect of the skill.
The main ideas
As you read, you need to be able to identify the main ideas of the text – the
important, big ideas that develop and support the controlling idea/ideas. And, you
need to distinguish these main ideas from the less important supporting ideas –
detailed facts, interesting examples, and sidetracking. So how can you do this?
• Take notice of headings and sub-headings as you read. These give you
the topics and sub-topics; they also show how the text is organised.
• Pay special attention to the first sentences of paragraphs – they often

contain the main ideas (see Topic sentences, Chapter 9). Sometimes, the
main idea may be only one part (or clause) of a sentence.
• Look out for connecting words and phrases such as The first thing is,
Importantly, In contrast. (A list of these are in Chapter 9, Features of
academic writing.) These act like signposts that guide you through the
various ideas in the text and how they are related.
• Keep asking yourself questions like those above – these will keep you alert
to the main ideas as you read.
Activity 5.4: Identifying main ideas
1. Read the two paragraphs below, and aim to grasp the main idea of each.
At this stage, do not worry about the parts you don’t understand. Begin
with a quick ‘preview’ skim.
Sustainability and economics
Modern economic theory is usually traced to the 18th century, but economic
arrangements between humans are as old as are human societies. Indeed, in
simple forms, behaviours identifiable as ‘economic’ exist among many non-human
species. The earliest economic arrangements among humans probably included
mutual reciprocity and specialisation. In some societies these changed into more
formal systems of barter and currency, used for trade and ceremonies. Simple
forms of credit, interest and insurance can also be traced for millennia, including
those in non-literate and non-agricultural populations.
Inequality and the exploitation of vulnerable individuals, genders, age groups and
populations by those who are more powerful is also an ancient economic trait.
The development of strongly hierarchical societies, including the holding of
slaves, may be more common in economies with comparatively abundant
resources rather than those that are purely subsistence. However, slavery and
specialisation – once considered hallmarks of agriculturally based economies –
existed in at least some non-agricultural economies.
(Text from Listening, Co-ordinating ideas on sustainability and health. Chapter 2 In Sustainability
and Health, by Grootjans, J., Townsend, M., Butler, C and Heyworth, J. Book of Readings,
UniStep Academic Writing, February 2006, pp. 61-62).

2. From the options listed below, choose the main idea of each paragraph.
Paragraph 1
a. Economic arrangements began in the 18th century.
b. Some early economic arrangements developed into more formal systems.
c. Economic arrangements are as old as human societies.
d. Early economic arrangements were very simple.
Paragraph 2
a. Slavery has been around a long time.

b. Exploitation of vulnerable people has been around a long time.
c. Slavery may have been more common in economies with abundant
resources.
d. Slavery and specialisation existed in agricultural and non-agricultural
economies.
3. Now, underline the sentences that contain the main ideas. Read those
sentences to yourself, one after the other. Do they make sense? Do they
help you to see the overall meaning of the three paragraphs?
Vocabulary
One of the most obvious barriers to understanding academic texts is the difficult
vocabulary. You will probably ask yourself why writers need to use words you've
never heard of, and whether there couldn't be a simpler way of expressing ideas.
And it's true that writers sometimes use a vocabulary that is unnecessarily
academic. Nevertheless, it is important to expand your word knowledge.
Strategies for dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary
• Try to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from their context. Look at
the sentences before and after the word as well as the words in the same
sentence.
• Use anything you know about related words or words with the same prefix
or word root to help you guess. For example, you might be able to work
out, given the context, that ambivalence means thinking in two ways about
something (mixed feelings), because you know that ambidextrous means
able to use both right and left hands equally, and ambiguous means a
double meaning.
• Look up new words in a dictionary, but don’t look up every word that is new
to you. Make a decision about how important it is to understanding the
text's meaning. By constantly looking up words, this can distract you from
the author’s ideas and argument, and so making the text harder for you to

understand. Often you will work out the meaning a bit later on by an
example the author gives or a further explanation. It can be better to just
mark new words and keep reading, and then make time afterwards to look
them up.
• Make your own dictionary of new words, with a few pages for each letter of
the alphabet. Write each new word in your dictionary, and a sentence
containing the word (you can copy this from the book where you read it).
Write a definition, if necessary, and perhaps a synonym (a word with a
similar meaning).
• Make word cards. Write new words on the card and pin them up in your
room. Review them by seeing whether you can remember their spelling
and meaning.
• Use the new words in your own writing.
Activity 5.5: Clarifying meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary
1. Read the Sustainability and Economics text again. As you read, underline
the words below.
Clarify
Words from text Rough meaning Dictionary meaning
meaning?
reciprocity (para 1)
trait (para 2)
hierarchical (para 2)
subsistence (para 2)
hallmarks (para 2)
Figure 26: Clarifying meanings of words from text
2. Next to each word, write what you think its approximate meaning is, based
on the context and your existing knowledge of the word. Then tick those
you think you would need to clarify in order to understand the text. Now
look at the dictionary and check the precise meanings.
How close were you?

Dealing with complex sentences
It is not just the words that can make academic texts a challenge. Often it is the
sentence structure that can trip readers up. Sentences are often very long,
contain many parts (clauses and phrases), and pack in lots of information and
ideas. Most people have trouble with these kinds of sentences, so take heart,
you’re not alone. And there are some strategies you can use to deal with them.
• Take your time and read slowly. Read the sentence twice, three times or
as often as needed.
• Read the sentence out loud. This often makes the meaning clearer.
• Break up the sentence into smaller chunks of meaning.
• Work out the essential parts of the sentence – the subject (what or who it
is about) and the main verb (what the subject did, or how it relates to the
rest of the sentence). In the sentence, The two dogs chased the cat, the
subject is The two dogs, and the verb is chased.
• Identify the main clause (the one that make sense by itself) where there is
more than one.
• Read on, if you are still not sure; often the following sentence will make it
clear.
Stage 3: Post-reading strategies
After you’ve read through a text, there are some things you can do to help
strengthen your understanding and memory of the information you’ve absorbed.
Recall
By attempting to recall what you’ve just read, you are beginning the process of
putting the ideas of someone else into your own words. Follow these steps:
• Close the book and put aside any notes you have made.
• Write down what you remember from the text.
• Check the accuracy of what you have written against the original material.
It may be helpful to break long texts down into more manageable sections, and
practise recalling these sections, rather than entire reading sessions.

Review
Reviewing what you have read can be helpful both at the end of your study
session and the next day.
• At the end of your session, check the accuracy of your notes you made
during your reading against the original material. Remember to check the
concepts; you are not trying to reproduce the text word for word.
• The next day, read through your notes again to reacquaint yourself with
the main points. Then, closing the book and your notes, try to summarise
the main points in your own words.
• It will be very helpful if you can discuss what you read with a classmate or
a friend.
Reading for research

The guidelines in the previous section will apply broadly to almost any type of
reading situation you may find yourself in. Now we will look specifically at reading
you will do as part of your research for a specific writing task.
In this section, we’ll discuss ways to help you to:
• evaluate sources – what you should read
• make sense of reading lists – how much you should read
• narrow your research – how to focus your reading.
Evaluating sources
Some texts are more valid or credible than others. Any sources that possess
most or all of the following features are likely to be suitable for your research:
• Authority Is the writer an expert in the field? Is the writer often quoted
by others in the field? Is the source published in a reputable book or
journal (academic or professional) affiliated with a reputable institution?
• Originality Does the material provide original information or only a

summary or paraphrase of previously existing information?
• Objectivity Is the writer being objective or is there a slant or bias in their

approach?
• Accuracy Has reliable, credible data been used that shows knowledge
of the field?
• Currency Is the information current? Or is it outdated and obsolete?

• Coverage Does the source cover the issue in depth or give only a
cursory treatment?
Making sense of online texts
The skills you develop in evaluating sources will be especially useful to you in the
research you do on the Internet. The World Wide Web can be a powerful research
tool; it puts thousands of useful texts at your fingertips and makes information
accessible that might have been extremely difficult, if not impossible to obtain in
the past.
A few words of warning: much of the information you will encounter online should
be approached with great caution. The very nature of the Internet makes it
possible for anyone to post inaccurate or misleading information in a way that
makes it appear credible. You will find the categories for evaluating sources
described above helpful to separate the useful, reliable information from that
which is inappropriate for your research purposes.
It is also important that you apply your critical reading skills very stringently to these
texts – information that is not overtly inaccurate or misleading can still be strongly
biased or situated in a context that does not lend itself to your reading purposes.
Once you have located useful, credible online texts, you’ll want to utilise them as
efficiently as possible. Reading online texts requires special skills. These texts
are designed differently from more traditional sources, like books and journals,
and recognising the unique characteristics of online resources will help you make
good use of them.
In particular, many online texts make use of a linking technology that turns them
into “hypertexts” – a series of linked sources that can carry readers seeking more
information from site to site. While these links can provide invaluable information,
they can also become a distraction. It becomes especially important to focus your
research and remain on task while you research in this environment.

Activity 5.6: Evaluating sources
Below you will find three short texts that deal with the topic of intelligence. (Text A
– p. 20, Text B – p. 23 and Text C – p. 25.) At the beginning of each text, there is a
brief description of who author is and where the text was located.
Read each text, and then answer the following questions:
1. In this table, describe the positive and negative aspects of each text. Refer
to the features we discussed in the section above.
Positive Negative
Text A
Text B
Text C
Figure 27: Text analysis

2. Based on what you have written in the table, which text do you believe is
the most credible? The least credible? Give some reasons for your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Which text(s) could you use as references in an academic writing

assignment? Give some reasons for your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Text A
Text A is from the IQ Comparison website, written by Rodrigo de la Jara, located
at http://members.shaw.ca/delajara/IQBasics.html. There is no information about
the author to be found on the website, but there is a statement that the information
was updated in June of 2003. The webpage itself is a customer’s personal page
hosted on a server run by a company that provides Internet services to the
general public.
What is intelligence?
There has been much professional quibbling about this. But the definition I
like is simply that intelligence is the ability to learn. I have heard some
people misuse the word smart to mean knowledgeable. That is like confusing
velocity with distance. That one can lead to the other does not mean that
they are the same thing.
I.Q. = Intelligence Quotient
Originally, "IQ" tests were created to be able to identify children who might
need special education due to their retarded mental development (1).
Binet's test included varied questions and tasks. The tasks even included
unwrapping a piece of candy and comparing the weights of different
objects (4)!
To relate the mental development of a child to the child's chronological age
the IQ was invented. IQ = (MA/CA) * 100. The intelligence quotient was
equal to 100 times the Mental Age divided by the Chronological Age. For
example, if a certain child started reading, etc., at the age of 3 (CA) and
average children start reading, etc., at the age of 6 (MA), the child would

get an IQ score of 200. (Such a score is very, very rare). Since people
wanted to also use IQs for adults, that formula was not very useful since
raw scores start to level off around the age of16 (2).
Thus the deviation IQ replaced the ratio IQ. It compares people of the
same age or age category and assumes that IQ is normally distributed,
that the average (mean) is 100 and that the standard deviation is
something like 15 (IQ tests sometimes differ in their standard deviations).
What is a standard deviation (SD)? Simply put, the standard deviation is a
measure of the spread of the sample from the mean. As a rule of thumb,
about 2/3 of a sample is within 1 standard deviation from the mean. About
95% of the sample will be within 2 standard deviations from the mean (3).
With the standard deviation and a mean, you can calculate percentiles.
Percentiles tell you the percent of people that have a score equal to or
lower than a certain score.
High IQ societies ask for certain percentile scores on IQ tests for you to be
eligible to join them. Mensa asks for scores at the 98th percentile or higher.
There have been various classification systems for IQ.
Terman's classification was (6):
IQ Range Classification
140 and over Genius or near genius
120-140 Very superior intelligence
110-120 Superior intelligence
90-110 Normal or average intelligence
80-90 Dullness
70-80 Borderline deficiency
Below 70 Definite feeble-mindedness
(Terman wrote the Stanford-Binet test (1), which has a SD of 16.)

Later, Wechsler thought that it would be much more legitimate to base his
classifications on the Probable Error (PE) so his classification was (6):
Percent
Classification IQ Limits
Included
Very Superior 128 and over 2.2
Superior 120-127 6.7
Bright Normal 111-119 16.1
Average 91-110 50
Dull Normal 80-90 16.1
Borderline 66-79 6.7
Defective 65 and below 2.2
Mental deficiency used to be more finely classified using the following

technical terms that later began to be abused by the rest of society (5):
Borderline
70-80
deficiency
50-69 Moron
20-49 Imbecile
below 20 Idiot

These are now largely obsolete and mental deficiency is now generally
called mental retardation. The following is the currently used classification
of retardation in the USA (5):
50-69 Mild
35-49 Moderate
20-34 Severe
below 20 Profound
Moreover, "educable mentally retarded" is roughly equivalent to mild

mental retardation, and "trainable" mentally retarded is roughly equivalent
to moderate (5). The DSM now requires an assessment of a person's
adaptive functioning as an additional criterion for labeling someone
retarded. IQ is not enough. Maybe the same sort of thing should be done
for labelling somebody a genius.
References
(1) Berk, L.E. (1997). Child Development. (4th ed.). Toronto: Allyn & Bacon.
(2) Eysenck, H. (1994). Test Your IQ. Toronto: Penguin Books.
(3) Iman, R.L. (1994). A Data Based Approach to Statistics. Belmont:
Duxbury Press.
(4) Nietzel, M.T., Berstein, D.A., & Milich R. (1998). Introduction to Clinical
Psychology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
(5) Reber, A.S. (1995). The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.).
Toronto: Penguin Books.
(6) Wechsler, D. (1944). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore:
The Williams & Wilkins Company.

Text B
Text B is an excerpt from a language-teaching textbook. The author, H. Douglas

Brown, is a professor at San Francisco State University and has taught English
as a second/foreign language for over three decades.
New Views on Intelligence
Intelligence was once viewed strictly as the ability to perform (a) linguistic
and (b) logical-mathematical problem solving. This “IQ” concept of
intelligence permeated the Western world and its way of testing for almost
a century. Since “smartness” in general is measured by timed, discrete-
point tests consisting of many little items, then why shouldn’t every field of
study be so measured? Today we live in a world of standardized, norm-
referenced tests that are timed, multiple-choice, tricky, long, and artificial.
Research on intelligence by psychologists like Howard Gardner and
Robert Sternberg turned the psychometric world upside down. Gardner
(1983) extended the traditional conceptualizations of intelligence on which
standardized IQ tests are based … to five other “frames of mind” to round
out his theory of intelligence:
1. linguistic intelligence
2. logical-mathematical intelligence
3. spatial intelligence (the ability to find your way around an environment,
to form mental images of reality)
4. musical intelligence (the ability to perceive and create pitch and
rhythmic patterns)
5. bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence (fine motor movement, athletic powers)
6. interpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand others, how they
feel, and to interact effectively with them)
7. intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to understand oneself and to
develop a sense of self-identity).
…Robert Sternberg (1988) also charted new territory in intelligence research
in recognizing people’s creative thinking and manipulative strategies as
part of intelligence. All “smart” people aren’t necessarily adept at fast,
reactive thinking. They may be very innovative in being able to think beyond
normal limits imposed by existing tests, and may need a good deal of
processing time to enact this creativity. And other forms of smartness are
found in those who know how to manipulate their environment, especially
other people. Debaters, politicians, successful salespersons, “smooth”
talkers, and con artists are all smart in their own manipulative way.

These new conceptualizations of intelligence infused the decade of the

1990s with a sense of both freedom and responsibility in our testing
agenda. We were freed from exclusive reliance on timed, discrete-point
analytical tests in measuring language. We were liberated from the tyranny
of “objectivity” and its accompanying impersonalness. But we also
assumed the responsibility for tapping into whole language skills, learning
processes, and the ability to negotiate meaning. Our challenge was to test
interpersonal, creative, communicative, interactive skills, and in doing so,
to place some trust in our subjectivity, our intuition.
Brown, H. (2001). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to
language pedagogy. (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Text C
This article is from Time magazine, a popular weekly news periodical established
in the United States. The author, Rebecca Winters, is a frequent contributor to the
magazine.
Testing that je ne sais quois
Psychologist Robert Sternberg's first field study in intelligence took place in

grade school, when poor scores on IQ tests convinced him he was a "dum-
dum." Largely thanks to an exceptional fourth-grade teacher, Sternberg
managed to shed his self-doubt, improve his grades and go on to attend
Yale University, but he never shook the sense that traditional tests are
missing something. "You don't get to the top in life just on your IQ points or
your SAT score," says Sternberg, now a professor at Yale and president of
the American Psychological Association (APA). "You have to psych out the
system. How do you measure that skill?"
For three years, Sternberg has been working on a new test to augment the
SAT, one that asks students to write captions for New Yorker cartoons,
dictate stories into tape recorders and persuade friends to help haul a
bulky mattress up a flight of stairs. These unorthodox tasks are designed
to measure the creative and practical skills that Sternberg says are crucial
to success in college and in life but are ignored by the typical pencil-and-
paper exam. If Sternberg succeeds in quantifying these types of intelligence
- and linking them to concrete accomplishments - his efforts may change
forever the way colleges pick their students.
About 800 freshmen at 13 colleges took a trial version of the test, called
the Rainbow Project, in 2001. Teams of judges scored the creative portions
for humour and originality. The raters graded the practical sections on the
basis of conformity to social norms. The more closely students' responses
matched the average test taker's, the higher their scores.
Those who took the test in its early phase were volunteers rather than a
random sample of undergraduates. But the preliminary results, which
Sternberg presented in August at an APA conference, were dramatic. The
Rainbow Project was nearly twice as successful at predicting students'

first-year college GPAs as their SAT scores had been. The College Board,
which produces the SATs, is funding Sternberg's research because the
ability to predict college performance from a test-any test-hasn't improved
much in 50 years, says Wayne Camara, the board's vice president of
research.
Another impetus for the board to explore alternative tests is the persistence
of gaps in SAT scores between racial and ethnic groups. Here, too, the
Rainbow Project shows some promise. On the practical-intelligence portions
of the test (the part in which students persuade friends to haul the mattress),
there were no differences in scores between groups. On the creative
portions, the differences were considerably smaller than they are on the
SAT. And in some sections, groups that traditionally fare poorly on stan-
dardized tests thrived. Native Americans did especially well on the oral part.
In the next trial phase, Sternberg will expand his study to 5,000 to 10,000
students, who will take the test next spring and fall. These students will be
followed for four years and will be scrutinized more closely than the first
group was. In addition to GPAs, Sternberg will look at how well the
students adapt to college socially and whether or not they graduate.
Widespread adoption of the test-a possibility several years and hundreds
of thousands of research dollars away-would create some new dilemmas.
For the time being, students know that their answers to quirky questions-
like how to handle gossipy co-workers-don't matter. But if in the future the
answers affect their college admissions, test subjects may be tempted to
bluff-a problem that employer-administered personality tests have. "You
can't fake solving a math problem," says Linda Gottfredson, a professor of
education at the University of Delaware. "You can fake conscientiousness."
For now, however, Sternberg's task is to persuade more colleges to take
his offbeat exam seriously. In other words, he's got to prove he can psych
out the system.
Winters, R. (2003). Testing that je ne sais quoi. Time. 162, 53.
Making sense of reading lists
For most writing tasks, usually you will be given a list of references. There are
many variations as to what this list represents:
• It could be a short list with only one or two references that are the only
readings you are expected to do for this topic.
• The same short list could be the most important readings you should do,
and is therefore considered the minimum amount of reading required, but
you are expected to find other relevant references yourself.
• It could be a long list with 10 or 20 references and you are expected to find
and read all of them, and perhaps even more.

• It could be the same long list, but you are expected to find only a few of the
references.
You might even be given no reference list, and the main purpose of the assignment
is for you to find appropriate and relevant references for yourself.
Such variations occur for all sorts of reasons, including what the purpose of the
task is, how much independent research you are expected to do in your course,
and how available reference materials on the topic are. Because the breadth of
research required for a task is so variable, it is important that you clarify this early
in your preparation.
For some students, the problem is that they read too much for the task. Ideally,
you could never read too much as long as what you are reading is helping you to
learn. However, when you have many deadlines to meet for all your units, it is
essential to recognise when you have reached a point where you have carried out
enough research for each task and to allow enough time for preparing your answer
or solution. You might find, as you really get into your topic, that you become so
totally involved in reading that you almost run out of time to start writing. If this
happens to you, it might be that you are not focusing on the task sufficiently, and
developing an on-going plan for your writing whilst you are reading.
Narrowing your research
As well as making sure that your research is broad enough for the task, it is also
important to make sure you focus your reading clearly on the topic and question
you are answering. You should be constantly coming back to your question or
problem, to work out how what you are reading is relevant to this problem. This
means not just looking at the topic (what is it about?), but also looking at the
problem to be solved (so what?).
When you read on the topic, you are discovering someone else's knowledge
about the topic. When you write on the topic, if you simply present this knowledge
in the same form as you found it in your reading (knowledge telling), then your
lecturers can only assume that you haven't developed your own understanding of
the knowledge. So it is important to work out exactly what the problem is that you
have been set, so that you can work out how much you are expected to
'transform' (reshape and reinterpret) the knowledge (knowledge transforming).

These are some simple examples of different academic writing tasks,

approximately in order of how much transformation of knowledge is required:
Summarise an article Presenting the same KNOWLEDGE

knowledge as in the article TELLING
but in a condensed form
Explain a theory or concept Presenting the same

knowledge but from the
perspective of making it
clear to someone else
Compare two or more different Presenting your

theories explaining the same interpretation and
phenomenon evaluation
Present a set of Adding new knowledge

recommendations based on previous KNOWLEDGE
knowledge TRANSFORMING
Figure 28: Examples of different writing tasks from basic knowledge telling tasks to more
complex knowledge transforming tasks
When you analyse a question or task, be careful not to just look at 'key' words
and 'instruction' words, because these might not tell you enough. You should also
be thinking about the meaning of the question in terms of the relationships
between the words, and the amount of knowledge-transforming that you are
being asked to perform.
For example, if you were asked in a basic science course 'Explain the function of
the heart' you would be engaging much more in knowledge-telling; whereas if you
were asked to "Explain the implications of socio-economic status on physical
health" you would be engaged much more in knowledge-transforming because
there are so many possible interpretations and perspectives.

Note making
As we’ve mentioned before, reading and note making go hand-in-hand a university

study. Clear, concise notes become a record of the information you acquired during
your reading and allow you to integrate that information into your own writing.
Strategies for note making

Your purpose in making notes is to record the most relevant and most important
details from your reading in an abbreviated format. Because you are aiming for
understanding, these notes should be in your own words as much as possible.
The following strategies can help you make notes that will be useful to you when
you return to the information. Remember, you may not always be able to obtain
copies of the material you use to make your notes. Therefore, your notes must be
clear enough so that you can make sense of them when you have not seen the
source material for some time.
Be organised
Include all Always include complete details about the author’s name, the
bibliographical title of the text, the year and place of publication and (for a
details chapter or article) page numbers.
Use a system It is useful to be able to distinguish between your notes from
the text and your own ideas. For example, you could use
different coloured pens, draw boxes around your thoughts, or
use a three-column system (see below).
Identify quotes It is imperative that you always identify when you have copied
directly from the text. Use quotation marks and note the page
number. Similarly, if you are paraphrasing, you need to
distinguish this from your own thoughts.
Leave space Leave space in your notes, and a wide margin, so that you
can add new information and ideas later. (This is much
quicker than rewriting your notes to incorporate new
information.)
Be selective
Identify your Why are you making these notes? Are you reading for
purpose general understanding or to locate specific information for an
assignment?
Identify Highlight main points or arguments in your notes to organise
important the information in a logical sequence.
points

Be clear
Take easily- Write clearly, neatly, and in language you can understand so
read notes that you can easily re-read and recall the ideas.
Use your brain Put your pen down before you start making notes and
compose them in your head (so you won’t be tempted to
merely copy information).
Keep one set Aim to have just one set of notes. Visual familiarity will make it
of notes easier to find information later, and to recall information during
an exam. Shuffling between different sets of notes can be
very time consuming and frustrating.
Be concise Use symbols and abbreviations whenever possible.

Some common abbreviations and symbols
Common abbreviations Common symbols
e.g. for example &/+ and
i.e. that is, that means + plus, in addition to
etc. and the rest > greater/more
NB important, take note < smaller/less
p./pp. page/pages = is the same as/equal to
ch. chapter ≠ is not the same as/equal to
edn. edition ∴ therefore
c. (or ca.) circa, approximately ∵ because
wd(s) word(s) @ at
gov’t. government / per (20 km/hour)
imp. important ¶ paragraph
ex. example ´ leads to/results in
re: regarding, about Ê rises, increases by
vs. versus Ì falls, decreases by
c.f. compare Q both ways, mutual
incl. including U change
excl. excluding
no. number
usu. usually
amt. amount
Figure 29a & 6b: Common symbols and abbreviations used in note making

Methods of note making

There is no one best method that works for everyone when it comes to making
notes. The key is to find a way that works for you and takes into consideration the
reasons you are making the notes. In this section, we will look at three possible
methods of note making:
• Three column notes
• Chunking
• Mind maps
Three-column notes
Instead of filling each page with notes, you might find that organising your notes
in columns helps you both in note making and in using your notes later. Here is
an example of a three-column system for recording notes from multiple sources.
Source Notes Comments

(Where?) (What?) (So what?)
Including author, Including select quotations Including things you don’t

title, page nos. of and paraphrasing of key understand, things you disagree
quotations, etc. points. Use “quotation marks” with, the names of authors who have
for all direct quotations. written something similar or different.
These should be your ideas,
recognising links in the text to your
assignments or lecture/tutorial topics.
Figure 30: Three-column note making system
Figure 8 (on following page) shows you an example of notes made using the
three-column system, based on the example essay question below.
It is crucial that managers in charge of venues that serve food consider
issues surrounding the effects of passive smoking. Critically discuss.

Source Notes Comments

Zussman (1970) Tobacco smoke is an allergen. Is skin sensitivity to tobacco
Study used skin sensitivity to leaf the same as allergy to
p. 1 tobacco leaf. smoke? I need to find more
evidence on this.
McDougall and Gleich (1976) Study found no conclusive

evidence that tobacco smoke is
an allergen.
Even if it is an imagined
discomfort rather than real,
customers will still avoid smoky
Salvaggio et al (1981) No evidence of allergy, but did places – loss of business for
find that sensitivities may be due managers.
to psychological factors.
National Health and Medical Possible that there may be May be people with asthma or
Research Council some groups at higher risk than employees who work in smoky
general population. places for long periods of time
p. 1 – legal action?
Taylor (1974) Questions Zussman study – Critical comment on Zussman.

allergy to leaf extract not the
p. 2 same as allergy to smoke.
Peterson (2000) 20% of Australian population More like 50% in some public
smoke. places like coffee shops and
p. 4 bars.
Figure 31: Example three-column note making system
Your three-column notes can then be extended to creating a paragraph. To

illustrate this, Figure 9 (on following page) presents an example of three-column
notes on the notion that passive smoking may cause allergic reaction.
This system shows how a paragraph can be developed from the notes.

Example of a student's note making:
Figure 9: Three-column notes with example paragraph

(Adapted from Web, C & Drury, H 1995, Independent Learning Resources: Essay Module.)

Chunking
Chunking is a useful way of making notes whereby your notes are organised
under themes relating to the assignment task. This can be done as a second
stage of note making from your original notes or, particularly as you can gain
confidence and skills, as your initial note making process. Chunking helps to
streamline the note making process so that when you come to writing your
assignment you have already begun to engage in the process of critical thinking
through analysing and categorising. By developing themes you are both actively
engaging with the readings and beginning to form the basis of your assignment.
As an example, let’s consider the same topic and sources as in the three-column
note example:
As you read, you might begin to recognise that there are different aspects to the
question that can be organised into separate themes. For example, points relating
to tobacco smoke as an allergen, or in contrast, conflicting research results about
this point, could be noted on different pages under the relevant thematic headings.
(The three-column approach could then be used under each of these headings).
It is also helpful to have a page of miscellaneous quotes/paraphrases that you
have not yet categorised and a page for noting your ideas, connections, tentative
links etc.
Smoke as an Conflicting
Who is affected
allergen research results
Miscellaneous My Thoughts
Figure 10: Example of "chunking" and "three-column note making" using separate pages

Mind maps
A mind map, or branching diagram, shows the relationships between ideas. Mind
maps can be used to brainstorm ideas before reading (as shown in Chapter 3:
Understanding the task) or to show the issues that are discussed in a reading.
One type of mind map focuses on ‘facts’, as in the example in Figure 11 (on the
following page).

text books
library class
journals readings
databases internet
time
management research
motivations
Study
skimming reading attitude goals
Skills
close reading critical coping with
reading stress
writing
re-
planning drafting
drafting
Figure 11: Sample mind map focussing on facts
Another type of mind map (see below) encourages you to read texts more critically.
Rather than linking together ideas found in the text, this map helps you formulate
questions that will guide your reading and note making throughout your research.
Why is this
issue
important?
What do the What are the
key words main
mean? theories?
How has this Who are the
issue changed? main writers?
What is my ISSUE What is the
opinion/ history of this
position? issue?
What are the
What are the
implications for
problems?
the future?
How can theories
be used to solve
these
problems?
Figure 12: Sample mind map focussing on critical thinking questions

Using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries

In academic writing, you will be expected to refer to the work of others in a variety
of ways. Sometimes, a direct quote will be the most efficient and effective way to
make your point. More often, it will be appropriate to either leave out certain
words and ideas or to put them into your own words.
As a general rule, paraphrasing is the preferred method of referring to sources; it
is a very good way to show that you have understood and can explain others’
ideas and claims. Conversely, relying too heavily on direct quotations can be a
signal that you have not been able to incorporate that information into your own
knowledge base. Remember that no more than ten percent of your text should
take the form of direct quotations.
Here are some brief definitions of each of these methods of incorporating
information:
Quotation A quotation is an exact reproduction or transcription of
spoken or written words. Direct quotes can provide strong
evidence, act as an authoritative voice, or support a writer’s
statements.
Paraphrase A paraphrase is a way of presenting a text, retaining the
meaning, but using entirely different wording to “translate”
this meaning for use in the context of your writing task.
Paraphrasing is generally used with short sections of text,
such as phrases and sentences.
Summary A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given,
but most details, examples, and formalities are left out.
Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarising is to
reduce or condense a text to its most important ideas.
However you choose to incorporate outside information, the process will begin as
you make notes from your reading. It is a good idea to practice all three types of
references in your notes as you gather information; when it comes time to begin
writing from notes, you will then have a variety of resources to draw on.
As we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 8: Evidence and academic argument,
difficulties with using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries can sometimes
lead to plagiarism. Properly referencing all information from outside sources
during your note making can help you to avoid this problem when you begin
writing your assignment. Be certain to reference all uses of outside sources, no
matter what method of incorporating them you decide to use.

Differences between quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
There are distinct differences between quotations, paraphrasing, and summaries,

as you can see in the table below:
Quotations Paraphrases Summaries
• Match the source • Do not match the • Do not match the

word for word source word for word original source word
for word
• Are usually a brief • Are passages from a • Are made up

segment of the text source put into your exclusively of the
own words main idea(s) of a
passage written in
your own words
• Appear between • Change the words or • Presents a broad

quotation marks phrasing of a text, but overview, so is
retains and fully usually much shorter
communicates the than the original text
original meaning
• Must be attributed to • May be longer than • Must be attributed to

the original source the original text the original source
(including page
number, if available) • Must be attributed to
the original source
Figure 13: Quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
(Adapted from: “Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarising”, UNSW Learning Centre)

Activity 5.7: Using quotations, paraphrases, and summaries
Read the following paragraph. Using the information it contains, write:
• a sentence incorporating a quotation from the paragraph
• a paraphrase of the paragraph
• a summary of the important points in the paragraph.

The study skills needed for higher education are ultimately gained only through
studying at that level. Study skills don’t hatch fully formed, any more than a
grown hen pops from an egg. They evolve and mature through practice, trial
and error, feedback from others, and reflection as you move through the dif-
ferent stages of your course. You will be surprised at how your thinking and
language skills develop simply through continued study.
(From Cottrell, S. (1999). The Study Skills Handbook. London: Macmillan, p.1.).
Quotation: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Paraphrase: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Summary: ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

In conclusion…
During your university studies, you will have to do more reading than you may
have ever done before. The texts will probably be more difficult and require a
higher level of concentration to interpret.
Smart readers employ a variety of strategies to help them digest large amounts of
information. They evaluate their texts and read them critically, while recording the
most important points in their notes.
Thus, strong note making skills support academic reading. Well-constructed
notes, written using organised strategies, are an essential part of the research
that underpins the academic writing process. In Chapter 6, The academic essay
and Chapter 7, Other academic genres, you will learn more about how academic
writing makes use of the information generated from your reading and note making.

Activity 5.1: Thinking about reading
Answers will vary.
Activity 5.2: Practising pre-reading strategies
Answers will vary.
Activity 5.3: Determining the information needed for an assignment
Write an annotated Information about the main arguments of the texts so that you
bibliography (brief can:
critical evaluation of
three texts) • adequately critique the author’s main points
• comment on the text’s relevance/usefulness.
Write an essay General awareness of the text structure.
Give an oral • Specific sections or chapters you can use to support your
presentation discussion of a specific assigned topic
• Information that can be used to create visual aids and

graphics.
Activity 5.4: Identifying main ideas
2. Paragraph 1 - c; Paragraph 2 - b
3. Paragraph 1: Modern economic theory is usually traced to the 18th century,
but economic arrangements between humans are as old as are human
societies. Indeed, in simple forms, behaviours identifiable as ‘economic’
exist among many non-human species.
Paragraph 2: Inequality and the exploitation of vulnerable individuals,
genders, age groups and populations by those who are more powerful is
also an ancient economic trait.
Activity 5.5: Clarifying meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary
Answers will vary.

Activity 5.6: Evaluating sources
1. These are not the only correct answers – you may have others.
Positive Negative
Text A Author has provided references for No way to determine the credibility of
his sources (accuracy). the author – could be anybody (lack of
authority).
Puts forward opinions and arguments

that are not necessarily supported by
his sources (lack of objectivity).
Sources are general – dictionaries,

introductory textbooks – and they have
been used very descriptively (lack of
originality).
Text B Author is an expert in his field

(authority).
Publisher well-respected publisher of

educational and theoretical texts
(authority).
Well-written, logical description of

various theories of IQ embedded in
larger work devoted to learning and
teaching (coverage).
Text C Article is timely; provides real-world Popular periodicals are often not
examples of topic’s relevance considered to be as “scholarly” a
(currency). resource as peer-reviewed journals
(lack of authority).
2. Most credible source: Text B – Brown, H.D. Author is an acknowledged

expert in his field, the writing style is formal and academic, and the text is
relevant to the topic.
Least credible source: Text A – de la Jara, R. Nothing is known about the
author, and although the text is referenced, it would not be accepted as an
academic source.
3. Text B is the most useful as an academic source. It is written by an expert

in the field in an appropriate academic style, and is timely and relevant.
Text C could potentially be used as a source, depending on the type of
assignment (for example, if you were writing a reflective journal, or giving a
presentation about current discussion of intelligence in the media).

Activity 5.7: Using quotations, paraphrases and summaries
The following answers are suggestions – you may have come up with different
but equally correct answers.
Quotation: Students must practice if they want to develop their skills. According
to Cottrell (1999), “Study skills don’t hatch fully formed, any more
than a grown hen pops from an egg.” (p.1)
Paraphrase: Students develop tertiary study skills through the act of university
study. These skills are the product of continued practice and
participation in many aspects of their university courses; they will not
appear overnight (Cottrel 1999).
Summary: Cottrel (1999) believes that sustained participation in university
courses is one of the best ways for students to develop the
necessary skills for higher education.

Chapter 6
The academic essay
The academic essay
Introduction
In Chapter 2, Managing your writing, we looked at some of the reasons that you
may be asked to produce written work at university.
In Chapters 6 and 7, we will look closely at some of the different types of writing
(or genres) that you will use to meet those expectations. Specifically, those types
will include:
• essays
• research reports
• critical reviews
• annotated bibliographies
• reflective journals
Chapter 6 will focus on the academic essay, while Chapter 7 will look at the other
genres listed above.
In this chapter, we will look closely at each part of an essay and you will learn
techniques to help you organise your own essay assignment.
When you have finished working through these chapters, you will be able to:
• Recognise the genre of various academic texts
• Identify the purpose of a writing assignment and choose the appropriate

genre to fulfil the task
• Recognise and reproduce the structure of an academic essay
• Analyse an academic essay.

The academic essay
Recognising the structure of texts
You are already familiar with many different types of texts; you can recognise
these types or ‘genres’ from the familiar structure or sequence of stages through
which information and ideas are communicated in texts.
For example, a recipe is a type of text that contains the name of a dish, a list of
ingredients, and instructions on how to create the dish. It might also contain a
picture of the finished dish, and a comment on how it should taste.
Another example of a familiar text genre is a story or narrative. A typical story
introduces key characters and the setting for the story. It describes events that
lead to complications (or a series of complications), and finishes by resolving
these complications.
Academic texts also have predictable structures. You probably already know that
essays begin with an introduction, that they have a ‘body’ in which the topic and
argument of the essay is developed, and a conclusion. You may also be familiar
with academic reports. A typical report structure consists of an introduction to the
problem or issue, an explanation of the report’s aims, a description of how the
activity reported on was carried out, an analysis of the results of the activity, and
recommendations about future actions.
Structure and purpose of academic texts

Like all text genres, the structure of academic texts is closely related to their
purpose. Because most essays aim to persuade a reader, they present claims
and supporting evidence that will convince the reader of the credibility of the
claims. Because a critical review aims to evaluate a text, it needs to summarise
the text briefly as well as discussing the strengths, weaknesses and relevance of
the text. The principle of structure being related to purpose can be applied to
other academic text-types, such as scientific reports, work reports, case studies,
reflective journals and seminar presentations.
The following table compares the purposes and corresponding structures of the
major academic text-types that we will discuss in these two chapters.

The academic essay
TEXT-TYPE (GENRE)
Argument essay Research report, Critical review, Reflective

Case study Annotated journal
bibliography
Purpose To persuade a To explain what To summarise To reflect on

reader that the was done to solve a and evaluate a personal learning
writer’s argument problem or to carry single text experiences
is credible out an activity (critical review)
or a group of
related texts
(annotated
bibliography)
Stages in Introduction (with Introduction Bibliographic Log or diary type

the Text thesis and (background to details follows relatively
preview) report; previous unstructured
studies of the Purpose of the format; most
Body (arguments issue) text common is
and evidence chronological
supporting thesis) Aims Summary of responses to
major themes class meetings,
Conclusion Method (how the tutorials, and/or
(summary and activity, project, etc. Critique readings.
restatement of was carried out) (evaluation)
thesis) More formal
Results (outcomes journals requiring
Reference list of activity) analysis can be
organised
Discussion according to
(significance of the themes and often
activity) require comparison
of readings and
Recommendations
theory with your
personal
experience
Audience Lecturer / Manager, or Potential reader Yourself, or

(reader) assignment provider of funds, of the text, or lecturer/assign-
marker or lecturer / lecturer/assignment marker
assignment marker ment marker
Language Variable, but Simple present Simple present Variable, but

features simple present tense in tense present tense
tense Introduction and dominates
predominates Discussion Third person
perspective First person
Third person Past tense in perspective
perspective Method and (Chapter One
Results describes... Usually less
(Brown formal than other
suggests...) Third person This book is genres
perspective essential
Formal language reading...)
Formal language
Formal
language
Figure 32: Purpose and structure of argument essays, reports and critical reviews

The academic essay
Essays, reports, critical reviews and reflective journals can vary from their basic
structure, so use these frameworks as a guide only. It is best to ask your lecturer
or tutor if they have specific expectations of the genre they are asking you to use.
It is also useful to observe the different structures of the texts that you encounter
in your studies.
Writing style
There are many characteristics of writing style that contribute to making a piece of
writing appropriate for its purpose and its reader. It's very important to write in the
appropriate style for each particular task; for example, if you are writing an essay,
it will usually be more formal, more impersonal, more technical in language, and
more abstract than if you are writing a letter to a friend.
formal informal
impersonal personal
technical non-technical
abstract concrete
So, every different task will have characteristics in the style of writing that will be
appropriate for the purpose and the reader for which you are writing.
Activity 6.1: Analysing writing styles
1. The table in Figure 2 (page 5) has two examples of different styles of

writing. Read each example paragraph and then answer these questions:
a. Which of these genres is more formal? Which is the least?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
b. Can you identify some of the features that make the style more formal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

The academic essay
c. Which of the genres is more personal? Which is less personal? How can
you tell?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Genre Example paragraph
Essay Gender can be considered a social construction, as can be seen in

the differences in behaviour of males and females across different
ethnic groups, cultures and class schemes within the individual
cultures. The constructs that are created to define these differences
between males and females are often reinforced by cultural identity
with a particular ethnic social group and by institutional structures
such as governments, media, religions and even schools (Bilton et
al., 1996).
Reflective When I think of how gender stereotypes have shaped my experiences,

journal the first thing I think of is how teachers treated boys and girls when I
was at school. Things like boys, who are always getting the
interesting jobs, and girls getting to tidy things up, or clean stuff away.
When we used to do music, girls got triangles to play, but boys got
drums. Another thing that still annoys me now is that boys were
expected to be noisy and active, but girls were supposed to just sit
and watch and try to keep their clothes nice and clean. So if a girl
wanted to climb a tree or something, there’d be all this disapproval,
and you had to worry about people being able to see your knickers,
because all the girls had to wear dresses.
Figure 2: Genre style examples
2. The table in Figure 3, on the following page, outlines some of the

differences in language features between academic and informal writing.
Referring to this table, give examples of the academic writing features
included in the 'Gender differences' text (page 6).

The academic essay
Academic writing Informal writing
Full word forms: cannot; will not Contracted forms: can’t; won’t
that is; for example Abbreviated forms: i.e.; e.g.
Passive voice: Gender can be Active voice: I consider gender to be…

considered…
Formal language Gender can be Informal language: The way that

considered a social construction people treat boys and girls differently
makes boys and girls behave differently.
References: According to Bruner... Not referring to other sources
Extended noun groups: The differences Simpler noun groups: Males and
in behaviour of males and females females ...
across different ethnic groups...
Figure 3 – Comparison of language features in academic and informal writing
Gender differences: pathological cases
In pathological cases, however, children deviate from the normal pattern of exploring
masculine and feminine behaviours and develop an inflexible, compulsive, persistent
and rigidly stereotyped pattern (Zucker, 1985). On one extreme is the distorted
super-masculinity of boys who are belligerent, destructive, interpersonally violent,
and uncontrolled and simultaneously lacking gentle and socially sensitive behaviours
(Harrington, 1970). Professional intervention is required for these exaggeratedly
‘hyper-masculine’ boys who have actually adopted a maladaptive caricature of
masculinity…Although little research exists on female childhood gender disorders, it
is possible to identify the parallel conditions of maladaptive hyper-femininity and
hyper-masculinity in girls (Rekers & Mead1979, 1980).
Academic features Examples

The academic essay
The academic essay
Undergraduate essays are usually written as responses to topics set by the lecturer.
Essays where the student selects a topic and writes their own question may
become more common in the final (third or fourth) year and postgraduate studies.
In academic essays, you are expected to discuss or argue the issues thoroughly.
This means you need to support what you say with convincing evidence,
explanations and examples. The evidence will certainly come from your readings,
but in some essays, it might also come from your own small-scale research, or it
might draw on your own experience. It is important to be aware, when writing an
essay, that there is not a ‘correct’ answer, or that your lecturer does not have a
model essay in mind against which yours will be compared. Rather, an essay is
an opportunity to present your response to the question with a thoughtful, sub-
stantiated and convincing discussion.
Essays can have a range of purposes:
• Some essays are written primarily to inform. These essays tell a reader the
what, how or why of a topic. They can be called exposition essays (what)
and explanation essays (why, how).
Example: Explain the role of nursing theory in contemporary nursing practice.
• Most essays are written primarily to persuade and these are generally
called argument or discussion essays. Most university essays would fall
into this class. More specifically, it is often expected that essays at university
persuade by means of discussion. In this case, the purpose in the essay is
to develop your own main argument or ‘thesis’ through analysis and
evaluation of the arguments of other writers. (See Chapter 8, Evidence and
academic argument for more information on developing an argument).
Example: Outline the development of nursing as a profession. Comment
on what you see as two key developments. Discuss the directions in which
contemporary nursing practice is headed.
• Lecturers set essays as assignments to enhance learning and to test what

has been learnt. Your learning is enhanced as you explore, analyse, draw
ideas together and develop a thesis convincingly. Learning is tested
because essays can indicate how well you have understood the concepts
and issues of a particular subject.
• Essays are also used to assess students’ written communication skills.

The academic essay
Structure
The basic structural components of an essay are the introduction, body and
conclusion. The introduction is critical to making sure that the reader is clear
about the purpose and/or main argument of the essay. The body is critical
because it is the substance of the essay; it provides the reader with supporting
points and evidence that develop the main argument. The conclusion is critical to
leaving the reader in no doubt about the significance of the writer's final position.
The journey: a metaphor for writing essays
It can be useful to conceive of the essay as a journey that you, as the writer, are
taking the reader on. The introduction provides a map for the journey, indicating
clearly to the reader the reason for the journey (purpose/thesis) and the direction
of the journey (outline). The journey itself is the body of the essay. The main
aspects of the journey are highlighted by signposts such as paragraphs with topic
sentences, connective phrases, explanations and examples. This comparison is
useful because it helps you to remember that you are taking the reader on a
journey with you and therefore you need to be explicit by clearly outlining your
arguments/ideas. At the conclusion of the journey, you reflect on the purpose of
the journey and remind the reader of the main highlights. The essay is also a
journey in another sense in that you will travel through the realm of ideas and
sources to create your own unique response to the essay question.
Introduction
The introduction makes it clear to the reader what the topic under discussion is
and give an outline of the remainder of the piece of writing. A good introduction
can generally be envisaged to have the shape of a funnel. It usually begins with a
general statement(s) about the topic that provides a broad orientation. Then the
focus is narrowed to the specific unit or 'thesis statement' of the essay.
The table on the following page summarises some important information about
the introduction of an academic essay.

The academic essay
Purpose To introduce the subject matter and your claim or position.
Parts • A general statement – gives background information
• A thesis statement – outlines the writer's proposition/main

claim and plan of the essay
• A linking statement that connects the general statement to

the thesis statement – it can also provide a theoretical
framework for the thesis statement.
Features • Answers/responds to the essay question (thesis statement)
• Outlines the sequence of the stages or issues for discussion

in the body of the essay
• Establishes the limits or 'scope' of the essay (i.e., what the

essay will or will not cover).
Figure 4: The introduction
An introduction cannot be finalised until you have planned your essay and you
are clear about your line of argument. A common problem for essay writers new
to university studies is that they labour over the introduction long before they
really know what they want to write. More experienced writers often leave their
introduction until last. In this way, they avoid being 'locked in' to a particular line of
argument that may later prove difficult to sustain in the essay body.
Remember, an introduction may not necessarily comprise discrete sentences in a
set order. You may find that you interweave the outline with the thesis statement
or purpose. The essay introduction below is an example of this.
Topic: Why do some humanitarian crises make the front pages while
others wait in vain for their turn in the spotlight?
The factors that affect whether the media covers a story or not Orients the
are complex and many competing forces come into play at the reader to the
essay topic
international and national levels as well as at the coalface of
the editor’s office. These factors are aligned to the news value
of a story, which includes its impact and proximity as well as Clarifies the
the currency and relativity of the issue. Political and economic writer's pos-
ition on the
forces also interplay in whether a crisis makes it to the front topic (thesis)
pages. Humanitarian crises are subject to the vagaries of the
media and whereas the Boxing Day tsunami generated
widespread and sustained media coverage and a massive
Outlines the
outpouring of public generosity, the plight of the people of issues to be
Niger has generated little media or public interest. Using these explored in
examples as well as other recent humanitarian crises, this the body
essay will discuss the factors that keep some stories from the paragraphs
spotlight while others are forced upon the public’s attention.

The academic essay
Activity 6.2: Analysing essay introductions
Below are some examples of essay introductions, each from a different field of
study. The characteristic parts or stages of essay introductions were presented in
Figure 4 on the previous page; the examples below have been labelled to show
how these stages combine to produce an effective introduction.
When reading the examples, note how each introduction begins with general
information that orientates the reader to the topic (general statement) and then
moves on to provide a specific indication of the essay’s purpose and sequence
(thesis and outline).
Introduction 1 (from Adult Education)
Topic: What are the most important factors in teaching adults?
Analysis Introduction
Background To decide what the most important factors in teaching adults are, one
must have an understanding of adults and learners and the goals of
Theoretical education. The work of two prominent adult educators, Malcolm
framework Knowles and Paulo Freire, will be explored to develop this
understanding. From this research three factors emerge that are
Thesis and fundamental to teaching adults effectively: understanding their
outline motivation, creating an environment that is conducive to their learning,
and encouraging critical reflection.
Figure 5: Introduction 1 analysis
Introduction 2 (from Social Science Theory)
Topic: Critically assess whether Marx's theory of alienation is still relevant

to modern society.
Background Marx's theory of alienation originated in his analysis of the roots of the
unequal distribution of power, property and wealth in capitalist society.
Thesis Because these inequalities still exist, Marx's theory of alienation
remains highly relevant to modern society. This essay explores the idea
Outline that workers' alienation from the products and processes of production
has resulted in alienation from their own creative human nature and, in
competition for employment, in the alienation of man from man.

The academic essay
1. Read the two introductions below and identify each stage in the same way
as the previous two examples. Then answer the questions that follow each
introduction.
Introduction 3 (from Nursing)
Topic: Identify and discuss the most serious occupational hazards of nurses.
While patient safety has long been a nursing priority, only recently has
the occupational safety of nurses received attention. These occupational
health hazards include the risk of back injuries, stress, and the dangers
of radiation and infection. Apart from these kinds of risks, hospitals were
thought to be safe places to work. This paper argues that violence
against nurses is a serious problem for hospitals and thus a serious
occupational hazard. It reviews the literature on the incidence of violence
and the effects of violence on nurses, and suggests strategies to manage
violent situations.
2. Based upon your analysis, do you believe this is an effective introduction?

Why or why not? Do you think it could be improved? If so, how?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

The academic essay
Introduction 4 (from IT)

Topic: Analyse the impact of IT developments on Australian society.
Australian society is complex and ever changing. It is often described as
a classless society, but this is not very accurate. There are various
classes in Australian society, although the differences between them are
not as pronounced as in some other societies, such as in France or
Indonesia. Information Technology is defined as "the use of technology in
managing and processing information, especially in large organisations"
(Wikipedia 2006). Developments usually refer to changes, and there is an
association of ideas that links developments with improvements, although
this is not always the case. Consider the development of computer
viruses, for example. Information Technology (IT) has had many
developments. These developments have had an impact on Australian
society, but perhaps not equally on all classes in this society. It can be
argued that the wealthier classes have had much greater access to IT
than have the poorer classes. The internet has had a large impact on
many societies. Many religious groups fear the influence of the internet.
3. Based on your analysis, what do you think are the strengths of this
introduction? How would you improve this introduction?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

The academic essay
Body
The body of the essay should flow very obviously from the introduction and be
divided up into paragraphs that develop the ideas through to the conclusion. If a
particular sequence of discussion is outlined in the introduction, then the structure
of the body should adhere to this sequence. Further, each paragraph should
develop a group of ideas about one aspect of the topic.
It can be very helpful in planning your essay if you consider how many paragraphs
your essay should have according to the total word length of the essay. For
example, an essay of 1500 words could be expected to have somewhere between
8 and 15 paragraphs.
Keeping in mind the rule that each paragraph should develop a new set of ideas
can help you in planning the outline of your essay. You can use the diagram
below in your planning:
Paragraph 1 Introduction 150 words
Paragraph 2 Point 1 170 words
Paragraph 4 Elaboration 150 words
on point 2
Paragraph 6 Elaboration 130 words
on point 3
Paragraph 10 Conclusion 150 words
Figure 9: Paragraph guide
Remember to keep your paragraphs well balanced. An unbalanced set of paragraphs

would mean having some paragraphs of only 20 words and others of 200 words.
The table in Figure 10 (on next page) provides information about aspects of an
essay's body paragraphs.

The academic essay
Purpose The purpose of the body of an essay is to support the claim

made or position taken in the thesis statement. The body should
not contain anything that is extraneous to the scope of the thesis
statement.
Parts The body consists of a logically sequenced series of paragraphs

that develop the essay's thesis. A paragraph has at least two but
sometimes three parts to its structure:
• A topic sentence that presents the main idea of the paragraph

often taking the form of a generalised claim. It is usually the
first sentence of the paragraph.
• Supporting sentences that explain and elaborate on the main

idea. This can involve drawing on examples relevant to the
field, quotations from published authorities on the topic,
statistical data, comparing and contrasting sources. It is
important to use other sources (quotations, paraphrases and
summaries) as support information as it can give credibility to
a claim.
• A concluding sentence that signals the end of the paragraph

by giving a final comment on the topic that answers the
question 'so what?' A concluding sentence is often needed
when the paragraph is long.
Features In addition to the three parts, a good body paragraph has four
major characteristics:
• Unity: oneness of idea. A paragraph develops one main idea

at a time and the sentences in the paragraph exist to support
or develop that idea.
• Coherence: logical relationships between and among

sentences within a body paragraph.
• Adequate development: There must be sufficient evidence to

prove or substantiate the main idea in the topic sentence.
• Hierarchical structure: organising the main idea and sub-

ideas along the lines of the principle of layering.
Figure 10: Constructing body paragraphs

The academic essay
When you are constructing each paragraph, you should consider each one to
have its own mini-structure similar to your whole essay, as in this example:
The currency of a news item is also relevant when first sentence

considering humanitarian crises. Currency refers to introduces a
claim, which is
“how ‘hot’ an issue is at any one time” (Sheridan Burns, also the topic of
middle 2002: 52). Currency can occur when a particular crisis this paragraph
sentences appeals to the collective social conscience of the
present an world, a nation or a local community. East Timor has
explanation
as well as had currency in Australia for more than two decades.
evidence to News reports from East Timor initially brought “the
support audience into the story” (Sheridan Burns, 2002: 53)
this claim by giving graphic accounts of the killing of the five
Australian journalists who, in 1975, were reporting on
the political unrest in the tiny Indonesian province.
Since that time, there have been numerous articles on
the abject poverty, starvation and inadequate health
services endured by the East Timorese. These human-
interest stories allow the reader to empathise with the
suffering of their near neighbours. The fact that many
Australian volunteer aid workers have also endured
the same living conditions as the East Timorese concluding
increases and maintains local interest in the news sentence gives
story (Smith, 2004). Currency can be maintained over a final comment
on this point,
a significant period of time by journalists revisiting a thus allowing
humanitarian crisis from a social perspective or the reader to
reporting on a suffering individual’s experience that move on to the
‘twang the reader’s heart strings’. next paragraph
Figure 11: Example body paragraph
Note: Paragraph writing will be examined in more detail in Chapter 9, Features of

academic writing.

The academic essay
Conclusion
The conclusion is, first of all, a review of your essay, highlighting the main ideas
that serve to make your argument. It functions to leave your reader convinced of
the strengths of your thesis, and one way to do this is to paraphrase the thesis
statement given in the introduction.
The conclusion can also include a number of other comments, depending on the
essay question and your lecturer’s requirements. If appropriate, it can evaluate
the material you have presented, state your own conclusions, forecast the future
and/or make recommendations.
The table in Figure 12 below provides information about the different aspects of
an essay's conclusion.
Purpose The purpose of the conclusion is to draw together the main

arguments and concepts of your essay to reach a logical end –
to fit everything together, not just to summarise. If you stop at
the summary, you have not actually written a conclusion.
Parts The conclusion often has several parts:
• a summary that briefly restates the main issues or ideas

covered in the body of the essay
• a thesis restatement that shows how the main elements of

the essay combine to confirm the essay thesis. Thus, it
ensures the reader is reminded of the essay's main point
• a final statement that communicates a strong message the

reader will remember. The final statement is the actual con-
clusion of the essay, and is the most important part of the
final paragraph. It can make an evaluation or recommendation
or it may indicate the implications that follow the conclusion
such as a prediction, a warning or the direction of future
research.
Features A well-written conclusion has the following characteristics:
• It includes your subjective perspective, based on the

objective facts and evidence presented in the body of the
essay. A good conclusion is logical and valid.
• It does not introduce any new ideas, offer any apologies, or

make qualifying remarks that are not supported in the body of
the essay.
Figure 12: Aspects of a successful conclusion

The academic essay
Activity 6.3: Analysing essay conclusions
1. Read the conclusion below, which is from the same student essay as
Introduction 4 (page 12), and determine whether you believe the author
successfully incorporates the stages of a conclusion described on the
previous page. Then, in the left-hand column of the table below, label any
stages you can identify.
Analysis Conclusion
In conclusion, it has been argued in this essay that recent
developments in IT, and particularly the growth of the Internet,
have introduced significant changes to Australian society. These
changes were seen to be affecting Australian society in several
areas including equity of access, education, employment,
privacy and security, and healthcare. In most cases the impacts
considered in these areas were found to have both positive and
negative implications. The issue of equitable access to the
technology and the skills to use it remains perhaps the major
hurdle in the short term. However, to reiterate Kiesler (1997,
p.10), the “Internet is … a new domain of human activity” and as
such a full understanding of the consequences that this new
domain presents is still unfolding. The continually varying
context of the Internet entails that the progression of change and
impact on society will also vary. There is no doubt that the
internet has established its value in certain sectors and proven
to be useful in many applications. Hopefully in the future the
disadvantages relating to ICT will be reduced so that the full
value of the Internet can be realised throughout society.
Figure 13: Conclusion analysis
2. Based upon your analysis, decide whether you believe this is an effective
conclusion; then write a sentence or two defending your opinion. Also,
think about some ways you could improve this conclusion, and write a
sentence or two outlining those ways.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

The academic essay
Variations in essay structure

While this essay structure is common, you might find that it does not fit all the
essays you will write. The structure might change slightly depending upon the
course or subject you’re writing in. For example, essays written in Education often
have a distinct 'implications' stage where theories and arguments are applied to
classroom teaching.
There will be some variation in what lecturers look for in essays as well. They
may have different preferences for the order of information in the introduction, for
example, or for how often it is appropriate to use quotations.
You will also need to take into consideration the organisation dictated by the
rhetorical device that that might be required for the essay. Examples of rhetorical
devices include comparison and contrast, cause and effect, description,
classification narration, process analysis.
Most essays, however, require you to use the knowledge, skills, methods and
theories you have learned in a unit to analyse major issues and arguments from
your field of study. Some will require you to refer to your sources when you apply
these skills; others might allow you to apply them without making extensive
reference to sources. It is important, therefore, to analyse questions carefully, and
to check with lecturers and tutors about their expectations.
Marking criteria
Following are some very general assessment criteria that most lecturers would
agree are fundamental in marking essays at university-level. The main question
on the marker's mind for each criterion is "how deeply do you show that you
understand?" The significance of each criterion may vary according to the kind of
essay. For example, essays written under exam conditions would not usually be
expected to be as well presented and well-written as essays you have weeks to
prepare.
Essays should:
• be well-researched with relevant material
• answer the question in a well-structured way
• be well-argued and substantiated
• be well-written
• be well presented.
In order to satisfy each of these criteria, you need to think carefully about the
purpose of each particular writing task to make sure that, above all, you answer
the question or address the problem that you have been posed by the task.

The academic essay
Essays should be well researched with relevant material
Your researching process is critical in developing a deeper understanding of the

topic you have selected. Sometimes you may already have clear ideas about the
topic, and even your own point of view on it, so your reading is mainly to find
supporting evidence to give your views weight. However, for most students who
are new to an area of study, the researching stage is a process of discovery of
new ideas and information, and different points of view.
The two most important qualities of your research that lecturers usually look for in
your writing are that you have read broadly enough for the task, and that you
have drawn on reading that is relevant in answering the set task.
Essays should answer the question in a well-structured way
The structure of your writing should reflect the degree to which you have
transformed the knowledge. If the task were to summarise an article, then the
structure of your summary would normally reflect the structure of the article. If the
task was to present your own argument, then there are no predetermined steps
— they depend entirely on your argument.
However, it is expected that your essay will have a clear structure in terms of
introduction, body and conclusion, and well constructed paragraphs. The
development of a clear structure will allow the reader/marker to identify and follow
your argument/line of thought in answering the question and addressing the
assessment criteria.
Essays should be well argued and well substantiated
A well-argued and well-substantiated essay will normally have the following

characteristics:
• clear thesis
• analytical approach
• critical approach
• appropriate evidence (internal argument, and external substantiation)
• appropriate mix of summary, paraphrase, and quotation
• no plagiarism
• presentation of visual/graphic data (where applicable).

Essays at university are normally expected to be both analytical and critical. Being
analytical involves dividing ideas into their different components. Being critical
involves making judgements about different perspectives and ideas. A critical
analysis is much more than a mere summary of what the authors of the books or

The academic essay
papers that you have read for your assignment think about the topic. It is an
intelligent understanding and pulling apart of the topic by interpretation of different
ideas and weighing up alternatives.
From this concept of critical analysis we can infer two basic rules. Firstly, don't let
the readings write the essay for you; that is, don't just summarise the readings. It
is your essay and you have to drive it by using the readings to reinforce your
statements. Secondly, the ideas of others should be paraphrased and referenced
accurately. Avoid the use of direct quotations that allow the ideas and words of
others to take over your essay. (For more information on using quotations
effectively, see Chapter 8, Evidence and academic argument.)
You should be careful when including quotations; many markers frown upon their
overuse. To show that you really understand the ideas of others, you should be
able to write about them in your own words. You can also comment on the
quotations you are using to show that you understand their importance.
Remember, use quotations when they are absolutely essential, but make sure that
they are copied exactly. A good rule of thumb is to keep quotations to no more
than 10% of your total essay.
It should also be noted that everything apart from quotations must be expressed
in your own words, and you must give the sources or citations of all your
paraphrases, summaries and quotations. Moreover, these citations must be
accurate. One way of making sure of this is by writing down all the bibliographical
material including page numbers when you are making notes from your reading.
(See Chapter 5, Reading and note making for more information.)
Using citations is a fundamental part of university writing. University itself is an
institution for the advancement of knowledge, you can't do a doctorate or a
masters by research unless it adds to knowledge and you can't add to the
knowledge unless you know what has gone before. This is why lack of citation or
errors in citation are of such a concern, because without clear citations you
cannot acknowledge what has gone before. Moreover, inadequate citation of
sources in academic writing can qualify as plagiarism. (For more information on
how to avoid plagiarism, see Chapter 8, Evidence and academic argument.) At
the undergraduate level, you are expected to begin developing these skills right
from the start of your courses.
Essays should be well written
Academic writing should always be clear, concise and logical. The best method of
achieving clarity and logic is through making the structure transparent to the reader.
This will ensure that the reader can find their way through the essay, and that the
essay is therefore coherent.
If you have difficulties with grammar or if English is not your first language, spending
time planning a logical structure for your essay can often have more immediate
benefits than focussing mainly on sentence level grammar issues in your writing.
Many times, students become distracted by easily identifiable grammar problems
and ignore the underlying issues of structure and organisation. While grammar is
important, a logical presentation of ideas is central to successful academic writing.

The academic essay
Activity 6.4: Analysing an academic essay
Read the essay below, which responds to this question:

“The change from lay person to nurse can be difficult.” Discuss some of the
problems and the ways in which nurses might cope.
Then answer the questions that follow (page 23) about each section of the essay.
Essay
A person may experience many difficulties during the transition period from layperson
to the newly acquired role of nurse. This new role virtually necessitates a whole
change of lifestyle therefore many adaptations must be implemented in order to fulfil
the requirements of that role. Areas of difficulty may include anxiety related to under-
taking patient care and meeting the needs of the patient, for example, washing and
toileting, communication problems and coping with very ill and dying patients. Shift
work and the demands of inadequate staffing levels may also be of concern to the
new nurse along with a possible feeling of loss of identity.
This transition can be called a "status passage - the process of change from one
social status to another" (Bradby, 1990, p.1363). Many nurses have other roles to
fulfil such as those of wife or mother. Some may even have just left home for the first
time in order to take up their role as a nurse - for these nurses the transition period
may be particularly difficult and a complete change of lifestyle.
Some new nurses, particularly those who have low self esteem and high anxiety
levels, may suffer a loss of personal identity during the transition period. They may
feel useless and not worthy of their uniform. In order to cope and retrieve their
personal identity they may need to seek support from their friends and family.
However, this problem seems to be short term and most nurses soon regain their
confidence and are proud of the important role they play as a nurse.
Some expectations of nursing duties may be overwhelming to the new nurse.

Feelings of embarrassment and nervousness may occur, especially if the nurse is
lacking confidence, particularly when washing patients. Exposure of the body,
especially of the opposite sex, may contradict the values the nurse was taught as a
child. However, "breaching the unwritten rules of body exposure is a crucial ingredient
in making the transition from lay person to nurse" (Bradby, 1990, p.1364). A good
way for the nurse to cope with feelings of discomfort while performing this duty would
be to seek the help and support of another nurse. The nurse will soon begin to feel
more concerned about the patient's feelings during this procedure than their own and
will want to look for ways to make the patient more comfortable and relaxed.
Some newly trained nurses may experience difficulty coping with incontinence among
their patients. However, many cope with this through their concern of the humiliation
that may be suffered by the patient and soon overcome their anxiety in an effort to
help their patient. Whatever anxiety the nurse is feeling is often shared by the patient
as well.
The newly trained nurse must have certain communication skills in order to form an
interpersonal relationship with the patients. "An interpersonal relationship is the most
basic form of social interaction. It means that two or more persons are participating in
some sort of relationship" (Humphrey, 1985, p.5). Effective communication is vital to
the care of patients and the nurse should use this skill as part of patient care.

The academic essay
Coping with shift work is a major difficulty in the transition from layperson to nurse.
Shift work "stops nurses from interacting with the society around them" (Knepfer,
1989, p.147). The ability to cope with shift work seems to diminish with increase in
age, probably due to the fact that sleep tends to be more disturbed as a person
grows older. The nurse must make changes with regard to eating, sleep and
recreational patterns in order to cope better with the demands of shift work. For
example, eating and drinking only lightly while working on night shift will minimise
digestive problems and aid sleep during the day (Humphrey, 1985).
Coping with very ill or dying patients poses a major concern for some new nurses and
can often be an extremely frightening experience. The support of other staff is of
extreme importance in dealing with this often unpleasant aspect of nursing. Some
nurses learn to cope by assuring themselves that all they can do is to keep the patient
comfortable and pain free, while others will try to avoid being with the patient as much
as possible in an effort to cope. Support from more experienced staff by way of
discussions is a good way to cope with the associated fears and anxieties of nursing
a dying patient.
Stress can be a major hazard in the nursing profession and the new nurse in particular
may be prone to job related stress. "At some time or another we can expect to
experience emotional and physical problems arising out of the demands of caring for
people" (Bailey, 1985, p.1). Nurses may find that the demands of caring are not
always what they had anticipated and the transition from lay person to nurse may be
stressful because, suddenly so much is expected from them in their new role. Each
area of nursing may bring with it a new form of stress. In order to cope with stress,
the nurse must first identify those situations that are causing stress and work towards
alleviating the stress element of that specific situation. Problem solving skills,
counselling services and stress management/ reduction courses are all helpful for
nurses in coping with stress.
In conclusion, it is evident from the information presented in this paper that there are
many difficulties associated with the change from layperson to nurse. The new role
requires many changes relating to lifestyle and there may be many moments of
anxiety, uncertainty and even fear. The transition is a major step and the nurse will
experience stress associated with this change. However, as the nurse gains exper-
ience and confidence so too will coping mechanisms be gained and the nurse will be
able to enjoy a truly rewarding pleasurable career.
Reference List
Bailey, R. (1985). Coping with stress in caring. London: Blackwell Scientific

Publications.
Bradby, M. (1990). Status passage into nursing: Another view of the process of
socialisation into nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 1220-1225.
Bradby, M. (1990). Status passage into nursing: Undertaking nursing care. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 15, 1363-1360.
Humphrey, C. (Ed.) (1985). Australian nursing, an introduction. Sydney: McGraw-Hill.
Knepfer, G. (1989). Nursing for life. Sydney: Pan Books.

The academic essay
Introduction:
1. In the margins of the essay, identify how much of the text the introduction
comprises. How does this introduction compare to the introductions you
analysed earlier in this chapter?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How many parts can you identify in the introduction? With brackets, mark
where each part begins and ends on the essay text. Are any parts missing?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the author present a clear plan for the essay in the introduction? In
what order do you expect to find the main ideas?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. What do you think the author does well in this introduction? Also, what do
you think the author could do to improve the introduction?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

The academic essay
Body
Because the essay deals with two issues – the problems (difficulties faced by
the new nurse) and the solutions (the ways to cope with the difficulties), there
are two possible organisational structures for the body paragraphs:
Linear The various problems/difficulties are presented one after
the other in several paragraphs and then the possible
ways to cope are discussed in the next few paragraphs.
Alternating a problem is presented in one paragraph followed by
another paragraph that discusses the solution(s); then
the second problem is presented in the next paragraph
followed by another paragraph that describes its
solution(s), and so on.
1. Does the body in this essay follow one of these two (linear or alternating)
ways of organising information? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. What is the topic of the first body paragraph? What does the outline for the
essay in the introduction suggest the first topic should be?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Does the author introduce topics in the body paragraphs that are not
mentioned in the essay outline in the introduction? If so, list them here:
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

The academic essay
4. Suggest some ways that the author could improve the relationship
between the introduction and the body paragraphs.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. Generally speaking, what do you think is the greatest strength in these

body paragraphs?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Conclusion
1. How does the conclusion summarise the major points raised in the body of
the essay?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. How does the writer conclude the essay (for example, with a final
statement in the form of something similar to a suggestion, warning,
prediction, optimism, or future direction)?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Has the writer introduced any new idea (that is not implied or stated in the
thesis statement) or made apologies in the concluding paragraph? If so,
identify where this occurs.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

The academic essay
4. Does the writer successfully wrap up the essay’s major points in this
conclusion? In other words, does the author go beyond merely summarising
and logically conclude the essay? If so, how?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
In conclusion…
Academic writing tasks can take a variety of forms. The form, or genre, that you
will use depends on a number of factors, one of the most important being the
purpose of the assignment.
One genre that most students will encounter at some point in their academic
career is the essay. While every assignment is unique, understanding the basic
structure and organisation of an essay will give you a framework you can use to
construct your text. This basic principle also holds true for other academic genres,
as you will discover in Chapter 7.

The academic essay
Activity 6.1: Analysing writing styles
1. Different styles of writing (genres).

a. The essay is more formal; the reflective journal is less.
b. The essay has fully developed paragraphs, incorporates references to
other sources, and has an objective tone. It is less conversational in style
than the other two genres.
c. The reflective journal is more personal. The author is expressing opinions
and observations and examining his/her own experiences. The essay is
less personal – the author's presence is much less apparent.
2. Academic writing features.
Academic features Examples
Full forms of words it is possible
Passive voice Professional intervention is required
Formal language children deviate from the normal pattern
Referring to other sources (Zucker 1985); (Harrington 1970);

(Rekers & Mead 1979, 1980)
Extended noun groups a maladaptive caricature of masculinity;

female childhood gender disorders
Activity 6.2: Analysing essay introductions
Introduction 3
Background While patient safety has long been a nursing priority, only recently has
the occupational safety of nurses received attention. These occupational
health hazards include the risk of back injuries, stress, and the dangers
of radiation and infection. Apart from these kinds of risks, hospitals were
thought to be safe places to work
Thesis This paper argues that violence against nurses is a serious problem for
hospitals.
Outline It reviews the literature on the incidence of violence and the effects of
violence on nurses, and suggests strategies to manage violent situations.
Discussion answers will vary.

The academic essay
Introduction 4
Background Australian society is complex and ever-changing. It is often described as a
classless society, but this is not very accurate. There are various classes in
society, although the differences between them are not as pronounced as in
some other societies, such as in France or Indonesia. Information Tech-
nology is defined as “the use of technology in managing and processing
information, especially in large organisations” (Wikipedia 2006). Develop-
ments usually refer to changes, and there is an association of ideas that
links developments with improvements, although this is not always the case.
Consider the development of computer viruses, for example.
Thesis It can be argued that the wealthier classes have had much greater access to
IT than the poorer classes.
Outline The internet has had a large impact on many societies.
Activity 6.3: Analysing essay conclusions
Analysis Conclusion
Restatement of thesis In conclusion, it has been argued in this essay that recent
(answers essay developments in IT, and particularly the growth of the Internet,
question) have introduced significant changes to Australian society.
Summary of supporting These changes were seen to be affecting Australian society in

arguments/discussion several areas. In most cases the impacts considered in these
topics from the essay areas were found to have both positive and negative implications.
body The issue of equitable access to the technology and the skills to
use it remains perhaps the major hurdle in the short term.
Qualification of the However, to reiterate Kiesler (1997, p.10), the "Internet is … a

conclusion. Marking out new domain of human activity" and as such a full understanding
some of the limits of of the consequences that this new domain presents is still
the thesis position unfolding The continually varying context of the Internet entails
that the progression of change and impact on society will also vary.
Final statement that There is no doubt that the Internet has established its value in
points to future certain sectors and proven to be useful in many applications.
considerations Hopefully in the future the disadvantages relating to ICT will be
reduced so that the full value of the Internet can be realised
throughout society.

The academic essay
Activity 6.4: Analysing an academic essay
Introductory paragraph
Structural Essay text Comments

analysis
Thesis A person may experience many difficulties during the Usually, the introductory
statement transition period from layperson to the newly acquired material is contained in
role of nurse. This new role virtually necessitates a a single paragraph, as
whole change of lifestyle therefore many adaptations in the introductions
that were analysed
Outline must be implemented in order to fulfil the requirements
earlier in the chapter.
of that role. Areas of difficulty may include anxiety
related to undertaking patient care and meeting the The author does give
needs of the patient, for example, washing and an outline for the
toileting, communication problems and coping with essay and each of the
very ill and dying patients. Shift work and the demands elements mentioned in
of inadequate staffing levels may also be of concern the outline are covered
to the new nurse along with a possible feeling of loss in the essay, but not in
of identity. the order presented in
the outline. For
This transition can be called a "status passage - the example, loss of
identity is the last
process of change from one social status to another"
element mentioned in
(Bradby, 1990, p.1363). Many nurses have other roles the outline, but the first
to fulfil such as those of wife or mother. Some may to be discussed in the
Background even have just left home for the first time in order to essay.
take up their role as a nurse - for these nurses the
transition period may be particularly difficult and a This introduction
complete change of lifestyle. seems to move from
(There does specific to general,
not seem to instead of the other
be a way around. It begins
statement of with the thesis state-
purpose.) ment, then gives an
outline for the essay,
and then gives some
general statements
about why this
transition is difficult.

The academic essay
Body paragraphs

analysis
Paragraph 1
Topic Some new nurses, particularly those who have low Topic: loss of personal
sentence self esteem and high anxiety levels, may suffer a loss identity – the essay
of personal identity during the transition period. They outline suggests that
the first topic will be
may feel useless and not worthy of their uniform. In
anxieties related to
Body order to cope and retrieve their personal identity they patient care.
paragraphs may need to seek support from their friends and
organised in family. However, this problem seems to be short term
alternating and most nurses soon regain their confidence and
fashion are proud of the important role they play as a nurse.
Paragraph 2
Topic Some expectations of nursing duties may be Topic: overwhelming

sentence overwhelming to the new nurse. Feelings of expectations of
embarrassment and nervousness may occur, nursing duties:
exposure of the body.
especially if the nurse is lacking confidence,
particularly when washing patients. Exposure of the The author could
body, especially of the opposite sex, may contradict strengthen the
Each body the values the nurse was taught as a child. However, relationship between
paragraph "breaching the unwritten rules of body exposure is a the intro and the body
has a well- crucial ingredient in making the transition from lay in two ways:
defined,
person to nurse" (Bradby, 1990, p.1364). A good way
clearly written 1. by creating a clear
topic for the nurse to cope with feelings of discomfort while
outline in the intro
sentence performing this duty would be to seek the help and
support of another nurse. The nurse will soon begin 2. rearranging the
to feel more concerned about the patient's feelings body paragraphs
during this procedure than their own and will want to to follow that
look for ways to make the patient more comfortable outline
and relaxed.
Paragraph 3
Topic Some newly trained nurses may experience difficulty Topic: overwhelming
sentence coping with incontinence among their patients. expectations:
However, many cope with this through their concern incontinence
of the humiliation that may be suffered by the patient
and soon overcome their anxiety in an effort to help
their patient. Whatever anxiety the nurse is feeling is
often shared by the patient also

The academic essay
Body paragraphs (continued)

Analysis
Paragraph 4
Topic The newly trained nurse must have certain Topic: necessary
sentence communication skills in order to form an interpersonal skills: communication
relationship with the patients. "An interpersonal
This topic isn’t mentioned
relationship is the most basic form of social in the essay outline of
interaction. It means that two or more persons are the introduction
participating in some sort of relationship" (Humphrey,
1985, p.5). Effective communication is vital to the
care of patients and the nurse should use this skill as
part of patient care.
Paragraph 5
Topic Coping with shift work is a major difficulty in the Topic:

sentence transition from layperson to nurse. Shift work " ... difficulty/concern: shift
stops nurses from interacting with the society around work
them" (Knepfer, 1989, p.147). The ability to cope with
shift work seems to diminish with increase in age,
probably due to the fact that sleep tends to be more
disturbed as one grows older. The nurse must make
changes with regard to eating, sleep and recreational
patterns in order to cope better with the demands of
shift work. For example, eating and drinking only
lightly while working on night shift will minimise
digestive problems and aid sleep during the day
(Humphrey, 1985).
Paragraph 6
Topic Coping with very ill or dying patients poses a major Topic:
sentence concern for some new nurses and can often be an difficulty/concern: ill or
extremely frightening experience. The support of dying patients
other staff is of extreme importance in dealing with
this often unpleasant aspect of nursing. Some nurses
learn to cope by assuring themselves that all they can
do is to keep the patient comfortable and pain free,
while others will try to avoid being with the patient as
much as possible in an effort to cope. Support from
more experienced staff by way of discussions is a
good way to cope with the associated fears and
anxieties of nursing a dying patient.

The academic essay
Body paragraphs (continued)

Analysis
Paragraph 7
Topic Stress can be a major hazard in the nursing Topic:

sentence profession and the new nurse in particular may be difficulty/concern: job
prone to job related stress. "At some time or another related stress
we can expect to experience emotional and physical
problems arising out of the demands of caring for
people" (Bailey, 1985, p.1). Nurses may find that the
demands of caring are not always what they had
anticipated and the transition from lay person to nurse
may be stressful because, suddenly so much is
expected from them in their new role. Each area of
nursing may bring with it a new form of stress. In
order to cope with stress, the nurse must first identify
those situations that are causing stress and work
towards alleviating the stress element of that specific
situation. Problem solving skills, counselling services
and stress management/reduction courses are all
helpful for nurses in coping with stress.
Concluding paragraph

analysis
Restatement In conclusion, it is evident from the information No new ideas
of thesis presented in this paper that there are many mentioned in the
difficulties associated with the change from layperson conclusion.
to nurse. The new role requires many changes
Summary of relating to lifestyle and there may be many moments
main points of anxiety, uncertainty and even fear. The transition is
a major step and the nurse will experience stress
associated with this change. However, as the nurse Final statement points
gains experience and confidence so too will coping to a hopeful future for
mechanisms be gained and the nurse will be able to new nurses.
enjoy a truly rewarding pleasurable career.

Chapter 7
Other academic genres
Introduction
In Chapter 6, The academic essay, you were introduced to the concept of

academic genres and examined the academic essay in light of this concept.
In this chapter, you will explore some of the other academic genres that are
frequently assigned to university students. These genres include:
• Research reports
• Critical reviews
• Annotated bibliographies
• Reflective journals
After you have worked through this chapter, you will be able to:
• Identify the main structural components of each genre
• Describe the purpose behind each genre
• Explain some general marking criteria for each genre.
Research Report
In real-world settings, research reports are written for a number of reasons. For
example, a scientist may need to communicate laboratory work to management,
which may base important company decisions upon the results of the report.
Another reason is to archive the work so that it will not have to be done again in
the future.
The main purpose of scientific research report writing at university is to com-
municate the results of your experiments or field research. The process of writing
a scientific report also gives you valuable practice in articulating the theoretical
and empirical bases of a particular experiment, what you did, and what you
interpret your results to mean. This type of assignment at an undergraduate level
at university mimics the style of report you would be required to produce in
postgraduate research and for communication through publication with your
scientific/technical peers.
This section gives a general description of the sections of a scientific report;
however, you should check with your lecturer or tutor about the practices adopted
by your faculty or department, as there may be differences in their approach, style
and presentation requirements.

Format
Unlike an essay, a report has a formalised structure. Taking into account disciplinary
differences, scientific or laboratory reports written by undergraduates, these share
the same format as scientific reports written by academics for publication. Your
tutor or lecturer, however, may have requirements that differ from the format
described below. Be sure to check the format requirements with your instructor
before you begin writing your assignment.
The sections of a scientific report are:
• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References
• Appendices
Title
The title of a scientific report is your reader’s first introduction to your topic; by
choosing a clear, precise title, you can help others quickly determine whether
your report will be useful or relevant to them.
The title should:
• be approximately 15 words long;
• provide key words for indexing; and
• avoid unnecessary words, abbreviations, and jargon.

The title below is not helpful to a reader because it does not contain enough
information about the research contained in the report:
An investigation of physical stimuli
This one is a little better:
An investigation of memory for sentences
By increasing the specificity of the information, this title has improved even more:
Sentence memory: A constructive versus interpretive approach.
Abstract
The Abstract is a concise summary of your report. Like a specific title, an Abstract
helps readers to decide whether they should read the report. Therefore, a poorly
written Abstract can drive readers away from your research.
An Abstract should include:
• the main aims or objectives of your research
• a description of your methods
• a summary of the most important results
• a statement of your conclusions and the significance or implications of your

results.
The Abstract should be approximately 200 words long, typed as a single
paragraph, and titled “Abstract”. You should not include references to tables,
figures, sources, or information that is not included in the report.
Stylistically speaking, your Abstract should be written in plain, precise English.
Although you can assume your readers will have some knowledge of the topic,
they should be able to quickly grasp the most important parts of your research
without having to decipher figures, tables, or abbreviated language.
Because you have so few words in the Abstract, you must make sure that every
one contributes to the meaning; choose them very carefully. Begin by selecting
the key points from each section of the report, and then condensing them over
several drafts.

Introduction
While a well-written title and Abstract will attract the right readers (including your
marker) to your report, the Introduction will tell them exactly what the report is
about and why it is important. Your Introduction can do this by answering these
three questions:
• What is the problem?

Describe the problem investigated.
• Why is the problem important?

Review the relevant research to provide a rationale.
• What solution do you propose?

Briefly describe your experiment: the hypothesis, research questions,
experimental design/method, and justification for the method, if there
are alternatives.
Although the Introduction is located early in the report, it does not necessarily
have to be written early in the process. In fact, writing the Introduction last can be
a very effective strategy; it can be much easier to describe your experiment or
field research after you have finished writing up the results and your discussion.
Your Introduction should move from the general to the specific:
Introduction to the whole field GENERAL
How your research

fits into the field
Specific aims and

outline of
your research
SPECIFIC
Figure 33: Diagram of an Introduction for a research report

In introducing to your reader the field in which your research is situated and the
research itself, you will often need to provide a review of the literature relevant to
your area. This review will provide your reader with:
• an understanding of the conceptual and theoretical background, context,

and justification of the research you are undertaking
• an appreciation of the significance of this area in general and your topic in

particular.
Just as your Introduction moves from general to specific, so will your literature
review. Begin with studies that establish the general area, and then introduce
those that deal specifically with your research topic.
As in any academic writing task, it is not enough to merely string together a series
of quotes from different sources. You must incorporate those quotes into a critical
analysis of the research as it relates to your topic. You need to identify what is
missing from the literature to date.
As always, remember to check with your tutor or lecturer about their specific
preferences regarding this kind of review. Some may ask you to create a
separate section for an extensive literature review, while others may require you
to incorporate a few sources in the body of the Introduction.
Methods
In the Introduction, you orient your reader to the wider field and the place of your
research in it; in the Methods section of your report, you describe what research
you did and how you did it. This section may be somewhat easier to write than
others (the Discussion, for example), as you will be simply describing, rather than
analysing or drawing conclusions.
In your description, you briefly summarise the entire process you followed and the
materials you used; it is important that you be accurate and precise in your
description so that others can repeat your results and so that you can replicate
the work later, if necessary. This summary is usually presented in chronological
order, although you may choose to arrange your description by type of procedure,
and then chronologically within each type.
The Methods section should be written in the past tense, since you are describing
an event that has already happened. It can also be effective to focus on the action
(i.e., your experiment) rather than the actor (i.e., you) by using the passive voice.
For example:
A dilution series was performed...
instead of
I performed a dilution series.

On occasion, however, the passive voice can result in an awkwardly constructed

sentence. When this occurs, clarity is preferable to strict adherence to the passive
verb structure.
Also, you may notice that the active voice is becoming more popular in some
scientific reports, and that some report writers use the personal pronoun “I”. In
some disciplines, this less formal approach to scientific writing is perfectly
acceptable. So check with your tutor or lecturer to determine their preference.
Finally, the description of your methods should be a relatively small part of the
report, so keep it brief. Do not include the results or any discussion in this section.
Results
The Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections of your report are
closely linked. Thinking about these sections as a series of questions can help
you decide what information should be included in each of them:
Section Relationship Question
Introduction Poses a question WHY?
Methods Tells what you did to answer the HOW?

question posed in the Introduction
Results Tells what was produced by your WHAT?

Methods that can be used to answer
the question posed in the Introduction
Discussion Tells what Results are significant for SO WHAT?

answering the question posed in the
Introduction
Figure 34: Relationships between sections of a report
(Adapted from Murison, E. & Webb, C. 1991 Writing a Research Paper)
You should only present results that relate back to the question posed in the
Introduction. This section is a stepping-stone to the Discussion; it presents a
framework upon which the Discussion can be built. It does not explain or interpret
the results; as in the methods section, you are simply describing.
For each experiment or procedure, you briefly describe the procedure in a
sentence or two and report the main results. These results are supported by
selected data: representative (most common) and best case (ideal example). You
will need to use both the past tense – to describe results and analyses – and the
present – to describe what the reader is seeing (e.g., tables, graphs and figures).

Discussion
You may discover that the Discussion section (or the SO WHAT? of the report) is
the most difficult to write. You will be required to interpret your results and present
them to your reader(s) in a way that convinces them that your research is
significant. You cannot do this by merely describing, as you did in the Methods
and Results sections. This is where you will demonstrate how well you understand
the ideas and techniques involved in your research and how your results relate to
other research in the field (as described in the literature you’ve reviewed).
The Discussion has two main goals:
1. to explain the results of your research
2. to explore the significance of those results.
To achieve these goals you need to:
• interpret and explain your results
• examine whether and how the questions raised in the introduction section
have been answered
• show how your results relate to the literature
• qualify and explore the theoretical importance/significance of your results
• outline any new research questions or areas for future research that your
results have suggested.
In this section, you will use both the past tense – to explain the details of your
results – and the present tense – to draw conclusions or outline the implications
of your results.
Conclusions
The Conclusions may form part of the Discussion, or they may be written as a
separate section. Check with your instructor to determine which format they
prefer. Wherever they are located, the Conclusions serve the same purpose: to
set down a number of generalisations arising from the Discussion.
If your Conclusions are a part of the Discussion, they will usually be signalled by
phrases such as “In summary...” If you choose to create a separate section for
the Conclusions, you may want to use the following outline as a model:
• generalisations
• implications
• recommendations for future work.

The generalisations you make in the Conclusions must be related to the question
posed in the Introduction and to the Discussion of your results. So, while the
question is the focus of the Introduction, the answer should be the focus of the
Conclusions.
References
As in any academic writing, you must provide references for the sources you have
used in your report. Any ideas, statistics, or graphics – any information at all –
that you have brought in from another source must be accurately cited.
Check with your tutor or lecturer to determine which referencing system they want
you to use in your report. (For more information about referencing, see Chapter 8,
Academic argument and evidence.)
Appendices
Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that supports your
analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information), validates your conclusions
or pursues a related point should be placed in an appendix (plural appendices).
Appendices are optional. Again, check with your instructor to determine what kind
of information they may want to see in an appendix.
Sometimes excerpts from this supporting information (i.e., part of the data set) will
be placed in the body of the report but the complete set of information (i.e., all of
the data set) will be included in the Appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an Appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy derivations of
equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data sheets, computer
program information.
There is no limit to what can be placed in the Appendix providing it is relevant and
reference is made to it in the report. The Appendix is not a catch net for all the
semi-interesting or related information you have gathered through your research
for your report. Rather, it is the information that is directly related to the research
problem or the report's purpose.
Each separate Appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix
B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are presented in is dictated by
the order they are mentioned in the text of the report.

Marking criteria
Below is an outline of the aspects of your research report the marker is likely to
consider:
• Clear discussion of the theoretical and empirical implications of the

research.
• Adequate acknowledgment and exploration of the limitations of the

research.
• Logically derived hypotheses from previous research/review of the

literature.
• Precisely specified results.
• Appropriate use of figures such as tables, graphs, diagrams.
• Clear reporting of methodology.
• Adequate and sufficient review of previous literature.
• Appropriate report structure.
• Clear, accurate and appropriately formal expression.

(The information on research report writing was adapted from:
Hamilton College online academic resources at

www.hamilton.edu/academics/resource/bio_lab.html
University of Wollongong's UniLearning website at

http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/main.html
UW Madison Writing Center Handbook at

www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ScienceReport.html
Virginia Tech Engineering at writing.eng.vt.edu)

Critical review
When you are asked to write a critical review of a book or article, you will need to
identify, summarise, and evaluate the ideas and information the author has
presented. In other words, you will be examining another person's thoughts on a
topic from your point of view.
Your stand must go beyond your "gut reaction" to the work and be based on your
knowledge (readings, lectures, experience) of the topic as well as on factors such
as the criteria stated in your assignment or discussed by you and your instructor.
Make your stand clear at the beginning of your review, in your evaluations of
specific parts, and in your concluding commentary.
Remember that your goal should be to make a few key points about the book or
article, not to discuss everything the author writes.
Understanding the assignment

Critical reviews keep students, lecturers, researchers, and writers up to date with
developments in their field. A critical review has two main purposes:
1. to inform: summarising key elements of a book or article
2. to evaluate: commenting on the text’s value.
To write a good critical review, you will have to:
• engage in the mental processes of analysing (taking apart) the work. That
is, decide what its major components are and determine how these parts
(i.e., paragraphs, sections, or chapters) contribute to the work as a whole.
• read your assignment thoroughly before you read the article or book. Your
instructor may have included specific guidelines for you to follow. Keeping
these guidelines in mind as you read the article or book can be very helpful
as you write your review.
• analyse the work. This will help you to focus on how and why the author
makes certain points, and prevent you from merely summarizing what the
author says.
• assume the role of an analytical reader. This will help you to determine
whether or not the author fulfils the stated purpose of the book or article,
and enhance your understanding or knowledge of a particular topic.
• make the most efficient use of your reading and note making time by being
an active reader. That is, keep relevant questions in mind and jot down
page numbers as well as your responses to ideas that appear to be
significant as you read.

• note where the work connects with what you've studied in the course.
Note: The length of your introduction and overview, the number of points you
choose to review, and the length of your conclusion should be proportionate to
the stated word limit in your assignment and should reflect the complexity of the
material being reviewed as well as the expectations of your reader.
Format
The basic structure of a critical review is a summary followed by a critique. The
structure can be further broken down into the following parts:
• Introduction
• Summary
• Critique
• Conclusion
Introduction
The Introduction of a critical review provides a context for your evaluation of the
text. It orients the reader to the assignment set by your instructor, the texts, and
your position as reviewer.
Below are a few guidelines to help you write the introduction to your critical review.
• Introduce your review appropriately. Begin your review with an

introduction appropriate to your assignment.
If your assignment asks you to review only one book or article and does
not require you to use outside sources, your introduction will focus on
identifying the author, the title, the main topic or issue presented in the text,
and the author's purpose in writing the text.
If your assignment asks you to review the book or article as it relates to issues
or themes discussed in the course, or to review two or more texts on the
same topic, your introduction must also encompass those expectations.
• Include some basic information about the text. Be sure to specifically

state the title of the article(s) or book(s). Describe the type of text you will
be reviewing. For example, state whether the book is a memoir, a treatise,
a collection of facts, an extended argument, etc. Alternatively, state
whether the article is a documentary, a write-up of primary research, a
position paper, etc. You may want to include a brief overview of the text
that describes its division into chapters, sections, or points of discussion,
but this is not essential.

You will also need to identify the author(s). If a book, decide what the
preface or foreword tells you about the author's purpose, background, and
credentials; and what the author's approach to the topic is (as a journalist,
a historian, or a researcher). If an article, consider what kind of periodical it
published in and for what kind of audience.
• Explain relationships. Explain to your reader how, for example, two texts
on a topic relate to one another. Within this shared context (or under this
"umbrella") you can then review comparable aspects of both texts, pointing
out where the authors agree and differ. In other words, the more complicated
your assignment is, the more your introduction must accomplish.
• Establish your position as the reviewer. Give your response to the

text(s) in general terms. This will take the form of your critical evaluation of
the work (your thesis). Explain why you have taken this position and what
criteria you are basing your position on.
Summary
The summary paragraphs of your review will be the centre of your paper, where
you will identify key issues in the text that will be commented upon in the critique.
Below are two options when formulating an organisational structure for your review.
1. Separate summary and critique. You may choose to separate your

summary from you critique. In this case, you will summarise, in a series of
paragraphs, the major points from the text that you plan to discuss; and for
each point, create a topic sentence to serve as the organising principle for
a discussion paragraph in the critique. You will end up with a series of
summarising paragraphs followed by a series of evaluative paragraphs,
linked by topic sentences.
2. Combined summary and critique. Alternatively, you can summarise and

evaluate the major points you have chosen from the book in a point-by-point
schema. This means that you will summarise and evaluate point one within
the same paragraph (or in several if the point is significant and warrants
extended discussion) before you summarise and evaluate point two, point
three, etc. This will allow you to move in a logical sequence from point to
point to point. Here again, it is effective to use the topic sentence of each
paragraph to identify the point from the book or article that you plan to
summarise or evaluate.
Remember, be sure to distinguish consistently between the author's opinions and
your own as you discuss the author's major points.
Keep the summary portions of your discussion concise, and remember that your
task as a reviewer is to re-see the author's work, not to re-tell it.

And, importantly, if you refer to ideas from other books and articles or from lecture
and course materials, always document your sources, or else you might wander
into the realm of plagiarism.
Critique
Your critique should comment on the issues you identified in your summary and
provide an evaluation of the value, credibility, and usefulness of the text(s).
Keep these questions in mind as you write:
• What are the author's most important points? How do these relate to one
another? (Make relationships clear by using transitions: "In contrast," an
equally strong argument," "moreover," "a final conclusion," etc.).
• What types of evidence or information does the author present to support

his or her points? Is this evidence convincing, controversial, factual, one-
sided, etc.? (Consider the use of primary historical material, case studies,
narratives, recent scientific findings, and statistics.)
• Where does the author do a good job of conveying factual material as well
as personal perspective? Where does the author fail to do so? If solutions
to a problem are offered, are they believable, misguided, or promising?
• Which parts of the work (particular arguments, descriptions, chapters, etc.)

are most effective and which parts are least effective? Why?
• Where (if at all) does the author convey personal prejudice, support
illogical relationships, or present evidence out of its appropriate context?
Conclusion
You will want to use the conclusion to state your overall critical evaluation.
You have already discussed the major points the author makes, examined how
the author supports arguments, and evaluated the quality or effectiveness of
specific aspects of the book or article.
Now you must make an evaluation of the work as a whole, determining such
things as whether or not the author achieves the stated or implied purpose and if
the work makes a significant contribution to an existing body of knowledge.
Consider the following questions:
• How well has the author achieved the overall purpose of the book or
article? What contribution does the work make to an existing body of
knowledge or to a specific group of readers? Can you justify the use of this
work in a particular course?

• What is the most important final comment you wish to make about the
book or article? Do you have any suggestions for the direction of future
research in the area? What has reading this work done for you or
demonstrated to you?
Marking Criteria
The main function of a critical review is to present an evaluation of a text to a
relevant audience. To do that, you need to:
• identify the main ideas of the text clearly
• put forward and defend a definite opinion about the value and relevance
of the text
• employ a consistent structure throughout your review
• use an appropriate academic writing style.
Activity 7.1: Analysing a critical review
Below you will find:
• an example critical review written about an article on interactive learning
• a sample marking criteria for the critical review assignment.

Read the critical review and then answer the questions that follow (page 16).
These questions are based on the sample marking criteria in Figure 3 (page 17).
Note, these criteria are a useful checklist when writing your own critical reviews;
but, of course, be guided by the marking criteria specific to your School or
subject, when provided.
Example critical review of journal article
Cone, D. (2001). Interactive learning: Enhancing collaborative learning

techniques using mainstream information technology, Journal of Family
and Consumer Sciences, 93 (4): 19-22.
In a research article entitled "Interactive learning: Enhancing collaborative
learning techniques using mainstream information technology", Cone (2001)
argues that the challenge for educators in a complex, global society is to
provide active learning environments that build the relevant skills of
independent learning, problem solving, communication and team work.
More importantly, she proposes that the challenge of creating these
environments can be met by combining collaborative approaches to
learning with everyday forms of information technology such as the Web,
email and chat lines. The article presents a strong case for the educational
compatibility of collaborative learning and mainstream information tech-

nology by establishing that both of these forms facilitate the kind of group
interaction skills that students need if their learning is to be vocationally
relevant. However, Cone offers few concrete examples to illustrate her
many abstract claims and neglects to make any practical recommendations
for her audience of educational professionals. Moreover, while she has
succeeded in constructing a sound scholarly argument based on academic
research, Cone overlooks the more basic social fact that even the most
‘mainstream’ forms of information technology are not equally available to
all members of society.
In structuring the body of her article, Cone seeks to demonstrate how
collaborative learning and information technology are educationally
compatible. Cone first defines collaboration and then asserts the benefits
of a collaborative approach to learning. These benefits are understood to
support the development of skills relevant to our rapidly changing society
including active participation by students learning outside as well as inside
the classroom, tolerance for individual differences when working in groups,
creative and critical thinking, and both written and oral communication.
Cone then proceeds to outline a number of parallel educational benefits
supported by the integration of information technology into the curriculum.
Here, an example is given of a research study by Owston (1997, cited in
Cone, 2001) in which students’ use of email and chat lines outside the
classroom was found to actually boost literacy by allowing practice at
articulating ideas to groups. Cone also summarises research which found
that the use of computer and Internet technology in education has a
positive psychological effect on “student attitudes towards learning, self-
concept and student achievement by focusing on more student-centred,
cooperative learning and stimulating an increase in student/teacher
interaction” (p.21).
While Cone’s reasoning for this link between collaborative learning and
information technology is sound and supported by strong scholarly evidence,
the example of students’ after-school use of email and chat lines is the
only concrete illustration given for how the link works in real situations. The
author is admittedly concerned with issuing a broad challenge to educators
to find ways to take advantage of this link, yet the absence of tangible
examples and practical recommendations does little to assist the reader to
meet that challenge. This limitation in the usefulness of the article is also
exacerbated by the abstract style of much of Cone’s writing. The style is
not a problem in itself and indeed suited to the article’s specialist audience
of academically literate education professionals. However, the author’s
reliance on densely worded sentences and technical vocabulary throughout
most of the article can make for difficult reading and contribute to keeping
the argument trapped in the realm of concepts. This outcome seems to
work against Cone’s implicit interest in changing education to suit the
demands and resources of everyday life.
Finally, putting aside these concerns with the practical value and accessibility
of the article, it is necessary to point out that Cone has failed to account for
the ‘digital divide’ in access to information technology which still excludes

many members of society from the learning benefits she identifies. While
the situation is slowly improving, research continues to show that access to
even the most basic online services and proficiency in their use is dominated
by the privileged sectors of society (see for example Mehlman, 2000), a
fact that undermines one of the key pillars in Cone’s argument: that Web,
email, and chat lines can be classified as ‘mainstream’ and are thus
available for the benefit of a wide cross-section of the population. So, in
sum, while the article presents a convincing scholarly argument for the
educational compatibility of collaborative learning and information
technology, the author falls short of her goal of inspiring change in this
direction by neglecting to adequately show how such change can be
implemented in practical terms that also account for the current social
inequalities in IT access and use.
Questions
1. In the introduction, underline the sentences (or part-sentences) where the

student identifies the author’s purpose
2. In the introduction, draw a line alongside the section where the student
presents an overall evaluation of the text.
3. In the summary paragraph, underline the words the student uses to show
he/she is presenting the author’s main points.
4. In the critical response paragraph, underline the sentence/s where the
student makes critical comments on the usefulness of the article.
5. Draw a line alongside the section where the student comments on the
accessibility of the article.
6. Underline the final concluding comment.

Sample marking criteria for critical review

Section Criteria Value
Introduction Bibliographic details are accurate and complete and well integrated 1 mark
into the introductory paragraph
Identifies author’s purpose in writing the text (to argue, to explain, to 1 mark
discuss, etc.)
Presents overall evaluation of text (How successful was the author 1 mark
in achieving their purpose? Who would be interested in knowing?)
Total value: 3 marks
Summary Stays focused on the author’s purpose(s) in the article 1 mark
Covers the author’s main points accurately, clearly and sufficiently 2 marks
Paraphrasing is clear, accurate and appropriate; quoting is minimal 2 marks

and clearly distinguished by “quotation marks” and page references
Critical Builds on the summary and is about 50% of whole review 1 mark
response
Evaluates the article using three (3) of the following criteria: 3 marks
• Purpose and viewpoint (To what extent has the purpose been
achieved? How convincing was the argument and evidence?)
• Audience (Who is the primary audience for the article? How is
this evident in the article?)
• Usefulness (How much practical value does the article have
for its audience?)
• Importance (How significant is the argument, evidence or
conclusions for the audience? What are the implications?)
• Breadth (Does the article cover its topic adequately or are
there gaps?)
• Accessibility (How effectively does the author communicate in
writing? Does the style of writing suit the intended audience?)
Comments on each issue are adequately developed and supported 3 marks
with evidence from the article
Presentation Paragraph structure, development and linking 2 marks
Spelling, grammar and punctuation (2 marks) 2 marks
Formal, academic style 1 mark
Total assignment value: 20 marks
Figure 35: Sample marking criteria for critical review

Annotated bibliography
An annotated bibliography can be thought of as a series of extremely brief critical

reviews strung together in a single document.
A bibliography is a listing of related sources. Each source included in an annotated
bibliography is evaluated by the writer; this evaluation is called the annotation.
How many of these reviews are required will vary from assignment to assignment.
Some instructors may only require two or three, while others may want an extensive
survey of the available literature.
An annotated bibliography can:
• guide a reader to relevant sources on a topic
• help the writer become familiar with the literature in a subject area
• display the writer’s depth of reading and research for a particular topic or
subject area.
Format
There are two parts to every entry:
• Citation
• Annotation
Citation
The citation includes the full bibliographic information for the source (author, year
of publication, title, publisher, place of publication, etc.) You should follow the
referencing system specified by your lecturer or tutor.
Annotation
Each annotation should be concisely written – about one paragraph per source. It
may answer some or all of the following questions:
• What is the main focus or purpose of the work?
• Who is the audience it was written for?
• What is its usefulness or appropriateness to your topic?
• Are there any special features that were unique or helpful?

• What is the author’s background and credibility?
• What conclusions does the author draw?
• What observations or conclusions have you made?
Sample annotated bibliography entries
Book (Harvard referencing style)
Radloff, A., Hermann, A. & Fox, R. 1999, Successful Learning Skills: Your
guide to tertiary studies through open, distance and flexible learning,
Bobby Graham Publishers, Wagga Wagga.
Radloff et al.'s book, Successful Learning Skills, contains strategies to help
students studying in the distance mode to become more effective learners,
and covers areas such as: taking charge of your learning process,
achieving your learning goals, becoming a more effective learner, and
developing your reading and writing skills. This book covers a similar range
of topics to many other study skills books. However, its focus is particularly
on the needs of students studying at a distance, and it is these students
who will find this a valuable resource for getting started and developing
tertiary learning skills. In particular, it is the students returning to study after
a long break who will find working through the checklists and key questions
a useful strategy to identify their strengths as learners.
Journal article (Harvard referencing style)
Goldschneider, F. K., Waite, L. J. & Witsberger, C. 1986, 'Nonfamily living

and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults',
American Sociological Review, vol. 51, pp. 541-554.
The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University,
use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and
Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults
alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away
from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly
supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young
males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased
individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In
contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant
gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.
(The information in this section was adapted from the Queensland University of Technology
Library at http://www.library.qut.edu.au/subjectpath/annotated.jsp)

Marking Criteria
In many ways, an annotated bibliography must meet the same kinds of criteria as
a critical review, though in an abbreviated fashion. Each entry is a mini-review in
itself, and must present an evaluation of that source.
Please refer to the marking criteria for the critical review in the previous section of
this chapter for more detailed information. Also, there is a marking criteria sheet
for an annotated bibliography in the sample unit outline in Chapter 2, Managing
your writing.
Reflective journal
A useful way of keeping track of the things you are learning and the kind of
reactions you are having to your learning experiences is to keep a personal
reflective journal of your activities. Keeping a journal encourages you to think
about your experiences and helps provide insight into what you are learning as
well as how you are feeling about it.
Reflective writing allows you to document your experiences, thoughts, questions,
ideas and conclusions that signpost your learning journey. It provides an opportunity
for you to think critically about what you are doing as a student and why.
Structure
A reflective journal is different from other kinds of academic writing in that it tends
to be relatively unstructured. After giving you a few basic guidelines, your
instructor may leave the final decision of how to structure your journal up to you.
(As always, be sure to check with your lecturer or tutor if you have any questions
about their requirements.)
There are many ways to write a journal; you could choose to write your journal:
• as a personal learning journey, tracking and documenting an evolving

understanding of your subject
• in terms of issues – for example, you may want to explore certain issues or
problems highlighted in the readings that you find interesting
• as a critical reflection on classroom activities or materials.

Whatever structure you choose (it could even be a mixture of all three), your
writing needs to demonstrate active and reflective engagement in the issues and
ideas you encounter.

Tips for writing journal entries
Because writing a reflective journal is so different from what you may usually think
of as academic writing, the most difficult part may be just getting started. Here are
some tips to help kick start your writing:
• Don’t edit as you write. Write your thoughts freely without stopping to
correct your grammar, spelling, or punctuation. Editing can be done later.
• Be sincere in your writing; give your honest opinions and reactions to what
you are learning. As in any kind of academic writing, your opinions will
need to be supported, but a journal allows you much more freedom in
expressing them than some other more formalised kinds of assignments.
• Don’t think of your journal as a work log in which you itemise and record
events, tasks, and statistics. The journal is your means of charting daily
your growth and development both academically and personally.
• Make regular, frequent entries instead of waiting to write the entire journal
the week it is due. You will find the journal less of a chore if you take a few
minutes at the end of each day to review your learning objectives and
reflect upon your experiences of the day.
Marking criteria
Again, because a reflective journal is such a personal piece of writing, and because
this kind of assignment can vary so greatly from course to course, it is very
difficult to create a standard list of marking criteria.
Your instructor should provide you with very clear guidelines on how they will
assess your writing. If you have any questions, make an appointment with your
lecturer or tutor and clarify the assignment with them.
(This information on reflective journals was adapted from:
Centre for Learning and Teaching at University of Technology, Sydney at
http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/Scholarship/Reflective.journal.htm
Northwestern Michigan College’s Service Learning page at

http://www.nmc.edu/socialscience/service-learning/tips.html.)

Activity 7.2: Making personal writing academic
Read the following paragraph from a reflective journal and then answer the
subsequent questions:
Learning grammar and translation skills seems to me to be like a linguistic
security blanket of sorts. These skills are something students can practise by
themselves, and there is little danger of embarrassment in doing drills and
exercises. When it came to my own language learning, to feel truly challenged,
and by extension, truly successful, I had to go beyond what I felt comfortable
doing and explore what I had the potential to do (interacting with others in the
target language, for example). I’m not sure that Grammar Translation methods
of language instruction alone could have helped me do that.
1. What are some of the features of this paragraph that make it personal?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Do you think that the writer still manages to be appropriately academic?

Why or why not?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. What are some situations where a reflective writing journal would be useful
or worthwhile to you as a student?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

In conclusion…
You will most likely be required to employ a variety of academic genres in your
university courses. While the basic formats and structures described in this
chapter can serve as a starting point, you may need to adapt or alter them to
meet the specific demands of a particular assignment. Check with your lecturer or
tutor to determine their requirements early in the writing process, and do not just
assume that the standard format will be satisfactory.

Activity 7.1: Analysing a critical review
1. Cone (2001) argues that the challenge for educators in a complex, global
society is to provide active learning environments that build the relevant
skills of independent learning, problem solving, communication and team
work. More importantly, she proposes that the challenge of creating these
environments can be met by combining collaborative approaches to
learning with everyday forms of information technology such as the Web,
email and chat lines.
2. The article presents a strong case for the educational compatibility of
collaborative learning and mainstream information tech-nology by
establishing that both of these forms facilitate the kind of group interaction
skills that students need if their learning is to be vocationally relevant.
However, Cone offers few concrete examples to illustrate her many
abstract claims and neglects to make any practical recommendations for her
audience of educational professionals. Moreover, while she has
succeeded in constructing a sound scholarly argument based on academic
research, Cone overlooks the more basic social fact that even the most
‘mainstream’ forms of information technology are not equally available to
all members of society.
3. Cone seeks to demonstrate…, Cone first defines…, Cone then proceeds
to outline…, Cone also summarises research.
4. The author is admittedly concerned with issuing a broad challenge to
educators to find ways to take advantage of this link, yet the absence of
tangible examples and practical recommendations does little to assist the
reader to meet that challenge.
5. This limitation in the usefulness of the article is also exacerbated by the
abstract style of much of Cone’s writing. The style is not a problem in itself
and indeed suited to the article’s specialist audience of academically
literate education professionals. However, the author’s reliance on densely
worded sentences and technical vocabulary throughout most of the article
can make for difficult reading and contribute to keeping the argument
trapped in the realm of concepts. This outcome seems to work against
Cone’s implicit interest in changing education to suit the demands and
resources of everyday life.
6. So, in sum, while the article presents a convincing scholarly argument for
the educational compatibility of collaborative learning and information
technology, the author falls short of her goal of inspiring change in this
direction by neglecting to adequately show how such change can be
implemented in practical terms that also account for the current social
inequalities in IT access and use.

Activity 7.2: Making personal writing academic
1. First person point of view; relating classroom theories to personal experience.

2. Answers will vary.

Chapter 8
Academic argument and evidence
Introduction
In most assignments at university, you will be expected to do more than simply
summarise facts or offer descriptions. Instead, you will be expected to develop
arguments to justify judgments and evaluations.
In essays, for example, you will usually need to develop an argument to justify a
thesis position. In a research report, the introduction section often takes the form
of an argument to justify the significance of the research topic, while the discussion
section presents an argument to support interpretations and conclusions about the
findings of the research. Critical reviews can also be considered to present an
argument, one in which the value (strengths and weaknesses) of a text is assessed.
In all of these examples, the basic purpose of the argument is to persuade the
reader of the “truth” or validity of a point of view or conclusion. In academic writing,
arguments are only persuasive if they are:
• supported by “good” evidence (reliable, credible, and appropriate)
• based on sound reasoning and analysis (logical)
• balanced (considers a range of alternative views)
• clearly and consistently communicated.

Incorporating evidence from academic sources is an important part of any assign-
ment. It is used to provide support for claims that you make, to support a position
and to provide examples. Evidence helps to strengthen your argument in an
academically appropriate way.
It is important to remember that evidence supports the points that you make in
your assignments. Evidence does not ‘speak’ for you. In any assignment, there
should be an appropriate mix of your own points and comments, and of evidence.
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe what is meant by the term “academic argument”
• Use a framework to create your own argument
• Incorporate specific language items to strengthen your argument
• Use outside sources as evidence to support your argument
• Describe what plagiarism is and how you can avoid it
• Explain why referencing is important
• Use a referencing system to create in-text citations and reference lists.

Academic argument
We all know how to argue, and you can probably remember an argument you’ve
had quite recently. Here’s an example of a common one you might have heard:
Paul It’s your turn to wash up, Kate.
Kate Well, I did it at lunchtime, so it’s your turn.
Paul But there wasn’t much to wash up at lunch, and anyway, I put
the rubbish out, and that’s supposed to be your job, so you have
to wash up now.
Kate Mum said it’s your job to wash up after dinner, and I never
asked you to put the rubbish out.
Paul Mum! Kate’s not doing her fair share!
The kind of argument you will use in academic writing is similar to an everyday
argument, in that you are trying to persuade someone else to share your point of
view. Let’s look at Paul and Kate’s argument again, using some of the terms of
academic argument:
Paul It’s your turn to wash up, Kate. Thesis statement
Kate Well, I did it at lunchtime, so it’s your turn.

Paul But there wasn’t much to wash up at lunch First point
and anyway, I put the rubbish out, and that’s Second point
supposed to be your job
so you have to wash up now. Restatement of
thesis
Kate Mum said it’s your job to wash up after dinner Counter-point
(supported by
outside evidence)
and I never asked you to put the rubbish out. Counter-point
Paul Mum! Kate’s not doing her fair share!

In academic argument, you will need to engage in reasoned arguments; that is,
you will give reasons to explain and justify your point of view in order to influence
your reader to accept it. These reasons are different from those in the example
above, because they use academic evidence as support and rely on logic and
structure to persuade (rather than an emotional appeal!).

Constructing your argument

To construct an academic argument, you can follow this three-step process:
State your position In a sentence or two, summarise your
argument (this is your thesis statement/claim).
Be sure to indicate which side of the argument
you find most convincing.
Support your argument Show why your position is the most
convincing.
For each main point (or claim), give evidence
(research, theories etc from other authoritative
sources, statistics, examples).
Consider the opposition Assume that your reader disagrees with you.
Consider the following questions:
• What could your opponents argue?
• What evidence might they have?
• How could you persuade a neutral party

that your case and evidence are better?
(Source: Cottrel, S. 1999, The Study Skills Handbook, Macmillan Press, London.)
Before constructing your written argument, it is important to have determined your

position. When you are unsure, it is very difficult to create a persuasive and
cohesive argument. A substantial part of your assignment process involves
coming to a position through reading, note making and thinking. Some people find
that writing can help to clarify their thoughts, but once your thoughts are clarified,
it is important to create a plan before writing your assignment.
The main thread of your argument is your thesis, which is often established
through a series of claims supported by substantiating evidence. The claims are
usually the topic sentences of the body paragraphs.
The following paragraph demonstrates the development of an academic argument;
the analysis in the left-hand column describes each stage of the argument.

Why examine advertising texts with young children?

Claim/thesis Mass market television programs, videos, advertisements and
statement thematically related toys appeal to children of all backgrounds, and
feature strongly in the ‘funds of knowledge’ (Moll et al, 1992) that young
Counter children bring to educational settings. However, educators
argument overwhelmingly reject this knowledge or ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu, 1997)
in favour of ‘quality’ children’s literature and ‘educational’ programs and
toys. Children whose literacy experiences are predominantly related to
popular culture are often assumed to come from literacy-impoverished
backgrounds which educators believe they need to remedy (Marsh,
2000).
Challenging These attitudes and practices advantage children from privileged

counter backgrounds who have access to a range of ‘approved’ toys and texts,
argument while disadvantaging working-class children for whom popular culture is
not only what is preferred but often all that is available (Seiter, 1993;
Marsh 2000). When children hear “No Barbies at day care”, “Digimon
cards are banned”, “Leave Action Man at home” and “We don’t play those
games here” – as is frequently heard in early childhood centres and
schools around Australia – children learn not to talk to educators about
Evaluation their interests and ideas. For many children, this means that literacy-
learning opportunities are lost.
Elaborating Rather than ignoring or banning popular culture, because it is perceived

on and as inferior or as dangerous for children’s identity formation, educators
reinforcing need to recognise it as a site of learning for children. We need to ask why
thesis texts such as advertisements are popular and interesting to children and
statement how they inform their store of cultural knowledge (Luke, 1997).
Figure 36: Analysis of an academic argument
(Source: Arthur, L. 2001, 'Young children as critical consumers', Australian Journal of Language
and Linguistics, vol.24, no.3, pp. 182-194.)
Using the language of argument

The word choices you make when you build your argument can be as important
as the structure and the evidence you use. We’ll look at two main aspects of
language in this section: connecting words and hedging.
Connecting words
When you make comparisons between texts, or draw conclusions from evidence,
you will need to use words that show the logical connection between ideas.
These words are called conjunctions or transition words (see Chapter 9, Features
of academic writing for more information these words and their usage). They can
be divided into four groups, and each group can be named by the basic conjunction
in its class, for example: and, but, then and so.

Conjunction group Examples
And (adding ideas or elements) And, also; furthermore, in addition, besides; or
But (contrast and comparison) But, yet, though; however, on the other hand;
nevertheless
Then (time sequence) Then, after that, subsequently; at the same

time; previously; soon, meanwhile; first of all,
secondly, finally, in conclusion
So (cause and consequence) So, hence, therefore; consequently; for this

reason, as a result
Figure 37: Conjunction groups
The following text shows some examples of conjunction use marking the relationship
between ideas.
The Board of Studies claims that the new HSC gives students more flexibility in
subject choice. This claim seems to rest on the fact that students no longer have
to select a subject from each of the maths/science and humanities areas.
However, the board has said it is pleased that most students have chosen to
study a subject from one or both of these areas. How can the board be both proud
of greater flexibility and relieved that few students are taking advantage of it?
In addition, the board takes credit for the fact that many more students are studying
vocational education and training courses through TAFE. But how can the increase
in these courses be good if fewer students are studying science and history?
Ultimately, the board's reforms disadvantage the weaker students as well as the
talented. For just as talented students can no longer study advanced level courses
in most subjects, so there are no simpler courses for students who struggle in
mathematics, science and history. And without such courses, many students are
dropping out.
Notice that this text is written as an argument, with the claims of one party, the
Board of Studies, being examined and opposed by counter claims. But this is an
argument written for a general rather than academic audience (e.g. as an opinion
letter in a newspaper) so the claims are supported with rhetorical questions and
unreferenced evidence. This does not detract from its force because arguments
have to be tailored for particular purposes and audiences.
Conjunctions of contrast (however and but) are important in this argument in which
two opposing points of view are presented. The conjunction for signals that a
reason is being given and so the result. The conjunction and signals an addition
to this reason.

Activity 8.1: Using conjunctions in academic argument
1. Choose suitable conjunctions from the list below to complete the sentences.
and but so yet
because where whereas likewise
a. New students are afraid to ask for help ____________ they believe they
should know the answer.
b. Students believe they should know the answer ____________ they are
often afraid to ask for help.
c. Having a goal is one thing, ____________ being motivated is another.
d. Surface learning is often linked with failure, ____________ deep learn-
ing is likely to lead to academic success.
e. Rote learners may not understand what they read. ____________ ,
readers who focus solely on the facts may miss the main idea.
2. Look at the example relationship ideas listed in the column on the left. Add
to the examples of connective words and phrases that signal these relation-
ships listed in the column on the right.
an additional idea also, in addition,
to put an opposite on the other hand, while,

idea
to put a similar similarly, compared with,

idea
an example for example,
to put ideas in a first, next, since,

sequence
to show cause or because, due to,

reason
to show effect or so, consequently,

result
to conclude or in conclusion,
summarise
Figure 38: Connective words and phrases

Hedging, attitude and evaluation
While conjunctions link different aspects of your argument, certain other words
can be used to help you make your argument appear more reasonable or considered.
What is hedging?
As a student and 'apprentice' in academic writing, it is good to be aware of how

experienced writers convey their opinions and arguments. When you make claims,
be cautious. There may be other interpretations of your data, different conclusions
might be drawn by another writer, or you just may not have had the time to ade-
quately research what has already been written about your topic. If any of these
elements of uncertainty or disagreement are present, words like ‘might’,’ could',
'arguably', 'seems', and so on can be used to hedge or ‘soften’ your claims
Look at the sentence "She will get a high mark". The speaker is certain about the
fact. But the speaker can express different degrees of certainty in the following ways:
She will undoubtedly get a high mark.
She will probably get a high mark.
She will possibly get a high mark.
It is possible that she will get a high mark.
It seems likely that she will get a high mark.
I think that she will get a high mark.
She may get a high mark.
Hedging allows you to communicate to your reader how willing you are to commit
to certain facts or opinions.
As academic writers, we recognise there are few universal truths, so it is rarely
appropriate to use terms such as ‘always’ or ‘never’, or to make claims as if they
are incontestable. Instead, words like 'tends' or 'sometimes' can be used to make
your claims more tentative.
Look at the claim: “Studying at university is a good experience”. This claim may
not apply to all students and, therefore, needs to be modified. This could be done
in a number of ways including:
Studying at university tends to be a good experience.
Studying at university is often a good experience.
Studying at university is generally a good experience.
Sometimes studying at university is a good experience.

Why is hedging used in academic writing?
An important reason for the cautious presentation of claims in academic writing is

that there are many topics of academic study where the 'truth' is not obvious or
provable. In the social sciences and humanities especially (but also in the 'hard'
sciences such as physics and geology), knowledge is debated and the meaning
of 'facts' is disputed. Different interpretations of knowledge are possible, and
disciplines grow by testing current ideas, by looking for solutions to problems, by
argument and counter argument, and by the development of new theories.
How is hedging used?
Whenever you analyse an issue, you will use a mixture of 'straightforward' and
'attitudinal' language. Sometimes you just want to report and describe. Sometimes,
you want to evaluate. It is when writing to evaluate that it is most often appropriate
to apply hedging strategies.
Look at the 'report' text in the box on the following page. Notice the differences in
language between the first two sections and the third. In the first two sections
(Theory and Research), there are no hedges. The verbs include:
examined, reasoned, are affected, to assess, toured, reported, showed
The language gives the impression that this part of the research is straightforward.
Now look at the third section (Applications); the writer discusses the meaning and
implications of the research. These are less straightforward. In this section:
• Some words hedge or modify ideas, e.g., 'Relationships appear to be

supportive'; 'perhaps because'.
• Reporting verbs (ones which tell what a person says) are more tentative or
cautious, e.g. 'The investigation suggests'.
• The writer's attitude to and evaluation of the research becomes more

obvious, e.g. 'important implications'; 'particularly supportive'; 'vitally important'.

Theory. Brenda Bryant (1985) examined children's everyday support

environments as important sources of support for their social and emotional
development in middle childhood. Bryant reasoned that children are affected not
just by the environments others establish for them, but also by the ones they
select and create for themselves…
Research. To assess children's environmental supports … seven- and 10-year

old children each toured their neighbourhood with an investigator and reported on
important aspects of their personal and social worlds - friends, relatives .. etc.
The findings showed that children's networks of social support expand with age.
Ten-year-olds had established more complex mesosystem relationships than had
7-year-olds…
Applications. Children's own social networks and community ties, not just those
of their parents, have important implications for children's socioemotional
development. Relationships with pets and with adults outside the immediate
family sphere appear to be particularly supportive, perhaps because both offer
unconditional acceptance of children's feelings … Bryant's investigation suggests
that it is vitally important to foster children's informal ties to kin and community
during middle childhood.
(Extracts from Laura Berk's 1991Child development, 2nd ed., p. 18, publishers: Allyn and Bacon.)
Activity 8.2: Using hedging
The 'hedging' words and phrases have been deleted from the three paragraphs below.
1. In the first two paragraphs, insert an appropriate hedge to replace the
underlined words to make the statements more tentative.
The feeling of content overload leads students to take a surface approach
to their work. Dealing with the information becomes of prime concern and
so the student does not get to the deeper skills of analysing, applying and
synthesising. It is the latter approach that leads to success in these courses
(Baker, 1991, p. 2).
The stress felt by students about the practical examination adversely
affects their approach to learning. When students feel that an assessment
situation is threatening they adopt a mechanical, rote, surface learning
approach that is not helpful to their results (Baker, 1991, p. 3).

2. In the third paragraph, determine where the hedges belong and then insert
them in the appropriate places.
When nursing older patients, nurses focus on custodial care rather than
rehabilitation. This means that in the health assessment interview of the
older patient, nurses base questions on problems with bathing, feeding
and medications. However, the interview with a younger patient focuses on
activities such as work or sport. Aged people are perceived as having less
social worth because they are not engaged in paid employment.
Using evidence
In Chapter 5, Reading and note making, we briefly touched on the importance of

using information from outside sources in academic writing. You also learned
about the differences between direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries,
and how to use them in the notes you make from your reading.
In this section, we’ll look at some techniques you can use to make good use of
your sources, as well as ways you can effectively incorporate them into your writing.
Using published sources as evidence

Of the features of persuasive academic argument identified above, a basis in
evidence is the most fundamental. But how do you know what kinds of evidence
are ‘good’ or credible? The two types of evidence analysed in the table on the
following page are personal evidence and expert evidence.

Type of such as ... will be per- because ...

evidence suasive to ...
anecdotes or examples you (and it works; it is ‘real’ to you

PERSONAL from your own or perhaps your (if you are asked to relate
colleagues’ experience lecturer) your ideas to your readings)
theories, or lecturers, it shows your concern with

supervisors; who produced the evidence
statements quoted from professionals and why as well as what
writers who are authorities in your field and how
on the topic, and
published in refereed it shows your awareness
EXPERT journals of the context and history
of ideas in your subject
and statistical and factual data,
published in Government it shows your awareness
RESEARCH reports, etc of how knowledge is
shared in your profession
original qualitative or
quantitative research this evidence has (often)
(such as surveys, case been rigorously checked
studies, interviews,
experiments)
Figure 39: How evidence is persuasive
Using sources critically
In undergraduate assignments, the evidence you use will most often consist of
quotations or summaries or reports of the findings of other people's research or
arguments. It is important to recognise the limitations of this evidence. To begin
with, you need to be sure that the evidence you are using is itself credible. You
will be more confident of this if you are reading known or respected writers, or
textbooks published by academic publishers, or from refereed journals (i.e.
journals where articles are reviewed by experts in their field before publication).
If you are using second-hand quotations or reports - that is, where an original
source is being reported by another writer - you need to be confident that the
original is being quoted accurately. When you are reading sources that interpret
other documents, you need to be aware of the writer's assumptions and the
purpose for which sources are being used. These assumptions and purposes
may colour an author's reading of another text.
Finally, you need to be careful not to take quotations out of their context. Ensure
that you do not quote or paraphrase a sentence from a book and give it a
meaning in your assignment which is different from the meaning in its source.
(For more information on critical thinking and reading skills, see Chapter 4,
Thinking critically.)

Fitting evidence into the structure of your assignment
Here are some general guidelines for where quotations or references typically
appear in two kinds of academic writing, the essay and the report. Always check
with your lecturer, however, on course expectations for an assignment.
Essay Report
Introduction: Few if any references. Introduction: This stage establishes

The introduction shows the way the aims of the report. References are
essay is organised, the major topics, used in a literature review to show
and your argument. what is already known about the topic
Body: Use references to support your Methodology and Results: Few if
explanation or argument. any references
Conclusion: Few if any references. Discussion: References are used to
No new points discuss the meaning of the results,
and to compare the results with
previous research addressed in the
literature review
Figure 40: Guidelines for the use of evidence

Using evidence to support and develop claims

Figure 6, below, illustrates how the two essential forms of support for an argument
are reasons and evidence. Reasons provide the logic of an argument and evidence
is the basis for your reasons.
CLAIM
supports
REASON
explains supports
EVIDENCE
Figure 41: Supporting a claim
(Source: Booth, W., Colomb, G. G. & Williams, J. M. 2003, The Craft of Research, The University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, p.149.)

Look at the two paragraphs below. Text A appears to be a collection of unanalysed

quotations, whereas Text B uses sources to support a claim about the importance
of reflection.
Text A
According to Mezirow (1990, p. 5), reflection 'is generally used as
a synonym for higher-order mental processes'. Reflection is the
process of 'turning thought back on action' (Schon, 1983, p. 50).
Through reflection teachers 'can surface and criticize the tacit
understandings that have grown up around the repetitive exper-
ience of a specialized practice' (Schon, 1983, p. 61).
Text B
Reflection is a distinguishing feature of critical thinking about claim
teaching. Although reflection is sometimes associated with 'higher
order mental processes' (Mezirow, 1990, p. 5), it might be more quotations
useful to emphasise its relationship to action. For Schon (1983), contrasted
reflection is the process of 'turning thought back on action' (p. 50).
Without reflection, our teaching practice can stagnate. Reflective
teachers, however, can 'surface and criticise the tacit under-
standings' (Schon, 1983, p. 61) that tend to make teaching routine
and repetitive. These tacit understandings might include beliefs quotation
about what students are capable of learning and assumptions explained
about how students learn. Thus, reflection looks forward as well
as backward. It is oriented to practicality and change, not to
undirected mental activity.
Creating a context for these pieces of evidence, by contrasting and explaining

instead of merely listing, results in a far more effective use of these sources.
This context can be created in a variety of ways. Look at how the writers in the
four texts on the following page use evidence for different purposes, such as, to
define, to elaborate on, support a claim, or to give research information.
Notice that the use of direct quotations is limited. In Text A, the writer does not
use the whole of the original sentence. In Text B, the original is paraphrased (i.e.
the writer has rewritten the text in her own words). In Text C, sources are used
one at a time, and in Text D, references are used to make a claim, which the
writer expands on.

Text A
Stress from long working hours, the continual urgency of an acci- Claim
dent or intensive care unit and lack of gratitude can be factors in
premature burnout. In Tappen (1983, p. 351), burnout is described
as "a state of exhaustion, a depletion of energies that seems to be Definition
a particular problem for people in helping professions"...
Text B
Nurses often feel awkward about discussing their work with people Claim (effect)
who are not nurses. This awkwardness might be due to a public
perception that nursing is concerned primarily with tasks which
are ‘dirty’ because of their connection with the excretory functions Causes
of the body (Lawler, 1991, p. 218)...
Text C
Violent behaviour in health care settings may have wider social Claim (effect)
causes. Poverty and unemployment contribute to a patient’s
sense of powerlessness, and impair patients’ ability to under-
stand and control situations (Whittington, 1997). Violence toward
nurses may also reflect increased violence in society (Whittington,
1997), or be related to sexism (Wondrak & Dolan, 1992). Sexist Elaboration
attitudes to women as being weak and submissive contribute to (causes)
violence against women generally. However, nurses are par-
ticularly vulnerable because of their stereotyped media image...
Text D
Both economists and geneticists agree that information from Claim (effect)
genetic testing is valuable whatever the health consequences of
the test (Brown, 1998; Smith, 1998). For most people who receive
genetic testing, the results will be negative, and their wellbeing
may be improved by reassurance of knowing that their risk is low.
When testing produces a positive result, the health gain depends Elaboration
on the appropriate use of an effective intervention. However, there
are few interventions without side effects, so risks have to be
balanced against effectiveness to determine net health outcomes.

Activity 8.3: Identifying how evidence is used
Read the following paragraphs. Underline the principal claim in each, and identify
how the evidence is used to support that claim (e.g. effect, solution, explanation).
Identification Paragraph
There is strong evidence that men and women have different
ways of knowing. In Women's ways of knowing, Belenky et al.
(1986) report on a fascinating study of women's educational
experiences and problems. Their research was informed by the
feminist perception that "conceptions of knowledge and truth that
are accepted … today have been shaped through-out history by
the male dominated majority culture" (p. 5). This view was
confirmed by the women's stories about their fears, failures and
successes in education.
Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986).
Women's ways of knowing. New York: Basic Books.
Multiskilling is emphasised in the combined law courses, which

have great professional advantages. For example, an arts/law
graduate may not only be a journalist and a lawyer, but also a
graduate who can view each of the disciplines from the pers-
pective of the other. Multiskilling recognises that graduates of
the combined law program may choose not to practise law, but
rather treat the degree as complementing the other degree and
its career options.
Undergraduate courses at UWS (2001). p. 64
I have fiercely maintained one personal rule in all my so-called

"popular" writing. I believe - as Darwin did when he published all
his books for general audiences - that we can still have a genre
of scientific books suitable for and acces-sible alike to profes-
sionals and interested laypeople. The concepts of science can be
presented without any compromise, without any simplification
counting as distortion, in language accessible to all intelligent
people. I hope that this book can be read with profit both in
seminars for graduate students and on the businessman's
special to Tokyo.
Gould, S. J. (1989). Wonderful Life. London: Penguin, p. 16
In the Olympic arena the gap between heartbreak and triumph

can be minuscule. In the women's 4 x 100 metres relay heats, a
dropped baton ends Australia's chances. Hours later the 4 x 400
team breaks an Australian record that has stood for more than
two decades and storms into the finals. It's true - sport really can
be life with the volume turned up.
Editorial (2000).The Weekend Australian, September 30 - October 1, p. 38
Figure 42: Identifying the use of evidence

Analysing and synthesising sources

When you read and prepare to write an argument, you need to look for similarities
and differences in what you read. For example, sometimes you will notice that
authors have different philosophies or theories and therefore interpret evidence in
different ways. This process of breaking down ideas from a variety of sources into
groups of similarities and differences is called analysis.
When you use evidence you will also need to synthesise it. That means you need
to recombine those related ideas from various sources by highlighting their
similarities or differences, rather than write paragraphs in which ideas are not
organised systematically.
Grouping sources
Look at the table below, notice how the synthesised version of the original text is
more concise. This is because it avoids repeating similar ideas.
Original Synthesised
Research studies that have been carried out Research studies have shown
previously have shown that parents experience a that parents experience a number
number of psychological responses when they of psychological responses when
are informed of the diagnosis. Kovacs et al. (1985) they are informed of the diagnosis
found that during the initial stage of diagnosis of insulin dependent diabetes.
parents of newly diagnosed children with insulin These include feelings of guilt,
dependent diabetes felt guilt, denial, numbness, denial, dismay, resentment,
resentment, shock, anxiety, sadness and disbelief. shock, anxiety, fear, sadness and
Likewise, Hauser et al. (1986) found that dismay, disbelief (Kovacs et al.*, 1985;
discomfort, sadness ... and guilt were also Hauser et al., 1986; Hatton et al.,
obvious in their experience. Hatton et al. (1995) 1995).
found that parents experienced shock, anger,
fear, grief etc...
Figure 43: Comparison of two paragraphs that incorporate sources
* et al. means 'and others'. Where a book or article has six or more authors, et al. is
used (as a summary) in the first and subsequent references to that work. Where a book
or article has three to five authors, all authors must be named in the first in-text
reference, but et al. is used in subsequent references. However, all authors must be
named in the Reference List.

Comparing and contrasting sources
An important aspect of synthesis is comparison and contrast. Comparison means

showing points of similarity, and contrast means showing points of difference. In
essays, contrasts between different writers or different theories might be made in
separate paragraphs. Sometimes contrasts are made in the same paragraph.
In the text below, two different approaches to deciding what methods are most
appropriate for carrying out social science research are contrasted. Key phrases
in the comparison are in bold print.
When the new discipline of social science began, it followed closely the methods
of science. Science has often been thought of as objective, or free from opinion
and prejudice, and social science has had a history of copying this 'scientific'
method by collecting objective data. However, the usefulness of scientific
method for social scientists has been questioned. Some social scientists
began to ask how social phenomena could be studied 'objectively' when human
society and individual thought and action are so deeply 'subjective'. Thus quant-
itative social research - research which reduces social phenomena to
numbers and statistics - has been criticised for being overly objective or
positivistic, and for ignoring dimensions of human behaviour that cannot be
measured. The consequence is that social scientists today are more likely to
recognise the value of interpretive methods which acknowledge the thoughts and
assumptions of the researcher, and to express the results of this research in
words, not numbers.
Integrating evidence with your comments

Evidence should not be used by itself to make a point. Each paragraph should be
a balance between your own points and comments and the supporting evidence.
It would not be appropriate, for example, if quotes and paraphrases from other
sources made up most of your essay. Your own comments may come in the form
of explanations for the evidence, reasons, links, critical commentary or examples.
Your voice needs to lead your argument. As the writer you make the claim (in
your voice), which is then supported by the evidence. The text below provides an
example of the evidence supporting the points that the writer is making.

The topic sentence, or

The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is
a statement of the
writer's intended claim yet another indicator of Australia's lack of
Supporting evidence is
for this paragraph egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian provided to validate
population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the writer's claim/opinion.
The evidence here is top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a
significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates The writer’s voice
used to support and
makes the significance
elaborate on the claim. that at least in terms of economics, there is an
of this evidence obvious
Paraphrased material established class system in Australia. McGregor by linking it to the issue
is integrated into the (1988) argues that Australian society can be of “class”.
paragraph as sup-
porting evidence for categorised into three levels, the upper, middle and
the writer's claim. working classes. In addition, it has been shown that
most Australians continue to remain in the class into
The writer’s comment which they were born (McGreggor, 1988), despite
arguments about the ease of social mobility in Again, the writer’s
indicates wider reading
academic voice is
and an understanding of Australian society (Fitzpatrick, 1994). The issue of clear. Here the writer
contradictory argument. class and its inherent inequity, however, is further is creating links with
compounded by factors such as race and gender the following paragraph,
New topic sentence within and across these class divisions. which contains the next
linked to last sentence aspect of the argument.
of previous paragraph; The relative disadvantage of women with regard to
impersonal academic
voice being used to
their earnings and levels of asset ownership indicates
express the writer’s that within classes there is further economic inequity
educated opinion/claim. based on gender...
Figure 44: Expressing your voice in academic writing
(Source: UniLearning, Academic writing, University of Wollongong at

http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic4bi.html)

Using note making to achieve a balance

The best time to start recording your own comments is when you read and make
notes for your assignment. A good note making system has room for your own
comments to be recorded next to the relevant content information.
In Chapter 5, Reading and Note Making, we looked at a student’s example of the
three-column note making system. As you may remember, the first column is
used to record bibliographic information and later may be used to code the notes
according to an essay plan. The second column is used for content, which is
paraphrased and summarised in note form. The third column is used to record
your own thoughts, examples and comments in relation to the essay question.
The example notes in Figure 10, on the following page, come from a text
addressing the issue:
In what ways does acknowledging sources in academic writing allow
students to demonstrate their academic learning at university?
Look at these notes and comments, and then read the paragraph developed from
them in Figures 11 (page 22) and 12 (page 23). The paragraph starts with the
main point of the paragraph (or topic sentence), and continues with a balance of
explanation, evidence and critical comment (supporting sentences). Notice how
the evidence is only used to support points and critical comment already made by
the writer.

Analytical note making from sources (3-column system)
Figure 45: Three-column note making system
(Source: Parker, P. 2005, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney)

Analytical paragraphs developed from notes
Figure 11: Example of notes integrated into analytical paragraphs

Analytical comments integrated into paragraphs
Figure 12: Example of analytical comments integrated into paragraphs

Note making and the structure of a paragraph
As can be seen in the example on the previous page, the three-column note
making system can lead directly to the structure of the body paragraphs of your
essay. The comments column allows you to find ‘your voice’ in relation to your
response to the essay question. Your voice makes the claim in the topic sentence
of the body paragraph. This claim is then elaborated on in the supporting sentences
with evidence – quotes, examples, facts, data. Your voice weaves through this
evidence by way of explanations, interpretations and evaluations. Your comments,
therefore, are a vital component of your note making in terms of your voice
leading an argument
It is usually important when researching and making notes to make sure you have
covered a range of views on a topic, particularly if research throws up conflicting
findings. It is then important to make sure that your writing shows you are aware
of the conflict.

Activity 8.4: Analysing the use of evidence
Using too little evidence or conflicting evidence without explanation can be just as
bad as using too much evidence. The following paragraph was written by a
student on this essay question:
After reading the paragraph, the marker made these comments.
• “This evidence conflicts – you need to reconcile the different findings”
• “Is this evidence relevant? How does it relate to smoking?
• “How?”
• “Who? Why?”
• “Where is your reference for this?”
Read the paragraph of student writing, below; notice the references to outside
sources. Now, write the comments from the list above in the margins where you
think the marker would have written them.
Student writing
Management should consider issues surrounding passive smoking

because of the effects of allergies. Zussman (1970, p.1) found
that patients tested positive to tobacco leaf extracts. McDougall
and Gleich found no negative effects from tobacco smoke.
However, legislation has made it possible for most smokers and
non-smokers to use public facilities happily. But there are some
people on both sides who are still not satisfied with the arrange-
ments. If the manager had to choose, it would be better to make
the premises non-smoking because only twenty per cent of the
Australian population smokes.

Incorporating evidence with quotations,

paraphrases and summaries
In this chapter, we’ve looked at what academic argument is, and how evidence is
an important part of it. Now we’ll turn to the actual mechanics of how to incorporate
evidence in your writing.
Building on the discussion of quotations, paraphrases and summaries in Chapter 5,
Reading and note making, we’ll look at ways you can use each of these techniques
in your writing.
Quoting
Quoting involves using the exact words of another. When you use a quotation in
your writing, you are inserting another person’s work, word-for-word, into your own.
There are many ways to incorporate quotations into your argument. Shorter
quotations tend to work well when integrated into sentences; longer quotations
can stand-alone.
Choose quotations that have something important to add to your argument. They
need to be fitted into your own framework, and not used as a substitute for your
own ideas, or as isolated points. Don’t write paragraphs that look like a collection
of quotations.
Keep in mind that some lecturers and tutors have specific limits to how much of
your essay can consist of direct quotations. Check with your instructor if you have
any questions.
Here are some guidelines to help you determine when to use quotations:
1. Material quoted from another author's work should be reproduced word for
word. These direct quotations must be accurate; they must follow the
wording, spelling and punctuation of the original source.
2. Direct quotations should be used sparingly. Generally speaking, direct
quotations should constitute less than ten percent of the work. Also,
quotations are not counted in the word limit. Students whose work is filled
with lengthy direct quotes tend to demonstrate limited understanding of the
topic under investigation.
3. Quotations should only be used when:
• the original words of an author are expressed so concisely and

convincingly that one cannot improve on the wording
• documentation of a major argument is necessary and passing

reference would not suffice

• the author wishes to comment upon, refute or analyse ideas expressed

by another author
• changes through paraphrasing may cause misunderstanding or
misinterpretation (Deakin University, School of Education, 1992, p.4).
4. It is not considered good style to commence a paragraph with a lengthy
quote. Moreover, if a lengthy quote is used, it does not constitute a
paragraph. Further, it is important that students link their own ideas to the
quoted material. If this is not done, the marker is likely to question the
reason for inclusion of the quote.
5. When quoting, always provide the citation (author, year and specific
page/s) in your text and include the citation's full bibliographic details in the
reference list at the end of your text.
Short quotations
Short quotations of a word, phrase or sentence/s are incorporated seamlessly

into your text and are enclosed in quotation marks, and depending on which
referencing style you follow, they are either single (Harvard) or double (APA).
Note: All examples in this section follow the APA system of referencing. Also, the
quoted material, from an American source, retains the American spelling.
Example 1:
When investigating the 'placebo effect', Smith (1982, p.276) stated that "it
disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner".
Example 2:
Smith (1982, p.276) found that "the 'placebo effect' verified in previous
studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner ".
Smith's study can be criticised. He did not clarify the behaviours being
studied, nor did he explain how they were being studied.

Long quotations
Long quotations of more than forty words are lead into the quotation with a colon.
They are displayed in a freestanding block set off from the main text by a line space
above and below. These 'block' quotations are indented one centimetre from the
left and right margins and do not use quotation marks around the quoted material.
Example:
When caring for clinically depressed clients it is vital that a suicidal lethality
assessment is undertaken. This view is supported by Miller (1982, p. 57)
who asserts that:
It is imperative that all clinically depressed people must be con-
sidered as a suicide risk until there is convincing evidence to the
contrary. Further, all suicidal threats should be taken seriously.
Moreover, it is essential that a suicidal lethality assessment be
undertaken at the outset of therapy.
It is acceptable to cite the date and page either after the author, or at the end of
the quote.
Changes from the source
The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to a capital or lower
case letter. The punctuation at the end of a sentence may be changed to fit the
syntax (grammatical arrangement of words).
Omitting material
It is quite acceptable to omit some material from a direct quote. When doing so,
use three ellipsis points (...) within a sentence to indicate that you have omitted
material from the original source. Four ellipsis points are used if a full stop was in
the original work.
Example:
Brown (1992, p.10) believes that "...intellectually disabled people...are
entitled to the same employment opportunities as all other members of
society".
Inserting Material
This practice is also acceptable. When inserting material, use square brackets,
not parentheses, to enclose material inserted in a quotation:
Example:
Jones (1989, p.12) claims that he "feels [it is important] that all nurses
should comply with the ICN Code of Ethics".

Use of [sic]
[Sic] is used when the writer notes a mistake in the author's original work, such as
grammar, spelling and sexist language.
Example 1:
When Elder (1980, p.2) spoke of "practising [sic] nurses as change agents
for the future...” he did not explore the ways in which nurses could effect
such changes.
Example 2:
Elder (1991, p.3) has further explored the notion of the changing and
futures roles of nurses. He claims that "...she [sic] will further develop her
[sic] skills in reflective practice to reach this goal.”
Integrating quotations
When students use quotations, they often make the mistake of not integrating the
quotation into a well-formed sentence or paragraph. Sometimes sentences are
copied from sources and written without any links to the preceding or following
sentences. Example 1 shows this type of unintegrated quotation. Sometimes
quotations form part of a writer's own sentence, but the sentence is clumsy or
repetitive. Examples 2 and 3 show this type of poor integration.
Example 1:
Stress is undesirable when it is a negative rather than positive aspect of
life. "While stress is viewed as inevitable and a desirable aspect of life as it
supports activity and involvement, of concern is when positive stress turns
into negative stress (commonly called 'distress')" (Bernard,1999, p. 10).
Rewritten version
Stress can be positive when it leads a person to greater involve-ment in life and
job satisfaction. But "when positive stress turns into negative stress” (Bernard,
1999, p. 10), the consequences of this 'distress' for the individual are unhealthy.
Example 2:
According to Boscrup (2001), she says that women’s share of agricultural
work has increased rather than decreased where modern technology has
been introduced.
Rewritten version:
According to Boscrup (2001), women’s share of agricultural work has increased
rather than decreased where modern technology has been introduced.

Example 3:
Although evidence of the validity of Freud's anal stage of development with
regard to toilet training can be found in (Patterson, 1998), where the child
is pressured beyond his physical abilities to control the muscles involved in
staying dry and clean, with resulting behaviour of anger and frustration on
the part of both mother and child.
Rewritten version:
Freud has been criticised for over-emphasising the sexual nature of child devel-
opment. Nevertheless, Patterson (1998) details some evidence which supports
Freud's description of the anal stage of development. Patterson's studies show
that when the child is pressured beyond his physical abilities to control the
muscles involved in staying dry and clean, both mother and child become angry
and frustrated.
Activity 8.5: Integrating quotations
Rewrite each sentence so that the quotation is integrated smoothly and in a

grammatically acceptable manner.
1. Murray (1997, p.15) has defined health as “Health is complete physical,
mental and social well-being”.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Kivung (2000, p. 238) reports that in 1981 our records show that 57 men
were convicted of sexual offences against women.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. As (Pearson 1999 p. 69) states that “self motivation to learn is preferable

to motivation imposed by external sources”.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

4. Taking into account what Sir Holloway (1999, p. 38) pointed out, is that,
there are acute social issues that are confronting education planners.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. According to Goddard (2001, p. 193) clearly stated that “teachers must

know when and how to intervene.”
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
6. In Holt’s (2002, p. 382) quote he stated that “schools must be places

where children feel at home”.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is a good way to demonstrate that you have understood your sources;
you cannot put someone else’s ideas into your own words if you haven’t first
absorbed and understood those ideas.
Unlike a direct quotation, a paraphrase brings another’s ideas into your writing,
but not their exact words. It is more detailed than a summary, because it is not so
closely focussed on main ideas.
Six steps to writing an effective paraphrase
1. Read and reread the original material until you understand its meaning.
2. Set the original aside and take notes, using synonyms for key words. Note
technical words do not have to be changed. Write your paraphrase from
memory and your notes.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you
envisage using this material. At the top of your notes, write a key word or
phrase to indicate the subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your version with the original to make sure that it accurately
expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have
borrowed exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) in your notes so that you can
credit it easily if you decide to incorporate the material in your paper.
(Source: 'Paraphrase: Write it in your own words' from the Purdue Online Writing Lab at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu)

Problems with paraphrasing
The following extract is from an original source. Below this is an extract from a
student's essay – this example has been plagiarised from the original source.
Compare the two texts:
Original material from textbook:

The dissatisfying nature of industrial or clerical work is no longer disputed.
Many of today's employees prefer a greater level of involvement in their
jobs than was previously assumed. Many desire more self-control and a
chance to make a greater contribution to the organisation.
From: Schuler, R., Dowling, R., & Smart, S. (1988). Personnel/Human Resource
Management in Australia, Sydney: Harper & Row.
Example from student essay:

The nature of industrial/clerical work is dissatisfying. Employees want more
involvement in their jobs, more self-control and an opportunity to make a
greater contribution to their organisation.
In the student's example, you can see that many of the same words have been
used — there has been very little effort to paraphrase the content and no acknow-
ledgement of the source has been provided. Below is a suggested rewording for
the student's essay that does not plagiarise the original passage:
Suggested rewording:
It has been argued that workers have grown increasingly dissatisfied with
their work. In an analysis of industrial and clerical workers' experiences,
Schuler et al (1988) claim that many workers desire greater opportunities
for participation and self-control in the workplace.
(Source: Mchawala, C. (2005). Plagiarism online resource. Available from University of South
Australia's Learning Connection web site at
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/learn/LearningConnection/?PATH=/Resources/workshop%2Dpl
agiarism/Plagiarism+Online+Resource/&default=welcome.htm)

Summarising
Summaries, basically, are made up exclusively of the main ideas of a text using
your own words. They present a broad overview, usually much shorter than the
original text. Often, summaries identify the author's purpose or thesis as well as
the author's approach.
When writing a persuasive analytical piece of work, a summary must be based on
a logical structure that is your own way of seeing the topic. It must use authoritative
research literature in order to support your way of seeing the topic. You have to
choose those ideas from the literature that are useful to support your thesis and
show the inadequacies of other ideas that contradict your thesis. There is no point
in just summarising what various authors have all said.
Compare the two paragraphs below:
Paragraph showing summary Paragraph showing author's

only point of view
Dickson (1984: 12) maintains that That television violence has a
television violence has a marked considerable effect on the
Notice the effect on the development of the development of the child is not
references. Note that the
child. Brown (1985: 176) says that disputed. Both Dickson (1984: 12) focus is on the
They focus
only on what
children who watch a great deal of and Brown (1985: 176) have shown ideas and the
the authors televised violence could be affected through extensive experiments that argument.
have said for many years. The Television the majority of children are affected
Broadcasting Tribunal (1982: 16) by television violence, Brown
recommends that we should “limit having extended the base of her
the number of hours per week of research to longitudinal studies
programmes showing violence which reveal that this effect is quite
during children’s viewing times”. long-term. In the face of such
convincing evidence, the Television
Broadcasting Tribunal has been
compelled to act in order to reduce
the impact that increased television
viewing could have on children. The
Tribunal has recommended (1982:
16) that the number of hours per
week of violent programmes should
be limited during children’s viewing
times. In spite of these
recommendations, however, there
continues to be a significant level of
violence in programmes which are
broadcast at prime viewing times
for children.
Figure 13: Comparison between simple summary and point of view

Introducing evidence: author or information focus?
There are two main ways you can choose to introduce your paraphrases,
quotations or summaries. This evidence can have an:
author focus where the cited author is part of the sentence and only the
year is placed in brackets. This occurs when you wish to
make the author an explicit part of your point or explanation.
This is useful when comparing writers or theorists.
For example:
Beder (2002) argues that a corporate agenda dominates

discussion about the state of the environment.
information focus where the author is included in the brackets along with the
year. This occurs when you wish to make the issue, topic
or your point of view the focus, and use the sources for
support.
For example:
It is argued that a corporate agenda dominates discussion

about the state of the environment (Beder, 2002).
A corporate agenda dominates discussion about the state of

the environment (Beder, 2002).
Reporting verbs and phrases to introduce quotations
Whether you are introducing quotations or paraphrases, reporting verbs and

phrases help to integrate the source material smoothly into your text. Reporting
verbs and phrases have several purposes:
• They introduce the quotation
• They identify the source of the quote
• They interpret the cited author's attitude towards the quoted material.
Accordingly, reporting verbs have different meanings:
They carry varying degrees of conviction and commitment
They communicate a positive or negative attitude.

When introducing a quote, therefore, it is important to choose an appropriate

reporting verb. Below are some common verbs and phrases to introduce another
author's facts or ideas, opinions or arguments, suggestions or research results
Common verbs to introduce quotations:
states highlights describes remarks

adds agrees contends clarifies
affirms contests implies demonstrates
disagrees offers predicts questions
theorises justifies confirms reasons
disputes puts forward counters elaborates
illustrates argues observes rejects
Common phrases to introduce quotations:
Facts or ideas Opinions or arguments

According to X ... X has expressed a similar view ...
X comments that ... X feels/believes/maintains that ...
Reference to x reveals that ... X claims/insists that . . .
As X has indicated ... The work of X asserts that . . .
X notes/stresses/emphasises that ... X warns/challenges that . . .
As X points out ... X criticises that . . .
X has drawn attention to the fact that ... X is convinced that . . .
Suggestions Research results

Research by X suggests that ... In an article study, X found that ...
X's study into Y recommends that ... A study by X shows/indicates that ...
X proposes/advises/urges that ... In their analysis, X reveals that ...

Plagiarism and your own voice
Sometimes poor use of evidence can result in plagiarism. Some examples include:
• Failing to use quotation marks when copying the exact words from a
source. If you want to use the exact words, you must reference the source
and use quotation marks around the cited material.
• Submitting the work of another student. The work may have been obtained
from a student who has done the course previously or from a similar course
in another institution.
• Failing to acknowledge other writers’ ideas. Even if you paraphrase an

idea from another writer you must still provide a reference.
• Taking key sentences from the original source, making only minor alter-
ations to the sentence structure or vocabulary and presenting it as
paraphrased information.
It is the last kind of plagiarism that often causes students the most difficulty
because it can be hard to put another writer’s ideas into your own words. Look at
the following text from an original source. Then compare the student’s version
with the suggested rewording.
Original material from journal article
This suggests that nursing professionals may have an important ‘window

of opportunity’ to intervene with patients in the hospital setting or at least
introduce the notion of not resuming tobacco use on hospital discharge.
The size of the effect may be dependent on the reason for hospitalisation.
Rice, V.H. & Stead, L. F. (2001). Nursing interventions for smoking cessation.
Student text
It has been suggested that there may be a ‘window of opportunity’ for

nurses to intervene in hospitals by introducing to patients the idea about
not resuming smoking on hospital discharge. The reason for hospitalisation
will influence the size of the effect (Rice & Stead, 2001).
Suggested rewording
Nurses may be able to influence whether patients resume smoking when

they leave hospital. However, the extent of this influence may depend on
why a person was hospitalised in the first place (Rice & Stead, 2001).
Notice how the student text in the example above still sounds as if it is written in
the ‘voice’ of Rice and Stead. ‘Voice’ is used here to describe the tone or expression
of the author's writing. It is important to use your own voice when paraphrasing as
this will show the reader that you understand the idea as well as make your writing

more cohesive. Even though you use evidence from a variety of sources to
support your ideas, your writing will sound as if it is written in the one voice – yours.
Occasionally, you may be tempted to use someone else’s words or ideas in your
writing without acknowledging the source. Deliberate plagiarism can be difficult to
prove, but the damage you can do to your academic career is not worth the risk.
Computer programs designed to detect plagiarism in student writing are becoming
more sophisticated, and are in use on many university campuses. The conse-
quences of a lecturer discovering that you have deliberately plagiarised range
from re-submission to failure and exclusion from a course.
Avoiding plagiarism
To avoid plagiarising, you need to:
• acknowledge all sources of information that you use in assignments. This

involves putting a reference to each source within your text, either as an in-
text or footnote reference, and then giving the full bibliographic details of all
your sources in a reference list or bibliography at the end of your text.
• understand completely the varying arguments in your sources
• be clear about your own position or thesis and the purpose of your essay
• interpret the information from your sources to develop your own argument.
It is important to try to interpret the source as much as possible in your own
words. Then your lecturer can see that you understand the ideas and concepts in
your sources and that you can use these to develop your own argument. You are
not expected to be able to express the ideas as well as the original author did.
However, you are expected to interpret these ideas for the purpose of your own
assessment task.

Referencing
Accurate and consistent referencing can ensure that you will not inadvertently lapse
into plagiarism. There are many reasons for referencing. They include:
• showing that you have researched a topic before writing about it
• developing your own understanding of issues, concepts and debates in the

topic you are writing about
• acknowledging the sources of your arguments
• allowing others to locate those sources for review
• acknowledging the importance of building on existing knowledge.

In addition to the information presented below, further assistance with referencing
(including links to style guide web sites, the university’s plagiarism policy, and
information about citing electronic information) can be found on the UWS Library
web site.
There are two parts to documenting your sources. The first is to put an in-text
reference to each source within the text of your essay. The second is to compile
a reference list that gives the full bibliographic details of all your sources at the
end of your essay.
In-text references
In-text references acknowledge the source of an idea and provide a link to the full
bibliographic details in the reference list. Different disciplines will use different
referencing systems and you will need to clarify which system is appropriate for
each of your subjects.
In-text referencing tips
• Acknowledge the source of ideas by referencing both within the text and in
the reference list.
• Use short rather than long quotations, and use only the part of a sentence
that is relevant for your purpose. Quote the cited words exactly as they are
written in the original text, and enclose these words with quotation marks.
• Paraphrase the original source by writing the ideas in your own words and
acknowledging the source.
• Be consistent in your style of referencing. That is, do not mix different

styles. Use a referencing guide and follow it exactly.

• Write the full referencing details as you research on a card or in a

workbook or computer file. If you copy down exact words from the text, use
quotation marks in your notes and include the page number(s).
• Use reporting phrases to introduce your references seamlessly into your

text. For example:
According to X, …
X argues that …
To quote from X, " …"
As X points out, …
• Check the referencing details for a textbook on the 'publishing history'

page (at the beginning of the book). This will give you all the information
you need to write a full reference. See example below.
Academic English for Australian Students
Published and distributed by

Blue Harbour Publishers, 50 Quay Street, Sydney, 2000, Australia.
Copyright © Frank Brown 2000
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
ISBN 0 123 45678 9

ISSN 0 123 45679 8
Figure 14: Example of the publishing history page of a textbook
From this page, the full bibliographic details (APA style) are as follows:
Brown, F. (2000). Academic English for Australian students. Sydney: Blue
Harbour Publishers.

The reference list

A reference list and/or a bibliography is the second step in documenting your
sources. A reference list contains the full bibliographic details of each source that
you actually referred to in your text. A bibliography is a list of additional sources
used for background reading but has not specifically been referred to in your text.
Usually, only reference lists are required, unless an individual lecturer also asks
for a bibliography as evidence of wider reading.
The reference list (and/or bibliography) is attached to the end of your text. It not
only documents the cited work/s but it also provides the information necessary to
specifically identify and retrieve each source.
To make it easy for the reader to retrieve (and then read) your sources, your
referencing details must be accurate and complete. As a rule of thumb, each
entry in your reference list should contain authorship details (e.g. surname and
initials), year of publication, title of work, publisher and place of publication. These
details vary depending on the source type (e.g. books, periodicals etc.). For
selected examples of entry details of various source types using different refer-
encing styles, see the table on page 43.
Remember, sources (or references) cited in the body of your work must appear in
the reference list. Correspondingly, each entry in the reference list must be cited
in your text.
Alphabetical ordering of references
Reference lists must be arranged in a logical way. The following steps will help
you to do this:
1. Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author.
The Sort command in MS Word can be a real time-saver for this step.
2. Alphabetise letter by letter. Remember that "nothing precedes something":
Brown, J. R. will precede Browning, A. R.
3. Order multiple entries by the same author by the year of publication, the
earliest first. Thus, Brown, J. R. 1978 will precede Brown, J. R. 1992.
4. Order single-author entries to precede multiple-author entries beginning
with the same surname. Thus, Kaufman, J. R. 1981 will precede Kaufman,
J. R. & Cochran, D. F. 1978.
5. Alphabetise references with a corporate author by the first significant word
of the corporate name. For example, The Schizophrenia Fellowship of NSW
will appear in the 'S' rather than the 'T' section of the alphabetical list.

6. Use the word 'Anonymous' only if work is signed 'Anonymous' as if it were

a true name. If there is no author, then use the title of the work and
alphabetised the entry by the first significant word of the title. For example,
Anonymous 1991, 'The concept of horizontal violence in nursing' (a
personal position paper) would be entered with the 'A's.
'Suicide, the not-so easy way out', 1992. would be entered with the 'S's.
Abbreviations in reference lists
Abbreviations are often needed in the reference list for parts of books and various
publications. Again, depending on the style of referencing you use, these details
can vary. Check your guides for details. However, as a rough guide, use the
following abbreviations:
Abbreviation Stands for ...
chap. chapter
edn. edition
rev. edn. revised edition
2nd edn. second edition
ed. or eds. editors(s)
p. or pp. page(s)
vol. volume
vols. volumes
no. number
n.d. no date
Figure 15: Abbreviations in reference list entries
Referencing systems
The table on the following pages contains examples of three different referencing
systems. Look at each one carefully and note their similarities and differences.

Referencing Source Format of reference

System Type
APA Book Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of book. Location:
Publisher.
(American Shapell, R.T. (1998). Understanding health and wellness.
Psychological New York: McGraw-Hill.
Association) Chapter in Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of chapter. In B. C.
edited book Editor (Ed.), Title of book (p – pp). Location:
Publisher.
Gray, D. (1999). Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality. In J. Germov. (Ed.). Second Opinion:
An introduction to health sociology (pp. 57 – 74).
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Journal Author, A. A. (Publication year). Title of article. Title of
article journal, Volume number (issue number), p – pp.
Chanock, K. (2000). Comments on essays: do students
understand what tutors write? Teaching in Higher
Education, 5 (1), 95 – 105.
Web page Author, A. A. (Date of copyright/last update) Title of page.
Retrieved day/month/year from URL.
Greater Hattiesburg Civic Awareness Group, Task Force
on Sheltered Programs. (2004). Fund-raising
efforts. Retrieved January 10, 2004, from
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org
In-text (Author, Date, p. #)
citation (Shapell, 1998, p. 206)
Harvard Book Author, A. A. Publication year, Title of Book, Publisher,
Location
(author/date)
Shapell, R.T. 1998, Understanding health and wellness,
New York, Mcgraw-Hill.
Chapter in Author, A. A. Publication year, ‘Title of chapter’ in Title of
edited book Book, ed. B. C. Editor, Publisher, Location
Gray, D. ‘Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality’ In Second Opinion: An introduction to
health sociology, ed. J. Germov, Melbourne,
Oxford University Press
Journal Author, A. A. Publication year, ‘Title of article’, Title of
article Journal, Volume number, issue number, p – pp
Chanock, K. 2000, ‘Comments on essays: do students
understand what tutors write?’ Teaching in Higher
Education, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 95 – 105.
Web page Author/editor. (Last update or copyright date), Title,
[Online], Publisher, Available from: <URL> [Date of
access].
on Sheltered Programs. 2004, Fund-raising efforts
[Online], Available from
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org [January 10, 2004].
In-text (Author, Date: p. #)
citation (Shapell, 1998: p. 206)

Referencing Source
Format of reference
system type
MLA Book Author, Adam Allen. Title of Book. Location: Publisher,

Publication Year.
(Modern Shapell, Roger. Understanding health and wellness. New
Language York: Mcgraw-Hill, 1998.
Association) Chapter in Author, Adam Allen. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book. Ed.
edited book Byron Charles Editor. Location: Publisher,
Publication year. p – pp.
Gray, David. “Indigenous health: The perpetuation of
inequality” Second Opinion: An introduction to health
sociology. Ed. John Germov. Melbourne: Oxford
University Press, 1999. pp. 57-74.
Journal Author, Adam Allen. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal
article Volume (Year): p – pp.
Chanock, K. “Comments on Essays: Do Students
Understand What Tutors Write?’ Teaching in Higher
Education, 5.1 (2000): 95 – 105.
Web page Author, Adam Allen. “Title of Page.” Title of Site. Access
date. Available: URL. Date of copyright/last update.
on Sheltered Programs. Fund-raising efforts.
January 10, 2004. Available:
http://www.hattiesburgcag.org. 2004
In-text (Author Page #)
citation (Shapell 206)
Figure 16: Referencing style comparison
When using these various referencing systems, keep the following points in mind:
• There is no one universally agreed upon format for web page references.
The key is to create a reference that is consistent with the referencing style
you are using and to use it consistently throughout your text. For more
information, refer to the UWS Library’s links to citing resources at
www.library.uws.edu.au/citing.html
• When creating an in-text citation, be aware of the following:

9 Page numbers are required for direct quotes; page numbers are often
helpful when citing paraphrases, but not required.
9 Any information that you provide in the sentence itself does not have to
appear in the citation. For example:
According to Chanock (2000), tutors’ comments must be clear.
Tutors’ comments must be clear (Chanock, 2000).

In conclusion…
Academic argument is the basis for much of the writing you will do at university.
Many of the texts you will encounter in your reading will make use of it as well.
Learning to recognise and understand the arguments of others, and to construct
your own, are valuable outcomes of university study.
A major part of writing a well-reasoned argument involves incorporating evidence
from outside sources. Your ability to do so demonstrates that you are capable of
translating information from one context to another – which means that you have
truly understood that information.
Evidence can be incorporated in the form of quotations, paraphrases or summaries.
Each has their uses, and each has their drawbacks. But what they all have in
common is that they must be referenced wherever they appear in your writing.
Referencing allows you to show how widely you have read and researched your
topic, while giving credit to those whose work has added to the knowledge base.
Failure to reference is a serious breach of academic standards, with serious
consequences.
There are several referencing systems to choose from; you should always check
with your instructor to determine which they prefer you to use in your assignments.

Activity 8.1: Using conjunctions in academic argument
1. Suitable conjunctions:
a. because
b. so
c. but
d. whereas
e. Likewise
Activity 8.2: Using hedging
These are not the only correct answers to this exercise. You may have something
similar but not identical to these.
1. Replace underlined words with an appropriate hedge.
a. The feeling of content overload leads students to take a surface approach
to their work. Dealing with the information becomes of prime concern
and so the student may not get to the deeper skills of analysing,
applying and synthesising. It is the latter approach that most often
leads to success in these courses (Baker, 1991, p. 2).
b. The stress felt by students about the practical examination can
adversely affect their approach to learning. When students feel that an
assessment situation is threatening they tend to adopt a mechanical,
rote, surface learning approach that is rarely helpful to their results
(Baker, 1991, p. 3).
2. When nursing older patients, many nurses focus on custodial care rather
than rehabilitation. This means that in the health assessment interview of
the older patient, nurses generally base questions on problems with
bathing, feeding and medications. However, the interview with a younger
patient usually focuses on activities such as work or sport. Aged people
may be perceived as having less social worth because they are not
typically engaged in paid employment.

Activity 8.3: Identifying how evidence is used
Identification Paragraph
Claim There is strong evidence that men and women have different
ways of knowing. In Women's ways of knowing, Belenky et al.
Elaboration (1986) report on a fascinating study of women's educational
experiences and problems. Their research was informed by the
feminist perception that "conceptions of knowledge and truth that
are accepted … today have been shaped throughout history by
the male dominated majority culture" (p. 5). This view was
confirmed by the women's stories about their fears, failures and
successes in education.
Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986).
Women's ways of knowing. New York: Basic Books.
Claim Multiskilling is emphasised in the combined law courses, which

have great professional advantages. For example, an arts/law
Exemplification graduate may not only be a journalist and a lawyer, but also a
graduate who can view each of the disciplines from the
perspective of the other. Multiskilling recognises that graduates
Definition of the combined law program may choose not to practise law,
but rather treat the degree as complementing the other degree
and its career options.
Undergraduate courses at UWS (2001). p. 64.
I have fiercely maintained one personal rule in all my so-called

"popular" writing. I believe - as Darwin did when he published all
Claim his books for general audiences - that we can still have a genre
of scientific books suitable for and accessible alike to profes-
sionals and interested laypeople. The concepts of science can
Elaboration be presented without any compromise, without any simplification
counting as distortion, in language accessible to all intelligent
people. I hope that this book can be read with profit both in
seminars for graduate students and on the businessman's
special to Tokyo.
(Gould, S.J. (1989). Wonderful Life. London: Penguin, p. 16)
Claim (effect) In the Olympic arena the gap between heartbreak and triumph
can be minuscule. In the women's 4 x 100 metres relay heats, a
Cause dropped baton ends Australia's chances. Hours later the 4 x 400
team breaks an Australian record that has stood for more than
two decades and storms into the finals. It's true - sport really can
be life with the volume turned up.
(Editorial, The Weekend Australian, September 30-October 1 2000, p. 38)

Activity 8.4: Analysing the use of evidence

Management should consider issues surrounding passive smoking because of
the effects of allergies. [Zussman (1970) found that patients tested positive to
tobacco leaf extracts.] (2) [McDougall and Glieich found no negative effects from
tobacco smoke.] (1) [However, legislation has made it possible for most smokers
and non-smokers to use public facilities happily.] (3) [But there are some people
on both sides who are still not satisfied with the arrangements.] (4) [If the
manager had to choose, it would be better to make the premises non-smoking
because only twenty per cent of the Australian population smokes.] (5)
1. “This evidence conflicts – you need to reconcile the different findings”
2. “Is this evidence relevant? How does it relate to smoking?
3. “How?”
4. “Who? Why?”
5. “Where is your reference for this?”
Activity 8.5: Integrating quotations
1. 1.Murray (1997) has defined health as “complete physical, mental and

social well being” (p. 15)
The word ‘health’ was repeated unnecessarily in the quotation. The text is less
interrupted if the page number is placed at the end of the sentence.
2. Kivung (2000) reports that in 1981 “57 men were convicted of sexual
offences against women” (p. 238).
The writer did not use quotation marks to indicate a direct quote. It is acceptable
to selectively omit words (“our records show”, for example) from a direct quote;
however, all remaining information that appears between the quotation marks
must appear exactly as it was written in the original text.
3. Pearson states that “self motivation to learn is preferable to motivation

imposed by external sources”(1999, p. 69).
Information included in the citation cannot be the subject of the sentence. The
sentence must make grammatical sense if the information included in brackets is
removed. Date and page number can be moved to the end of the sentence.
4. Sir Holloway (1999) points out that “there are acute social issues
confronting education planners” (p. 38).
The quotation marks were missing from the direct quote and many unnecessary
words (“Taking into account...”, “is that...”) were inserted into the sentence.
5. Goddard clearly states that “teachers must know when and how to
intervene”(2001, p. 193).
It is not necessary to use both “According to” before the author’s name and
“clearly stated” after. Choose one or the other.

6. According to Holt (2002), "schools must be places where children feel at

home" (p. 382).
Holt did not make this statement as a quote; it was a part of his article. The writer
of the essay included it in their essay as a quote.

Chapter 9
Features of academic writing
Introduction
Some aspects of academic writing are common to all assignment types and
writing situations. For example, all kinds of academic writing contain paragraphs
that must have clear structure, logical organisation, and smooth flow of information
within and between paragraphs, or cohesion. And in most kinds, formal language
predominates.
In this section, we will look at some of these aspects in detail. When you have
completed this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define and identify a topic sentence
• Describe different methods of organising and developing a paragraph
• Group connective words according to their function and insert them into
your writing
• Use pronouns to make the connections between your ideas clear
• Recognise and employ the characteristics of academic language.
Paragraph writing
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops a common theme or topic.

Paragraphs may be long or short, but in academic texts, such as essays, paragraphs
of about one hundred words are quite common.
Topic sentences
Lecturers expect students to write well-formed paragraphs. As we will see, the
form or structure of a paragraph depends on the writer's purpose. For example, a
paragraph of comparison and contrast will not have the same structure as a
paragraph that classifies. Also, a paragraph that summarises a book might just
list the chapter contents, without much development of ideas, like this:
Chapter one outlines the history of whaling in Australian waters. Chapter

two describes in detail the role of whaling in the early years of the colony. In
chapter three, the author describes the spread of whaling in the nineteenth
century. In the fourth and fifth chapters…

By contrast, a paragraph in the body of an argument essay might show quite a

different progression of ideas, and a different overall structure. It will most likely
have a topic sentence that introduces the paragraph. Here is an example, with
the topic sentence underlined.
Pronunciation is one area of second language acquisition where children

seem to have an advantage over adults. Whereas adults normally retain an
accent long after they have reached fluency, children usually manage to
speak a second language with little or no accent (McLaughlin, 1984, p. 53).
This difference has been attributed to biological causes. For example,
Lenneberg (1967, cited in McLaughlin, 1984, p. 46) claims that after puberty
"the brain has lost its plasticity". The result is that children possess a capacity
for excellent phonological representation, which adults have lost.
Notice the following features of the essay paragraph:

• The first sentence introduces the paragraph topic (pronunciation of English)
• The third sentence begins with a phrase ('this difference') that summarises
the second sentence
• The fourth sentence adds to sentence three by giving one example of a

'biological cause'
• The last sentence offers a conclusion.

Despite their different purposes, content and structures, the two paragraphs have
this in common: each has a definite structure and is confined to a single topic
(whaling, pronunciation).
As you read, look for topic sentences. You will find them in most paragraphs, but
in well-written academic texts, they will be more common.
Activity: 9.1 Topic sentences
Below are three paragraphs. Read each one, and then from the choices given,
select the most appropriate topic sentence for each of the paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
The Federal Government deals with matters such as defence and immi-
gration. State governments deal with matters such as public transport and
public education. Local government deals with matters such as provision of
garbage services and maintenance of local roads and parks.
Circle the appropriate topic sentence from the following:
a. The Federal government is the most important level of government.
b. Australia has a unique system of government.
c. There are three levels of government in Australia, with different
responsibilities.

Paragraph 2
His basic policy on Aboriginal affairs has not changed but his tone certainly
has. He seems to have belatedly realised he was missing a mainstream
wave. The Prime Minister is now trying to catch up, without jettisoning views
he has held so long and so forcibly that he could not credibly abandon them.
a. The Prime Minister did not join the reconciliation marches.
b. When John Howard speaks on Aboriginal affairs these days, he sounds
like a man with his mind increasingly on the judgement of history.
c. John Howard gave the annual Menzies lecture in Sydney yesterday.
Paragraph 3
On the one hand, there are those who believe that soil erosion is linked to
“...exploitation by national and international elites, rich landowners, large
companies and so on [which] push the poor below subsistence level. They
are then forced to mine the soil - extracting fertility without restoring it -
simply to survive” (Blaikie, in Harrison, 1996, p.265). On the other hand are
the Neo-Malthusians, who argue that it is population growth that leads to
soil erosion in West and Central Africa and South Asia, where increased
numbers of people place pressure on marginal areas (Harrison, 1996, p.265).
In this situation, technology is a factor that can help reduce erosion, rather
than contribute to it, through the use of conservation techniques.
a. There is debate as to the factors which contribute to soil erosion, with
arguments being split down ideological lines.
b. It has been confirmed that population growth contributes to soil erosion
and not technology which can actually help reduce erosion.
c. In many countries population growth has resulted in soil erosion.

Ways of organising and developing paragraphs

Paragraphs can be organised in many different ways. The kind of paragraph you
write depends on your purposes, your topic, and the type of text you are writing
(for example, a summary or an essay).
Whatever your paragraph topic, it is useful to begin by making notes on what you
already know. Ask yourself questions like:
What does --- mean?
What is an example of ---?
What is the history of ---?
What are the effects of ---?
What are the causes ---?
How is --- similar to ---?
How is --- different from ---?
These kinds of questions should help you to define your ideas, extend them, and
make them more explicit.
Once you have developed your ideas in this way, you should be able to see an
organising pattern growing out of this development. It is also possible to combine
patterns to create an effective paragraph. In this section, we will look closely at
three methods of organisation:
• Classification
• Compare and/or contrast
• Cause and effect

Classification
Paragraphs that classify information group different items by common traits. You
might structure a classification paragraph in this way:
Topic sentence Identifies what is to be classified and the categories

used
Support sentences Give more information about each of the categories
Concluding sentence Summarises and links to next paragraph

(optional)
Figure 1: Organisation of classification paragraph
(Source: Academic Skills Office, University of New England at

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/pdf/p-class.pdf)
When you write a classification paragraph, you might use vocabulary like:
can be divided into ... is a part of ...
is a type of ... fits into ...
falls under ... is grouped with ...
belongs to ... is related to ...
can be classified as ... is associated with ...
(Source: Davies, M. Paragraphing, Readability, and Punctuation)
Example of a classification paragraph

All things can be divided into two large groups: living and non-living. Likewise,
living things can be divided into plants and animals. A key distinction is that
plants make their own food through photosynthesis, whereas animals must
consume other living things. Animals can be divided into vertebrates and
invertebrates, and further sub-divided into mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
fish and birds. Plants can be classified as either flowering or non-flowering.

Paragraphs that classify can be represented by tree diagrams. The tree diagram
below represents the example classification paragraph from the previous page.
Tree diagram
Things
Living Things Non-living

Things
Plants
Animals
Flowering Non-flowering
Vertebrates Invertebrates
Mammals Amphibians
Reptiles
Fish Birds
Figure 2: Example of a tree diagram

Compare and/or contrast
Compare and/or contrast paragraphs are useful when you are asked to look for
similarities and/or differences between things or ideas. A comparison focuses on
similarities while a contrast focuses on the differences. You may be asked to both
compare and contrast or to only compare or contrast.
When you write a compare and/or contrast paragraph, you have two main options
for organising your support sentences. You may choose to discuss the things or
ideas feature by feature, as illustrated in Option A below, or you may want to
describe one thing or idea at a time including all its features, as in Option B.
Topic sentence Identifies the topic and the intention to compare and/or
contrast X and Y. Comments on the degree of similarity
and/or difference
Support sentences Describe and compare features
Option A Option B
Feature 1 – Describe X, describe Y – Describe X – Features 1 – 3

identify similarities and differences
Describe Y – Features 1 – 3
Feature 2 – Describe X, describe Y –
identify similarities and differences
Feature 3 – Describe X, describe Y – Describe and discuss points of similarity

identify similarities and differences and/or difference
Concluding sentence Summarises and interprets differences and/or

similarities
Figure 3: Organisation of compare and/or contrast paragraph
(Source: Academic Skills Office, University of New England at

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/pdf/p-comp.pdf)

A compare and/or contrast paragraph might use vocabulary for:

Comparison: Contrast:
is similar to ... in contrast ...
in the same way... however ...
similarly on the other hand ...
both ... differs from ...
again yet ...
equally while ...
likewise unlike
as well but
correspondingly whereas ...
(Source: Davies, M. Paragraphing, Readability, and Punctuation)
Example of a compare and contrast paragraph

In research on approaches to learning, a distinction is often made between
deep learning and surface learning. The basic difference in approaches is that
deep learning is an active process whereas surface learning is passive. Active
learning involves skills such as planning and relating new information to prev-
iously learned information. Surface or passive learners tend to be dependent
on teachers and lack organisational skills. The learning strategies of deep
learners include looking for main ideas, and reading critically. Surface learners,
on the other hand, adopt strategies such as focussing on 'facts' and learning
by rote. Although surface learning strategies can be important in some subjects
or in some stages of learning, deep learning is more likely to lead to under-
standing and success in university studies.

Paragraphs of comparison and contrast can be represented in tables. The table

below breaks down the example paragraph on the previous page.
Table
Topic Deep learning Surface learning
Approach Active: Passive:

• planning & relating ideas • teacher-dependent,
• poor organisation
Features Look for main ideas Focus on facts

Read critically Rote learning
Effects Long-term success Limited long-term value
Figure 4: Organisation of a comparison/contrast paragraph
Cause and effect
Cause and effect paragraphs show how situations or events are influenced or
caused by others. A cause and effect paragraph may show several causes
(reasons) for a certain event or situation and you might structure it in this way:
Topic sentence Describes the cause and effect relationship
Support sentences Describe each of the causes that led to the effect

(optional)
Figure 5: Organisation of cause/effect paragraph with focus on causes
A cause and effect paragraph might use the following vocabulary:

so/so that ... for this reason ...
therefore... because of ...
consequently due to
as a result ... hence ...
thus in that case

Example paragraph that shows a range of causes
To understand why some countries have higher birth rates than others it is
necessary to appreciate some economic and cultural factors peculiar to those
countries. Levels of education and affluence, for example, are known to have
an impact because birth rates are usually lower in developed countries than
they are in less developed countries. Birth rates are higher in countries where
children are a necessary part of the family labour force. Families are more
likely to have children if the children are needed to work the farm. This factor
may be relevant also to the observation that countries which have higher
levels of urbanisation tend to have lower birth rates. Another factor relevant in
developed countries seems to be the high cost of educating and raising
children. In countries where education is valued and costs are high, families
tend to restrict the number of children that they have.
Sometimes, however, you may have to focus on the various effects (results or
consequences) of an event or situation, and you might structure your paragraph
in this way:
Topic sentence Describes the cause and effect relationship
Support sentences Describe each of the effects of the cause

(optional)
Figure 6: Organisation of cause/effect paragraph with focus on effects
Example paragraph that describes a series of effects
When tropical rainforest is eradicated much more than just trees are lost and
in time the entire eco-system is destroyed. Countless animal and plant species
must either adapt to their dramatic new environments or perish. Human popu-
lations are displaced and their cultures and sources of livelihood are disrupted
or lost. Fragile, tropical soils become infertile and prone to erosion which can
cause widespread damage. Regulated stream flows are replaced by alternating
foods and droughts. When deforestation is extensive local climate may become
drier; valuable sources of timber, food crops, medicine, and industrial goods
are lost. These losses in turn can contribute to a range of social, economic
and political problems.
(Source of paragraphs: Unilearn 1996. Academic literacy skills: a guide to successful essay writing.)

Cause and effect paragraphs can be represented in flow charts. We will use the
'Causes' paragraph, on the previous page, as an example:
Flow chart
Children necessary
part of workforce
Low levels Low cost

of High of
education/ birth educating/
affluence rates raising
children
Low levels of
urbanisation
Figure 7: Cause and effect flow chart
Other organising patterns
Other common forms of organising information in paragraphs include:
• general to specific
• problem and solution
• claim and evidence
• claim and counter-claim
• chronological (time)
• most important to least important

Look for examples of these organisational patterns as you read.

Activity 9.2: Organising paragraphs
1. Read the following text. It classifies and compares types of bilingualism.

Types of bilingualism
Researchers have identified two main types of bilingualism. These types are 'co-
ordinate' and 'compound'. The differences between these types are believed to
result from the way in which the languages had been learned.
In coordinate bilingualism, the person learns the languages in separate environ-

ments. The words in each language are kept separate by the brain, and each
word has its own specific meaning. An example would be a person who learned
Chinese at home and English at school. Because the languages were learned in
different environments, it is believed that the brain organises and stores each
language separately. This would mean that the Chinese word jia would have one
meaning, and the English word home its own meaning.
By contrast, in compound bilingualism, the person learns and uses two languages
in the same environment, so the brain does not represent or store the languages
separately. Thus, a child who learned both English and Chinese in the home would
give words a common meaning. The English home and the Chinese jia would be
represented by the brain in the same way. Although there are two labels, English
and a Chinese one, the concept would be the same.
According to this interpretation, for compound bilinguals the languages are inter-
dependent, whereas for coordinate bilinguals the languages are independent. The
compound bilingual has one set of meanings but two sets of words. The coordinate
bilingual has two sets of meanings and two sets of words.
2. Look at how the bilingualism text has been represented in the table below.
Study the table carefully and then reread the bilingualism text.
Type of bilingualism
Features
Coordinate Compound
Context where Different Same

language is learned
Example of context Chinese at home, English Chinese and English at

at school home
Word meanings Specific to each language Common
Word examples jia, home jia, home
How meanings are Two sets of meanings, two One set of meanings, two
stored in brain set of words sets of words s
Figure 8: Break down of bilingualism text

3. In your own words and without looking back again at the original text, write
a paragraph which classifies and compares types of bilingualism based on
the information in the table. (You needn’t include all the information. The
main aim is to construct a clear, well-organised paragraph.)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Cohesion
When sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly from one to another, they are
said to have cohesion. Cohesion can be improved by strengthening the ties
between pieces of information or ideas.
There are a number of ways to strengthen ties in a text, we will explore two:
• Connective words (conjunctions and transition signals)
• Pronoun reference

Connective words
Connective words are those words that signal changes and movements in the
text to the reader. Connective words include both conjunctions and transition
signals. These words signal the logical relationships between ideas in a text so
that the reader can easily understand the relationship between the parts of a text.
The effectiveness of a text is increased if the logical relationships that exist
• between clauses within a sentence
• between sentences
• between paragraphs
are highlighted through the use of conjunctions and transition signals. (For
information on the role of connective words in academic argument, see Chapter
8, Academic argument and evidence.)
Both conjunctions and transition signals serve the same function; however, they
do so in different situations.
Conjunctions are words that are used within sentences to join clauses or
parts of a sentence together
Transition signals are used to join sentences, idea groups and paragraphs
together.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that are used within sentences to join clauses or parts of
a sentence together.
Below is a list of conjunctions you can use in your writing; it is not exhaustive - but
it should give you a few ideas.
Function Conjunction
Adding information and or
Contrasting information but even though

yet while
although whereas
despite
Comparing information and as

like both...and
Ordering information after since

chronologically before when
Causational/reasoning because now that

as for
since then
Conditional if in case
unless provided that
Concluding information so
Figure 9: Conjunctions and their functions
Remember, conjunctions that share the same functional category are not neces-
sarily interchangeable. Check a grammar handbook for more detailed information
about how to use a particular conjunction.

Activity 9.3: Using conjunctions

Read the sentences below. Then choose an appropriate conjunction to complete
each sentence. There may be more than one correct answer.
1. Peter enjoyed the course _____________ he felt uneasy about the test.
(and despite yet unless although)
2. Salmon fisheries have succeeded _______________ the underwater

(after if as but because)
geography ensures fish are plentiful in the region.
3. There are many users of this kind of accounting information,

_________________ trade unions and customers.
(now that such as however for example for)
4. This method of extraction is used by chemical companies

_______________ mineral mining companies.
(and provided that in addition to like or)
5. Inflation and unemployment have reached their lowest levels in a decade

____________ of the booming export sector.
(whereas like since as a result because)
Transition signals
Transition signals are used to join sentences, idea groups and paragraphs together.
Use these expressions carefully – be sure the one you choose has a function that
is appropriate to your meaning. And be wary of overuse!
Again, this isn’t an exhaustive list, but it will give you a good start.

Transition signals
Function Transition signal

Adding information in addition besides
additionally in fact
moreover also
furthermore and
Contrasting information on the other hand however

in contrast on the contrary
nevertheless by comparison
Comparing information similarly also
Ordering information after that firstly

chronologically before that secondly
then lastly
at first eventually
since then gradually
next finally
previously thereafter
formerly subsequently
Causational/resultative as a result thus

as a consequence hence
consequently accordingly
therefore since
Conditional otherwise indeed
Concluding information in conclusion finally

in summary in short
Exemplifying information for example for instance

in other words that is
such as to illustrate
Figure 10: Transition signals and their functions

(Sources:
Ascher, A 1993, Think About Editing: A Grammar Editing Guide for ESL Writers, Heinle & Heinle
Publishers: Boston.
Oshima, A & Hogue, A 1991, Writing Academic English, 2nd edn, Addison Wesley: California.)

Activity 9.4: Using connective words
Underline any connective words (conjunctions and transition signals) that you find
in the following passage on nursing skills. Using terms from the table on the
previous page, describe the function of these connective words.
Fox's argument seems valid: appropriate feeding and hydration are essential
to the provision of adequate patient care. However, the author fails to
acknowledge the excessive demands placed on nurses and the potential
usefulness of nursing assistants. In addition, the evidence used in this article
is anecdotal and the language is highly emotive.
Ideally, nurses would always use their knowledge and skills in attending to
patients' dietary needs and they would use feeding times to intervene and
refer as appropriate; however, this is not always possible. Nurses in many
hospitals are required to perform the jobs of more than one person due to
understaffing. Therefore, they do not have enough time to personally feed
every patient and to monitor the patient while doing this. As a result, feeding
duties may have to be handed to untrained assistants. Fox fails to acknow-
ledge this fact.

Pronoun reference
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. We use pronouns to avoid
specifying or repeating information that is already clear. If we do not refer to
information clearly and consistently throughout the text, the thread of the meaning
is lost and the 'chain' is broken. This can result in the reader of your text being
unsure of the point you are making or being unable to follow your argument.
When using pronouns, therefore, it is important to use them consistently, as it will
not only strengthen the ties between bits of information, but it will also help the
reader to understand the connections between ideas clearly.
Recognising pronouns
Pronouns are words like I, me, this, those, everybody, nobody, each other, who,
which. Many of them act as substitutes or 'replacements' for nouns or noun
phrases in the context. A singular noun phrase is replaced by a singular pronoun,
and a plural noun phrase is replaced by a plural noun. For example:
[A] What sort of car is this? [B] It's a convertible hatchback.
[A] What cars are those? [B] They're station wagons.
Pronoun types and their uses
Pronouns take many forms and have many different uses. We will look at four:
personal, quantifier, demonstrative and relative pronouns.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are classified according to
• person: 1st, 2nd, 3rd person
• number: singular, plural
• gender: masculine, feminine, non-personal
• case: subjective, objective, possessive

Subjective case Objective case Possessives
singular plural singular plural singular plural
1st person I we me us my/mine our/ours
2nd person you you you you your/yours your/yours
3rd person he they him them his their/theirs

she they her them her/hers their/theirs
it they it them its their/theirs
Figure 11: Personal pronouns
The choice of person, number and gender is decided by meaning, which is supplied
either by the context outside the language, as in the example on the previous
page, or by the noun phrase to which the pronoun refers. Pronouns, generally,
point back to a noun or noun phrase, for example:
A lot of unnecessary worry can affect your work. It can also make you ill.
Quantifier pronouns
Quantifier pronouns represent quantity or amount either in a specific or non-specific

way. Again, the choice of number is consistent with the context or noun/noun
phrase to which the pronoun refers. In the example below, the quantifier refers to a
non-specific element outside the text:
As someone said, one goes into academic life because one can't stand
office hours.
Some of the more common quantifiers are listed below:
Singular only Singular or plural Plural only
everyone / everybody all both
anyone / anybody any few
someone / somebody some several
no one / nobody none many
each / much / one more -----
either / neither most -----

Figure 12: Quantifier pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to things They express contrast between
what is 'near' and what is 'distant', whether in space, time or emotional distance,
in terms of the speaker and listener. For example:
[shop assistant referring to two sets of earrings, one of which she is
holding (these) and another set which a customer is holding (those)]
Why don't you take these? Those look far too large.
Singular Plural Speaker Listener

reference reference oriented oriented
this these this that

that those these those
Figure 13: Demonstrative pronouns
Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns (see Figure 14 below) link different types of sub clauses to the
main clause. This linking is achieved by means of pointing back to the noun/noun
phrase immediately before:
The lecturer who teaches physics is American.

The choice of relative pronoun depends on whether the reference is to:
• a person, animal or thing (personal/non-personal)

• a subject or an object
• possessive meaning
personal non-personal
subjective who, that

which, that
objective who(m), that
possessive whose of which, whose

Figure 14: Relative pronouns

Activity 9.5: Identifying pronouns
Read the following paragraph. Then, underline the pronouns and specify each
pronoun's type.
Dave brought me a chart clipped from his evening newspaper. It showed
the responses of American executives to the question, "How many hours
should there be in an average workday?" The majority of the executives
interviewed favoured the status quo: 57 percent of them voted for the
eight-hour day. However, Dave was excited because 10 percent favoured
a seven-hour day. That was enough to get him started on a fantasy about
how fifty years from now everyone will consider an eight-hour day a violation
of human rights. But when I asked him to add up the numbers further down
the chart, he stopped gloating. A significant portion of the executives who
were polled – 11 percent of them, in fact – thought everyone should buckle
down to nine- and ten-hour workdays. Dave and I decided not to pay atten-
tion to the vote of anyone who could show such ignorance of human nature,
and we used the clipping to light our barbecue.
Finding a pronoun's antecedent
As we have seen, there are a number of ways you can use to refer back to the
subject within your text. For example, you can replace key subject words with
personal, demonstrative or relative pronouns. But in all cases, the pronoun pointing
back to the noun/noun phrase, or antecedent, must be clear and consistent.
An antecedent is the noun or noun phrase that comes before a pronoun and
establishes the pronoun's meaning. Consider these two examples:
There's gravy on the table. Please clean it up.
Mario and his friends are washing the dishes while they plan the bowling
tournament. That's almost too good to be true.
Without the antecedents (the words in italics), the pronouns (in bold) would have
no meaning. In the third sentence, the antecedent of that is the entire previous
sentence.

Activity 9.6: Identifying antecedents
Read the passage below. Then look at each numbered pronoun (in italics). Decide
what noun or group of nouns the pronoun is referring back to. Write this in the
space provided in the table below.
Each campus of UWS has its(1) own unique history and its (2) own atmos-
phere. Some campuses have large numbers of students enrolled, and they
(3) are vibrant and busy. Most students get attached to their (4) campus
and they (5) will try to study exclusively on that (6) campus. UWS has links
with universities in Asia, the Pacific, Europe and USA. These (7) provide a
range of study opportunities for both students and staff. Whenever
possible, we (8) encourage our (9) students to study overseas as part of
their (10) study program.
(1) its (6) that
(2) its (7) These
(3) they (8) we
(4) their (9) our
(5) they (10) their
Making pronoun references clear
Pronouns help to tie a text together by their referring back to something, but if the
reference point (antecedent) is unclear, it can make the text confusing to read. It
is important, therefore, that a pronoun should clearly refer to its antecedent rather
than be ambiguous or indefinite.
Ambiguous reference
This occurs when the pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents.
Ambiguous Clear
After the nurse and the patient have learned The patient will feel more confident making
to trust each other, she will feel more conf- difficult decisions after she has learned to
dent making difficult decisions. trust the nurse.
In the ambiguous sentence, the pronoun she could refer either to the nurse or to
the patient. The reference has been made clear by restructuring the sentence.

Indefinite reference
Indefinite reference most often occurs with the pronouns they, it, or you.
Indefinite Clear
A list of ways to save water during the The council has included a list of ways to
drought has been included with your water save water during the drought with your
bill. They suggest watering your garden water bill. They suggest watering your
before 8 a.m. or after 8 p.m. garden before 8 a.m. or after 8 p.m.
In the indefinite sentence, there is no word for they to refer to. In the clear one,
the reference point for they is more specific, in that it was the council that sent
the list.
Finally, make sure the distance between the pronoun and its antecedent is kept
close to help avoid ambiguity in your writing.
(Sources:
Carter, R & McCarthy, M 2006, Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge University Press.
Leech, G & Svartvik, J 1994, A Communicative Grammar of English, 2nd edn, Longman Group:
London.)

Activity 9.7: Identifying and correcting problems with pronoun reference
Explain how the pronoun reference is ambiguous in the following sentences and
how it could be corrected.
1. When Gloria set the jug on the glass-topped table, it broke.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Tom told James that he had won the lottery.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. The experts they claim that time management and stress management are
important considerations when studying.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. In the encyclopaedia, it states that male moths can smell female moths
from several miles away.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Formal language
Formal language is used in most academic work. When you use it depends on
what your lecturer expects and what is appropriate for your task, topic and
audience. Generally, you would use formal language in essays, reviews and
reports, but for tutorial participation, oral presentation and reflective journal
writing, you would use a more informal language and writing style.
As a rule, formal language is appropriate in situations where:
• the relationship between the speaker or writer, and the audience is distant
rather than close (e.g. a public lecture, an undergraduate essay)
• the topic is technical.

When in doubt about the formality of a situation, check with your lecturer and read
your unit outline for feedback or advice.
Guidelines for writing in a formal academic style

In order to achieve a formal academic style of writing:
• use the specialised vocabulary/technical terms of your discipline rather

than everyday terms
• use 'scholarly' rather than everyday vocabulary
• use formal rather than conversational language.

Specialised vocabulary
Academic writing often uses specialised words or phrases. These are often
'technical' words that have no 'everyday' equivalent, because they refer to technical
objects or procedures, or because they describe abstract concepts of a particular
field. For example:
The main functions of the circulatory system are to carry oxygen and nutriments to
the tissues and to carry away carbon dioxide and other waste products produced
by the metabolic processes in the cells.
A specialised dictionary, such as a dictionary of nursing, sociology, linguistics or

law, can be very helpful in clarifying these technical or abstract meanings.
One of the dangers of writing in an academic style is the overuse of 'big' words to
impress the reader. This can get in the way of your message being clearly under-
stood. Aim to write clearly by using simple language to express complex or deep
ideas, and incorporate specialised vocabulary where you need to.
Scholarly vocabulary
Formal academic writing also involves using 'scholarly' rather than everyday
vocabulary. Look at the following text.
A baby who won't stop crying can drive anyone to despair. You feed him, you
change him, you nurse him, you try to settle him, but the minute you put him down
he starts to howl. Why? The most common reason baby cries is hunger. Even if
he was just recently fed he might still be adapting to the pattern of sucking until
his tummy is full and feeling good until it empties again. When he was in the
womb, nourishment came automatically and constantly. Offer food first; if he turns
away from the nipple or teat you can assume it's something else. It happens that
babies go through grumpy, miserable stages when they just want to tell everyone
how bad they feel. Perhaps his digestion feels uncomfortable or his limbs are
twitching. If you can't find any specific source of discomfort such as a wet nappy
or strong light in his eyes, that's okay, he might simply be having a grizzle.
Perhaps he's just lonely.
Figure 15: Crying babies text

(Source adapted from: Eggins, S. 1994, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, 2nd
edn, Continuum: London.
In the above 'Crying babies' text, there are a number of language features that
can be classed as too 'informal' for an academic text. Two of these are phrasal
verbs (e.g. put down, turn away) and imprecise descriptors (e.g. good, bad).

Phrasal verbs
English often has two (or more) choices to express an action or occurrence. The
choice is often between a phrasal verb and a single verb. Often in lectures and
other instances of everyday spoken English, a phrasal verb is used. However, for
written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible; in
particular, one that conveys a precise meaning. Compare:
• Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault (less formal
style).
• Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault (more

academic style).
Imprecise descriptors
English has a very rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of
this, there may be more than one way to express an idea. For an academic writing
style, you should choose words that are more formal and precise.
Activity 9.8: Choosing vocabulary that is more formal and precise
Which of the italicised words in the following sentences would be more suitable
for an academic paper?
a. The government has made good / considerable progress in addressing
some of the current environmental issues.
b. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
c. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen / consequences if the
process is automated.
Supply a more academic word or phrase for the one italicised in each sentence.
d. The reaction of the officials was sort of negative.
e. The economic outlook is great.
f. One of the bad points about such drugs is the possibility of uncomfortable
side effects.

Formal forms
In order to achieve a more academic or 'authoritative' writing style you should use
formal forms rather than everyday conversational forms. Look at the 'Crying
babies' text again (page 27) and notice the less formal elements. These include:
• contractions (won't, can't, he's, it's)
• colloquial vocabulary and idioms (tummy, drive anyone to despair)
• personal language (You feed him, you change him ...)

• gender specific language (refers to babies in general as 'he' or 'him')
• rhetorical questions (Why?)
• conversational intensifiers (just, simply) and expressions of judgement (okay).

However, in academic writing you should avoid these conversational forms and
use more formal ones. The following are some recommendations for maintaining
a formal academic writing style.
• Do not use contractions or abbreviations
Contracted forms of words are acceptable in a spoken formal presentation

but never in formal writing. Instead you should use full forms of words.
Compare the example informal sentences (below) containing contracted
and abbreviated words with the more formal ones:
Informal: Export figures won't improve until the economy is stronger.
Formal: Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger.
Informal: Integrated circuits are used in computers, TVs, digital cameras, etc.
Formal: Integrated circuits are used in all electronic devices, including

computers, televisions and digital cameras.

• Do not use colloquial vocabulary and idioms
Slang or colloquial words/phrases (such as bloke, kid, lots of) and expres-
sions should be avoided in formal academic writing. Instead use neutral,
categorical terms (such as man / person, child) or more formal alternatives
(such as many or a large number of). Compare the example informal sent-
ences (below) containing colloquial vocabulary and idiomatic expressions
with the formal ones:
Informal: The future of the Federal funding is up in the air.
Formal: The future of the Federal funding is uncertain.
Informal: By and large, despite all the hype, the policy remains unchanged.
Formal: Overall, despite all the publicity, the policy remains unchanged.
• Avoid personal language

Another characteristic of academic writing is objectivity. The idea behind
objectivity is to focus on the information itself rather than on the writer or
the reader of the information. For this reason, most academic assignments
are written in an impersonal manner that is using the third person pronoun
(it, they). This achieves distance because you are writing about something
or someone not to them.
Where the focus is on information or issues, your lecturer may not expect
you to be a participant in the text. So, avoid the first pronoun I, we, us.
Your lecturer probably does not expect to be included in the text either. So,
avoid the second person pronoun you. For example:
Personal (writer focus) Impersonal
We have a great deal of air pollution from Sydney has a great deal of pollution from cars.
cars in Sydney.
There is a great deal of air pollution from
cars in Sydney.
Personal (reader focus) Impersonal
If you smoke while you are pregnant, you Smoking during pregnancy may be harmful
may harm your baby. to the foetus.
A foetus may be harmed if the mother

smokes during pregnancy.

Figure 16: Comparison of personal and impersonal language
Whether and when you can write from a personal perspective can be tricky.
On the one hand, your views may not be explicitly wanted, such as in
essays where an I believe ... or an I think ... sort of statement is usually
inappropriate. On the other hand, your views about what you think and feel
or may have observed or learnt, such as in reflective journals, writing from
a personal perspective is essential.
If you are not sure about whether it is appropriate to use I think ... sort of
opinion words, there are alternatives. Sometimes, you can just leave out
such words. For example, instead of writing I think teachers should give
positive feedback, you could write Teachers should give positive feedback'.
Alternatively, in an essay introduction, you can foreground your sentence
with a noun/noun phrase or third person pronoun. For example, instead of
writing I will argue that …, write This essay argues that or It will be argued
that … Correspondingly, in an essay conclusion, instead of writing I have
focussed on … you can write In this essay, the focus has been on ...
Remember, if in doubt, you can ask your lecturers or tutors what they
expect. You can also read academic texts in journals to help you know
what kinds of personal language are used by others.
• Avoid gender specific language
Students need to avoid gender specific language in their choice of words, as

this is unacceptable in academic writing. One way to eliminate gender bias
is to avoid using the words he or she, and his or her where the person is
referred to in general terms. For example, instead of writing 'The lecturer
will explain to his students ...', you could write 'The lecturer will explain to
his or her students ...', but this is rather awkward. Better to use the plural
form: 'The lecturer will explain to their students', or rephrase the sentence:
'The lecturer will explain the procedure to students'.
Another way to eliminate gender specific language is to use non-discriminatory
words such as supervisor for foreman, or police officer for policewoman.
You can find extensive listings of these gender-neutral words in various style
manuals (go to the library for these) or on the Internet.
• Avoid the rhetorical question form
Disciplines and departments will vary in the extent to which rhetorical

questions are an acceptable way to raise issues. While they are accept-
able in a spoken academic presentation (as a form of rhetoric to include
the audience), they should be avoided in a formal written text.

• Avoid conversational intensifiers and expressions of judgement
While objectivity and formality is valued in much academic writing, your

values and assumptions can nevertheless be discerned by your 'value-
laden' words. These words can often reveal your bias without the explicit
identification of your personal point of view. For example, you can choose
to make your judgement or bias clear when describing your position on an
issue or theory by using terms such as clearly or obviously, must or
should. However, conversational intensifiers and/or expressions of
judgement are inappropriate; for example:
Surely, it can be concluded that the model operates with a laughable
definition of culture.
These methods of helping patients seem alright but they just have not
been tested properly.
(Sources adapted from:
nd
Morley-Warner, T 2001, Academic writing is ..., 2 edn, CREA Publications: Sydney.
Swales, J M & Feak, C B, 1994, Academic writing for graduate students: A course for nonnative
speakers of English, University of Michigan Press: USA.
Webb, C 1992, Writing in an academic style, Learning Assistance Centre, University of Sydney.)

Activity 9.9: Using formal style
Look at the example paragraph below The informal language and opinion phrases
have been underlined. Following this is a rewritten paragraph in a more formal style.
Example paragraph:
I think - and I know most Australians agree with me - the USA influences
us too much. I mean, look at things like kids wearing baseball hats back to
front, eating McDonalds, and drinking coke; watching American movies;
using American slang like 'dude' or 'guy' instead of 'bloke' or 'cobber'; and
listening to American music. What's wrong with Aussie stuff? We might as
well sign up to be the 51st state.
Rewritten version:
The influence of American culture on Australia is immense and it is undes-

irable. Take, for example, the baseball hat worn back to front, the proliferation
of fast food restaurants like McDonalds', and the domination of the beverage
market by Coca Cola provide unavoidable everyday examples. Also,
American slang words, such as 'dude' and 'guys', have largely replaced
their Australian counterparts, 'bloke' and 'cobber', at least among younger
Australians. Furthermore, American singers and entertainers dominate radio
station play lists and music video shows on television. These inroads into
Australian culture and language, arguably, amount to an American imperialism,
or a de facto recruitment of Australia into a worldwide American culture.
1. In the paragraph below, underline the informal language and opinion phrases.
In my opinion, adults think differently from children. Lots of theorists agree

with me. One of these is Jack Mezirow. He says that adults are more
critical than children and adolescents, i.e. they start to question the things
they used to believe. Lots of others say that adults think in ways that are
different from children. What they seem to be saying is that adults don't
just follow a sort of formal logic. What they really do is adjust the way they
think and behave to different situations. They are flexible.

2. In the space provided, rewrite the paragraph in a more formal academic style.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(Adapted from S. Brookfield, 1995, Becoming a critically reflective teacher, Jossey-Bass: San
Francisco, p. 220)
In conclusion…
Becoming familiar with the language characteristics that distinguish academic

writing from other forms will help you produce the quality of writing expected at
university.
One such characteristic is clearly organised paragraphs. Paragraphs can be
developed in a variety of ways, depending on the writing task and your purpose.
Another is cohesion. Cohesion is when your writing expresses ideas clearly and
logically through various devices including connectives and pronoun references.
Using these devices will help you to create writing that is effective.
Finally, most academic writing employs formal language, although not all assign-
ments will require the same level of formality. Check with your lecturer or tutor to
find out their preference for each assignment.

Activity 9.1: Topic sentences
Paragraph 1 c)
Paragraph 2 b)
Paragraph 3 a)
Activity 9.2: Organising paragraphs
Sample answer ONLY. Many other versions possible.

According to researchers, there are two distinct types of bilingualism, with
the differences arising from the context in which the languages are learned.
The two types are coordinate and compound bilingualism. In coordinate
bilingualism, the learner acquires the two languages in separate contexts,
for example Chinese at home and English at school. The word meanings
are specific to each language, so that there are two sets of meanings and
two sets of words. In contrast, the compound bilingual learner acquires
both languages in the one context, which results in there being common
meanings for concepts, even though there are two different labels for each
concept. The compound bilingual thus has one set of meanings and two
sets of words.
Activity 9.3: Using conjunctions

1. although
2. because
3. such as, for example
4. and, in addition to
5. as a result, because

Activity 9.4: Using connective words
Fox's argument seems valid: appropriate feeding and hydration are essential contrasting
to the provision of adequate patient care. However, the author fails to information
acknowledge the excessive demands placed on nurses and the potential
adding
usefulness of nursing assistants. In addition, the evidence used in this article information
is anecdotal and the language is highly emotive.
Ideally, nurses would always use their knowledge and skills in attending to
adding
patients' dietary needs and they would use feeding times to intervene and information
contrasting
information refer as appropriate; however, this is not always possible. Nurses in many
hospitals are required to perform the jobs of more than one person due to
understaffing. Therefore they do not have enough time to personally feed resultative/
every patient and to monitor the patient while doing this. As a result, causational
feeding duties may have to be handed to untrained assistants. Fox fails to
acknowledge this fact.
Activity 9.5: Identifying pronouns
P = personal Q = quantifier D = demonstrative R = relative

Dave brought me (P) a chart clipped from his (P) evening newspaper. It (P)
showed the responses of American executives to the question, "How many
hours should there be in an average workday?" The majority of the executives
interviewed favoured the status quo: 57 percent of them (P) voted for the
eight-hour day. However, Dave was excited because 10 percent favoured
a seven-hour day. That (D) was enough to get him (P) started on a fantasy
about how fifty years from now everyone (Q) will consider an eight-hour
day a violation of human rights. But when I (P) asked him (P) to add up the
numbers further down the chart, he (P) stopped gloating. A significant portion
of the executives who (R) were polled – 11 percent of them (P), in fact –
thought everyone (Q) should buckle down to nine- and ten-hour workdays.
Dave and I (P) decided not to pay attention to the vote of anyone (Q) who
could show such ignorance of human nature, and we (P) used the clipping
to light our (P) barbecue.
Activity 9.6: Identifying antecedents
(1) its each campus (6) that the campus they study on
(2) its each campus (7) These the links with other unis
(3) they some campuses (8) we university staff
(4) their most students (9) our UWS students
(5) they the students (10) their UWS students

Activity 9.7: Identifying and correcting problems with pronoun reference
1. It could refer to either the jug or the glass-topped table. Rewritten version
might be:
The glass-topped table broke when Gloria set the pitcher on it.
2. He could refer to either Tom or James. Rewritten version might be:
After Tom won the lottery, he told James about it.
3. They is superfluous to this sentence. Only one subject (The experts) is
needed per clause. Rewritten version might be:
The experts claim that time management and stress management are
important considerations when studying.
4. It (states that) adds unnecessary words. Although grammatically correct,
the sentence is clumsy. A more refined version might be:
According to the encyclopaedia, male moths can smell female moths
from several miles away.
Activity 9.8: Choosing vocabulary that is more formal and precise
a. The government has made good / considerable progress in addressing

some of the current environmental issues.
b. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
c. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen / consequences if the
process is automated.
The given words below are example answers only. Others are possible.
d. The reaction of the officials was fairly negative.
e. The economic outlook is positive.
f. One of the disadvantages about such drugs is the possibility of
uncomfortable side effects.
Activity 9.9: Using a formal style
1. Underline informal language and opinion phrases.

In my opinion, adults think differently from children. Lots of theorists agree
with me. One of these is Jack Mezirow. He says that adults are more critical
than children and adolescents, i.e. they start to question the things they used
to believe. Lots of others say that adults think in ways that are different from
children. What they seem to be saying is that adults don't just follow a sort of
formal logic. What they really do is adjust the way they think and behave to
different situations. They are flexible.

Chapter 10
Grammar in academic writing
Introduction
When thinking about academic writing, students often ask, which is more important
– having good ideas or having good grammar? Or, to put it another way, which
will cost you more marks – poor ideas or poor grammar?
The answer to these questions is that both are important. It is impossible to separate
the content of your writing (your ideas) from the words and structures you use to
communicate it (your grammar). If you have the most insightful, original ideas, but
you do not communicate them clearly and appropriately, your writing will not be
successful. Conversely, if you write a grammatically perfect essay, but have nothing
interesting or useful to say, you will most likely not have answered the task.
Even though these two things – good ideas and appropriate grammar – are equally
important, it is possible to deal with them at different stages of the writing process.
Because the issues surrounding structure and the organisation of ideas deal with
large chunks of text (and can require a great deal of moving things around and
rewriting), it is usually best to begin considering these as early in the writing
process as possible.
Grammar, on the other hand, is more concerned with what is happening at the
sentence level. Often, these problems are more easily identifiable (by having
someone proofread your writing, for example), and can be repaired by changing
or moving a few words. Because these changes can be made fairly quickly and
will affect a relatively small amount of text, it may be better to think about them
later in the writing process.
In this chapter, we will look at several two main areas of grammar that affect
academic writing:
• Sentence construction
• Agreement and consistency

After you have finished working through this chapter, you will be able to:
• Define key grammatical terms that will help you improve your writing
• Identify and correct structural problems within your sentences
• Identify and correct problems with unnecessary shifts inside your sentences.

Grammatical terms
The grammar of any language simply refers to the way we put words together to
create meaningful sentences, both when we speak and when we write.
Grammar tells us how to create meaningful messages out of strings of words like:
successful the is writing practice key to
the respect and teacher mutual classroom in both students expect
Knowing the grammar of English means we are able to reorder these meaningless
strings of words into a meaningful sentences like:
Practice is the key to successful writing.
Teacher and students both expect mutual respect in the classroom.
What this means is that you understand more about grammar than you may think
you do. If you are able to communicate with another person, you are using
grammar, and using it successfully.
A great deal of the knowledge most of us have about grammar, however, relies
on how we use it, rather than how we talk about it. In order for us to examine the
role of grammar in academic writing, we need to agree on some terms we can
use to talk about it.

The table below lists some common grammatical terms, their meanings and some
examples.
Grammatical Meaning Example

term
Noun A word that identifies a person, My car is old.
thing or concept
Her thoughtfulness was much
appreciated by all.
Verb A word (or words) that tells us I read my notes every night.
what happens in a situation (a
doing, being, or behaving word) The botanist has written a
fascinating book about moss.
Adjective A word that tells us more about a We looked up at the black sky.
thing (e.g. its colour, appearance,
or quality) It's a difficult and complex idea.
Adverb A word that modifies a verb or an I wrote quickly.

adjective
The project was financially viable.
Preposition A word that precedes a noun They were spotted at the park.
group and tells us where, when or
how, what, for how long, etc. Things changed after they left.
Conjunction A word that joins bits of language It was windy and rainy all day.
together
The soil erosion was severe.
Consequently, the pasture was
of poor quality.
Determiner A word in front of a noun that a/the long day

indicates whether it is definite,
indefinite, a number or quantity much evidence
Subject A noun or noun phrase (usually) Bob played his harmonica.

that refers to who or what does
the action Sustainable projects are a priority.
Phrase A group of words that make up A group of words

different elements of a sentence
They retrieved the data from the
hard drive
Clause A group of words containing (at Before his guests arrived, Tom
least) a subject and a verb. had a sherry.
Sentence A group of words that contains a Before his guests arrived, Tom
subject and a verb, begins with a had a sherry.
capital letter and ends with a full
stop, and is a complete idea
Figure 46: Common grammatical terms

Activity 10.1: Identifying subjects and verbs:
In each of the sentences below, underline the subject and circle the verb. The first
sentence has been done for you.
Note, sentences 8 – 10 have two clauses. The clause break is indicated by //.
Mark the subject and verb in both clauses.
Remember that a subject can be made up of other constituents other than a noun
or noun phrase.
1. Another important issue is the location of the house.

Another important issue is the location of the house.
2. Examinations are stressful for most students.
3. A new edition of the book is expected within a month.
4. Understanding the topic from a variety of perspectives is one aspect of

critical thinking.
5. Justifications for the project are few indeed.
6. Always successful yet sometimes controversial, the 2006 Sculpture by the

Sea exhibition will run for two weeks in November.
7. Students with high aptitude need designated time to work at their own level.
8. It loses some points for the visuals, // but overall the movie is cute and funny.
9. Today, accountants do not have a shared world view, // but they do have a
common code of ethics.
10. An ecological perspective brings out aspects of social and political rights, //
which the liberal paradigm has neglected (Pezzoli, 1997, p.557).

Sentence construction
In this section, we’ll consider several aspects of sentence construction. First, we’ll
explain the role of punctuation in grammar and sentence construction and why it
is important. Then, we will look at the different types of punctuation errors that
result in:
• Ambiguous meanings
• Run-on and fused sentences
• Sentence fragments
Along the way, we’ll establish how different kinds of clauses relate to each other.
Finally, we’ll go through some basic rules you can use to punctuate sentences.
The role of punctuation

When we speak, we use things like tone of voice or pauses to group words and
ideas to organise our communication. In written communication, punctuation
plays this role.
Simply put, punctuation can not only group written strings of words, but it can also
alter greatly the meaning of a sentence.
Lynne Truss, in her book Eats, Shoots and Leaves (2003), recounts a story of a
panda going into a café and ordering food. After having eaten and on his way out,
the panda fires two shots into the air inside the café. He is challenged by a waiter
who asks why he has endangered the lives of the customers. The panda tosses
him a wildlife manual and tells him to look it up. The waiter turns to the entry on
the Panda and discovers this badly punctuated entry:
‘Panda: large black and white bear like mammal, native to China. Eats,
shoots and leaves’.

Comma misuse creating ambiguity

The misuse of punctuation can cause a sentence to be interpreted in ways you
did not intend and can result in sentences in which the meaning is not clear.
These types of punctuation errors are usually to do with the comma usage.
The following sentence can be interpreted differently, depending on whether
commas are used or not. Its meaning is ambiguous.
Ambiguous Clear
Books, which are unavailable in the Books which are unavailable in the library
library, will be removed from the will be removed from the reading list.
reading list.
Figure 47: Ambiguity with comma usage
In the ambiguous sentence, the presence of the two commas suggests that all
books will be removed from the reading list. In the clear sentence, we understand
that it is only the unavailable books that will be removed from the reading list. So:
• where information is nonessential to the preceding word, commas are used.
• where information is necessary to define (or limit) the preceding word,

commas are not used.

Activity 10.2: Clarifying ambiguous meanings
Describe ways in which the meaning of the following sentences can be changed
when you add commas:
1. Parents who have tickets will be admitted to the concert.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Taxis which carry more than one passenger can use bus-only lanes.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
In the following sentence, the meaning is unclear without a comma.
Unclear Clear
When we finished eating the dog When we finished eating, the dog
barked. barked.
Figure 48: Clarifying meanings with commas
The meaning becomes clear when the comma is inserted after 'eating'. We
understand that 'we' is not eating the 'dog'.
In a sentence, we use commas after introductory ideas. These ideas can function
as adverbs. In other words, they tell you when, where, how, or why the main event
in the sentence occurred. Placing a comma after the introductory idea tells readers
that the opening phrase has come to a close and the main part of the sentence is
about to begin. Also, these clauses or phrases can be used as adjectives to des-
cribe the noun that is immediately following. In this case, a comma tells the reader
that they are about to learn the identity of what is being described.

Activity 10.3: Using commas after introducing information
In the following sentences, decide where the comma should be placed. State,
also, whether the introductory idea is acting as an adverb or an adjective:
1. When Irwin was ready to eat his cat jumped onto the table.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Knowing that he would be late John called his friend and apologised.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Near a small stream at the bottom of the hill we discovered an abandoned

shelter.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. Because complex problems are often left for experts to solve practical and
commonsense solutions can be overlooked.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Punctuation in sentence construction

In the previous section, we looked at punctuation and unclear meanings. In the
next two sections – Run-on sentences and Sentence fragments – we will be
dealing with punctuation in sentence construction. But first, we'll review some
useful terms.
Overview of phrases, clauses and sentences

When we talk about how words are grouped together, there are three main
groupings to consider - phrase, clause and sentence.
Phrase a group of words that acts as a building block for a clause or
a sentence, each group having its own function:
on to the platform
at ten fifty-five
Clause a group of words that acts as a building block for a sentence,
and contains (at least) a subject and verb:
When the train finally pulled into the station…
Sentence a group of words that consists of phrases and clauses,
contains both a subject and a verb, and expresses a
complete idea:
When the train finally pulled into the station, at ten
fifty five, all the passengers rushed on to the platform.
Generally speaking, we can say that all sentences are clauses, but not all clauses
are sentences.

The basic structure of clauses and sentences
A clause is a group of words that contains (at least) a subject and a verb. There
many types of clauses but the principal types are independent, dependent and
coordinate.
Independent clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete

thought. It can stand alone as a sentence, for example:
S V
He smiled.
People talk.
In addition to a subject and verb, most clauses also contain some of the following:
• one or more objects (which may be direct or indirect):

S V O
She wrote a book.
S V I. O. D. O.
She sent me the book.
• a complement (after verbs such as be, become, look, seem).

Complements provide some description or characteristic of the subject:
S V C
The book became a best seller.
• one or more adverbials (which give information about how, when, where,
why, who, how far, how long, what for, to what extent etc):
S V C A A
She is a student at UTS now.
S V A A
It rained steadily all day.
From these examples, you can see that the basic structure of clauses is:
S V (O) (C) (A)
NB: The brackets indicate that objects, complements and adverbials do not
occur in every clause.

A sentence consists of one or more clauses. A simple sentence contains only one
clause, which is independent (this is sometimes called the main clause).
Other sentences, such as complex, compound or compound complex sentences,
may contain an independent clause together with other clauses. The other clauses
fall into two main types: dependent and coordinate.
Dependent clauses
A dependent clause is one that depends on another. This dependence (or

unequal status) is set up by a subordinating conjunction such as when, while, if,
that or who at the beginning of the clause. (For further examples of these
conjunctions see Chapter 9, Features of academic writing.) A dependent clause
cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It must be together with, or form part
of, an independent clause.
Example complex sentence:
sentence
When you arrive at the airport, give me a call.
dependent clause independent clause

(or main clause)
Activity 10.4: Dependent or independent clause
Read the following clauses. State whether they dependent or independent.

1. On Sundays I read the newspaper in bed
2. After opening the window to let out a huge insect
3. During their long stints of flying

Coordinate clauses
Coordinate clauses are clauses that are attached to other clauses by one of the
coordinating conjunctions: and, or, but or yet. Coordinate clauses are of equal
status as the clauses they are attached to.
Example compound sentence:
sentence
Vitamins occur in all foods but no one food contains all the vitamins.
independent clause coordinate (independent) clause
Example compound complex sentence:

Tobacco smoke produces carbon monoxide,
independent clause sentence
which is a poison and which weakens the heart.
dependent clause coordinated (dependent) clause

(Source: Thompson, R A 2003, Sense and System in English sentences, Languagematters: NSW.

Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is a sentence which includes more than one complete idea: it
is a series of sentences that run together and are joined by commas instead of
full stops. For example:
The student needed help with her essay, she made an appointment
with her tutor.
The clauses that make up the above sentence are complete ideas. They should
stand as sentences on their own rather than being connected by a comma.
To repair this sentence, it can be repunctuated in three ways, by adding:
• a full stop to make the run on sentence a complete sentence by itself
• a conjunction
• a semicolon and a connecting word followed by a comma to separate the

two clauses.
For example:
Correction Sentence
* The student needed help with her essay.

Full stop
She made an appointment with her tutor.
The student needed help with her essay, so

Conjunction
she made an appointment with her tutor.
The student needed help with her essay;

Semicolon and connecting word consequently, she made an appointment with
her tutor.
Figure 4: Ways to correct run-on sentences
* These simple sentences show no relationship between the two ideas expressed
in each sentence. Showing relationships, as with the other two examples, is
valued in academic writing.

Fused sentences
Similar to run-on sentences, fused sentences are sentences with no punctuation

between them. Here is an example:
Consent must be voluntary that is consent must be freely given without any
coercion or pressure from anyone.
Fused sentences can be repunctuated in the same way as run-on sentences:
Correction Sentence
Consent must be voluntary. Consent must be

Full stop freely given without any coercion or pressure
from anyone.
Consent must be voluntary, and [it] must be

Conjunction freely given without any coercion or pressure
from anyone.
Consent must be voluntary; that is, consent

Semicolon and connecting word must be freely given without any coercion or
pressure from anyone.
Figure 5: Ways to correct fused sentences
Activity 10.5: Correcting run on and fused sentences
Using the methods described above, correct the following sentences.

1. Tell me what you eat, I will tell you what you are.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Each workshop will meet for one hour please register at the Student
Learning Unit office.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

3. Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations

environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. There is much evidence for global warming many refuse to acknowledge it.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Sentence fragments
Sentence fragments are strings of words that have been punctuated as a sentence
but they are not valid sentences. That is, they don't contain all the elements nec-
essary to create a sentence. Sentence fragments are usually incomplete ideas;
for example:
Although the composition of the student body has changed dramatically.
This sentence does not convey a complete idea. If these words were spoken to
you, you would expect the person to tell you the rest of the idea.
Compare the following sentence to the previous:
Although the composition of the student body has changed dramatically,
little variation in instructional techniques has been apparent in Australian
universities until recently.
Notice how this revised sentence presents a whole idea, made up of a supporting
idea (clause 1) attached to the main one (clause 2). Notice, also, how the word
'although', in the first clause, is putting a condition on the main clause. Therefore,
this first clause is a dependent clause, and, as we learned earlier, it can't stand
on its own. Instead, it depends on the main clause to complete its meaning.

Dependent clauses by themselves are sentence fragments. To correct sentence

fragments, you can turn them into complete sentences in the following ways:
1. Join a dependent clause to an independent clause (as above)
2. Remove the subordinating conjunction (e.g. although):
The composition of the student body has changed dramatically. Little
variation in instructional techniques has been apparent in Australian
universities until recently.
Activity 10.6: Correcting sentence fragments
Correct the following sentence fragments using the methods described above.
1. The population increased dramatically. Because of the growth of agriculture.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. In time, the cities became more crowded. Though many people remained
on farms.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Despite the efforts of the medical community. Overcrowding in the cities

provided opportunities for diseases to spread.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Activity 10.7: Consolidation – types of sentence errors
Read the following paragraph. Correct any sentence fragments, run-on or fused
sentences you may find:
The election campaign is in its final stages two candidates remain. A
Liberal victory would signal a continuation of the same basic policies, a
Labor victory would usher in a new era of social programs. Many of the
nation’s problems will persist in either case. Some would argue that a
spiritual change must occur before effective political change is possible.
Because political decisions will always reflect the people’s deeper systems
of values.
Punctuation overview
• Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction.

Example: I would like to read that book, but there are no copies in the
library.
• Use a semicolon before a connecting word and a comma after.

Example: Students have complained to the library; therefore, a copy
has been ordered.
• A semicolon alone can be used between two independent clauses.

Example: McNeil’s book is highly recommended by the lecturer; I need
to read it before I write my essay.
• A colon alone can be used between two independent clauses, usually

when the second explains or clarifies the first.
Example: The witness did not accurately report the events that had
occurred: this caused serious problems for the accused.

Apostrophes
Before moving on to other aspects of sentence construction, it is useful to consider
the correct use of apostrophes. The short section below only considers the
apostrophe in relation to ‘s’, as it is this usage that seems most problematic for
writers. The apostrophe has several uses:
• to show ownership or a relationship of some kind between two nouns
• to show that a word has been contracted.

Here are three short rules to keep in mind.
Rule 1
If the word is plural (and countable), and if the plural noun doesn't show
ownership or a relationship with another noun in the sentence, then you do not
need an apostrophe.
Example:
Most of the names of Australian opera singers are not well known within
Australia.
We can check whether an apostrophe is needed by testing if the words can be
counted: 1 name, 2 names etc; 1 opera singer, 2 opera singers etc. The same
test can be applied to the sentence below:
Works by Cossington Smith and Pisarro will be shown at the Art Gallery for
several months.
Once again the countable test applies. Works is a countable noun and has no
relationship with another noun, so no apostrophe is needed. Months is also a
countable noun, so no apostrophe is needed.

Rule 2
If the word can be expanded into two words, then you do need an apostrophe.
The apostrophe is used to show that something has been left out.
Examples:
It’s an interesting time in history. It is an interesting time in history.
Here, the apostrophe is needed to take the place of the missing 'i' in 'is'.
It’s got real potential. It has got real potential.
The shopping centre’s been re- The shopping centre has been
vamped in an attempt to attract revamped ...
more customers.
In both the above examples, the apostrophe is needed to take the place of the
missing 'ha' in 'has'.
Note: In academic writing, you should avoid contractions. Instead, write the
words in full. Contractions are used in spoken and informal writing situations (For
more information on formal academic writing style, see Chapter 9, Features of
academic writing).
Rule 3
If the word shows a relationship or has a sense of ownership between two nouns
then you do need an apostrophe. The apostrophe indicates this relationship or
ownership.
Examples:
Howard's government The government of Howard
The Department of Education's The current policy of the Department
current policy on homework of Education

Contraction or possessive pronoun – it's or its
Examples:
Contraction: It’s = it is It’s a great opportunity to prepare for university

study.
It's = it has It’s been a wonderful time of sharing dreams

and ambitions.
Possessive pronoun: Its The scarecrow lost its straw hat.

The government has developed some
controversial policies. Its chances of re-
election may be affected.
Figure 6: Identifying differences in meaning between it’s and its
Activity 10.8: Apostrophe usage
1. Add apostrophes, where needed, in the following sentences.

a. Everythings connected to everything else.
b. There are many environmental challenges facing the community
locally, nationally and globally.
c. There are three contrasting views about nature; natures fragile, natures
robust and natures robust within limits.
d. The business communitys been encouraged to donate goods and
services.
e. The boards chair is very experienced and brings wisdom and insight to
the position.
2. Discuss the differences in meaning with apostrophe usage of these two
sentences.
a. The school’s academic achievement was acknowledged by the Minister.
b. The schools’ academic achievements were acknowledged by the Minister.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Agreement and consistency
One important factor in constructing effective sentences is ensuring that they

have agreement and consistency. In this section, we will be considering the
following areas:
1. Subject/verb agreement
2. Consistency in point of view
3. Consistency in tense
4. Consistency in mood
Review of some grammatical terms
As we’ve explored in previous sections, there are two common characteristics

that a group of words must have to be called a sentence. A sentence must:
• have a subject and a verb
• express a complete thought.

Before exploring subject and verb agreement in sentences, we will review some
grammatical terms.
Subjects and verbs
Activity 10.9: Defining and identifying subjects and verbs
1. How would you describe a subject and a verb? What do they do in a

sentence?
A subject: ______________________________________________________
A verb: ______________________________________________________
2. In the paragraph on the following page, underline the subjects and circle
the verbs.
To help identify the subject, try asking yourself who or what is most closely
connected to the verb. For example:
The explosion caused a panic. What caused a panic? The explosion did.
People in hot climates like Who like driving air-conditioned cars?
driving air-conditioned cars. People in hot climates do.

A recent new theory about dreams has ignited the world’s scientific com-
munity. A simple new solution to the mystery of dreams has been proposed:
we dream to forget and our dreams are the dustbins of the mind. According
to the new theory, dreaming is a deliberate process of unlearning by which
humans clear the mind of unwanted problems.
Person and number
Other terms that will also be useful in this section are person and number.
Person, in grammatical terms, divides nouns and pronouns into three groups:
• first person the speaker or writer (I, me, we, us)
• second person the listener or reader (you)
• third person everybody else (he, him, she, her, it, they, Mr. Jones,
love, a peanut)
Number, as you might guess, refers to how many of a thing there are:
• singular (one)
• plural (many).
We use these terms to describe the form the verb takes. In the table below, the
verb to give illustrates these forms:
Singular Plural
First person I give we give
Second person you give you give
Third person he/she/it gives they give

Figure 7: Number and person agreement

Subject and verb agreement

A subject and verb are considered to be in agreement when they are consistent
both in person and in number. That is, if the subject is third person singular the
verb is singular as well. For example:
3rd person singular
Authentic learning relates theory to everyday issues and future concerns

Disagreement between a subject and verb is very distracting for your reader,
especially if it occurs frequently in a text. Fortunately, it’s quite easy to repair,
and, with practice, easy to spot.
A word of warning: Use your grammar checker very cautiously for subject and
verb agreement. These checkers cannot be relied on to
locate the true subject of a sentence. They tend to choose
the noun closest to the verb, which isn’t always the subject,
as we’ll soon see.
Subject and verb agreement guidelines
Following are some guidelines to help you to check for subject and verb agreement
in your sentences.
1. Make the verb agree with its subject, rather than with a word (or
words) that comes in between.
Most students can easily recognise verb agreement errors that have to do
with number (singular or plural) in short sentences. Mistakes tend to happen
in long sentences, especially when a phrase giving more information about
the subject appears between the subject and its verb:
Examples:
The tulips in the pot on the balcony need watering.
A set of golf clubs costs about eight hundred dollars.

Phrases beginning with the prepositions 'as well as', 'in addition to',
'accompanied by', 'together with', and 'along with' do not make a
singular subject plural.
Example:
The governor, as well as his press secretary, was shot.
Sometimes this additional information is a relative clause.

Example:
His arguments, which do not follow from a clearly stated thesis and
rarely lead to a logical conclusion, are unconvincing.
Remember, try to keep subjects and verbs close together in the sentence.
Example:
His arguments are unconvincing; they do not follow from any clearly
stated thesis and rarely lead to a logical conclusion.
Also, try stripping away the words between the subject and the verb to help
you isolate the word (or word group) that is the subject.
2. Treat most compound subjects connected by 'and' as plural.

A subject with two or more parts is said to be compound. If the parts are
connected by and, the subject is nearly always plural.
Example:
Policy and planning were often on the agenda.

When the parts of the subject form a single unit or when they refer to the
same person or thing, treat the subject as singular.
Example:
Strawberries and cream was a last minute addition to the menu.
Sue's friend and advisor was surprised by her decision.
When a compound subject is preceded by 'each' or 'every', treat the

subject as singular.
Example:
Each tree, shrub, and vine needs to be sprayed.
With compound subjects connected by 'or' or 'nor', make the verb agree
with the part of the subject nearer to the verb.
Examples:
A driving license or credit card is required.
Neither the children’s behaviour, nor the adults’ reactions were

appropriate.
3. Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular.

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific persons or things. Even though
the following quantifier pronouns may seem to have plural meanings, in
formal English, they are treated as singular:
anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither,
none, no one, someone, something.
Examples:
Everyone on the team supports the coach.
Each of the questions asked by the audience was answered.

A few quantifier pronouns - 'all', 'any', 'some' - may be singular or plural,

depending on the noun or pronoun they refer to.
Examples:
Some of the ideas presented by the group are highly original.
Some of the discussion was irrelevant.
4. Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows
the verb.
Verbs ordinarily follow subjects. When this order is reversed, sentences
beginning with ‘there is’ or ‘there are’ are inverted; that is, the subject
follows the verb.
Example:
There are surprisingly few new ideas in the whole thesis.

Occasionally you may decide to invert a sentence for variety or effect.
When you do, check to make sure that your subject and verb agree.
Example:
At the back of the room are a small aquarium and a birdcage.
5. Who, which, and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents.
An antecedent is the noun or noun phrase that pronouns (like who, which,
and that) refer back to.
Example:
Take a suit that travels well.

In this example, that is the pronoun, and suit is its antecedent (the word it
is referring to). Therefore, the verb travels must agree with suit.

Problems can arise with the constructions 'one of the' and 'only one of the'.
As a rule, treat 'one of the' constructions as plural, 'only one of the' as
singular.
Example:
Our ability to use language is one of the things that set us apart from
animals.
Our ability to use language is the only thing that sets us apart from
animals.
6. Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a
singular verb.
Example:
The news about the war is not good.
Economics is the topic for today’s seminar.
7. Titles of works and words mentioned as terms are singular.

Example:
Lost Cities describes the discoveries of many ancient civilisations.
Controlled substances is another term for illegal drugs.

Activity 10.10: Subject and verb agreement
In the following sentences, choose the correct form of the verb provided.
1. The CEO of the company, along with his Vice Presidents, (attend/attends)
the shareholder’s meeting regularly.
2. Every man, woman, and child (enjoy/enjoys) feeling valued by others.
3. Grammar and punctuation (is/are) very important parts of academic writing.
4. There (is/are) some difficult issues to be faced by the researchers.
5. Only one of the students (is/are) prepared for the oral presentation.
6. Physics (was/were) my favourite subject at school.
Consistency in point of view

The point of view in a piece of writing is the perspective from which it is written;
for example:
• first person I or we
• second person you
• third person he/she/it or they.

The first person is a good choice for informal letters and writing based primarily
on personal experience such as journal writing. The second person works well
for giving advice or explaining how to do something (as in much of the study
guide you are now reading). The third person is the most appropriate for formal,
academic writing.
Shifting this point of view without a good reason can be distracting for a reader.
For example:
A girl who is looking for her first job knows you'll find help there.
Within a sentence or a paragraph, pronouns and verbs should be consistent with
the dominant point of view unless the writer deliberately wants to shift the reader's
attention to another character or object.

Activity 10.11: Identifying shifts in point of view
In the following sentences, identify where the point of view shifts and then rewrite
the sentence to eliminate the problem.
1. When you are alone, one may observe details more closely than when one
is among friends.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Reflecting is an important part of learning, people must be able to slow

down and consider what you've been experiencing.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. When we think about how we spend our lives, you are often surprised at
how our actions reflect your hidden values.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. As a species, humankind has always responded well when our survival

has been challenged, and they'll do so again now.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Consistency of tense
Consistent verb tenses clearly establish the time frame of the actions being
described. When a passage begins in one tense and shifts without warning or
reason, your reader can become confused and/or irritated.
Activity 10.12: Identifying tense shifts
Identify the tense shifts in the following paragraph and suggest ways to remedy
the shifts.
Camus regards the judgment of whether life is worth living as the funda-
mental question of philosophy. He considered this question the starting
point for determining meaning in life. He says that without an attempt to
articulate meaning, one is left trapped in absurdity; moreover, he argued
that absurdity is a form of suicide.

Consistency of mood
Mood refers to the purpose of a sentence. In other words, it is what the writer
wants to do with a piece of communication. For example, the writer may want to:
• make a statement of fact or give an opinion (indicative mood):

We should use public transport.
• ask a question (interrogative mood):

Should we use public transport?
• give advice or orders (imperative mood):

Use public transport!
As with needless shifts of point of view and tense, unnecessary shifts in purpose
can be as distracting, and they should be avoided.
Activity 10.13: Identifying shifts in mood
Identify the mood shifts in the following sentences, and then rewrite these
sentences to remedy the problem.
1. Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, inform
patients of unintended drug interactions.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure; therefore,
change the laws that are the foundation of the policy.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Recognising grammatical errors
With practice, you can learn to recognise your own grammatical errors. Follow
these steps to help you to improve the grammar in your writing:
1. Determine whether the mistake is carelessness or a pattern.
If you find a single run on sentence (for example) in your assignment,
there’s probably not much to worry about. Just fix it and move on. If you
notice several, however, it would be a good idea to spend some time
working with constructing sentences. If you don't understand the gram-
matical principles behind sentence construction, come up with some
strategies to avoid this kind of error in future drafts; for example, consult a
grammar book, or perhaps your tutor.
2. Prioritise your errors.
Decide which of your grammar errors are the most serious and address
them first. Problems that interfere with your reader’s ability to understand
your writing are the most serious.
3. Practise, practise, practise.
The best way to improve your writing is to practise. When you write, be
conscious of the patterns of grammatical errors you have identified in
previous writing situations; this is the first step toward avoiding them
altogether. Play with your own writing – write and rewrite your sentences to
see how the grammatical and structural changes you make can affect the
meaning of the sentence.
4. Understand that grammar counts.
As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, how you put words and
sentences together to create meaningful statements is what grammar is all
about. Communication in any situation requires you to use grammar – in
academic writing, you’ll be expected to use it more consciously. The key
concept here is communication – grammatical errors can interfere with
your ideas being clearly understood. Your markers are looking for assign-
ments that clearly communicate a writer's ideas, and by paying attention to
grammar when editing your work, this can help your assignment to be
more effective in getting its message across.
(Adapted from: The Australian National University, Common Grammatical Errors)

In conclusion...
Grammar and ideas are inseparable components of academic writing. It is usually

better to focus on your grammar later in the writing process, but that doesn’t make
it any less important.
The grammar issues you identify during your writing sessions are those that you
will want to be especially vigilant in locating during your editing sessions. This
familiarity with grammar in general and your own problems, in particular, will be
very valuable as you carefully edit and proofread your text – a major focus of
Chapter 11, Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback.

Activity 10.1
2. Examinations are stressful for most students.
3. A new edition of the book is expected within a month.
4. Understanding the topic from a variety of perspectives is one aspect of

critical thinking.
5. Justifications for the project are few indeed.
6. Always successful yet sometimes controversial, the 2006 Sculpture by the

Sea exhibition will run for two weeks in November.
7. Students with high aptitude need designated time to work at their own
level.
8. It loses some points for the visuals, // but overall the movie is cute and
funny.
9. Today, accountants do not have a shared world view, // but they

do have a common code of ethics.
10. An ecological perspective brings out aspects of social and political

rights, // which the liberal paradigm has neglected. (Pezzoli, 1997, p.557).
Activity 10.2: Clarifying ambiguous meanings
1. Parents who have tickets will be admitted to the concert.

Only parents with tickets will be admitted.
Parents, who have tickets, will be admitted to the concert.
All parents will be admitted, because they all have tickets.
2. The dessert made with fresh raspberries was delicious.
Out of all the desserts made, it was the one with fresh raspberries that was
delicious; the others may not have been.
The dessert, made with fresh raspberries, was delicious.
There is only one dessert, and it was delicious.

3. Taxis which carry more than one passenger can use bus-only lanes.
Of all the taxis, it is those with more than one passenger that can use the
bus lanes.
Taxis, which carry more than one passenger, can use bus-only lanes.
All taxis can use the bus lanes, because they all carry more than one
passenger.
Activity 10.3: Using commas after introducing information
1. When Irwin was ready to eat, his cat jumped onto the table. Adverb
2. Knowing that he would be late, John called his friend and apologised.
Adjective
3. Near a small stream at the bottom of the hill, we discovered an abandoned
shelter. Adverb
4. Because complex problems are often left for experts to solve, practical and
commonsense solutions can be overlooked. Adverb
Activity 10.4: Dependent or independent clause
1. Independent
2. Dependent
3. Dependent
Activity 10.5: Correcting run on and fused sentences
1. Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.
Tell me what you eat; I will tell you what you are.
2. Each workshop will meet for one hour, so please register in the Learning
Skills Unit office.
Each workshop will meet for one hour; please register in the Student
Learning Unit office.
3. Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations; as a

consequence, environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
Sustainable development is now official policy of the United Nations;
environmental concerns have become institutionalised.
4. There is much evidence for global warming, but many refuse to

acknowledge it.
There is much evidence for global warming; many refuse to acknowledge it.

Activity 10.6: Correcting sentence fragments
1. The population increased dramatically because of the growth of

agriculture.
2. In time, the cities became more crowded, though many people remained
on farms.
3. Despite the efforts of the medical community, overcrowding in the cities
provided opportunities for diseases to spread.
Activity 10.7: Consolidation – types of sentence errors
Corrections are indicated in bold type.

The election campaign is in its final stages; two candidates remain. A
Liberal victory would signal a continuation of the same basic policies, while
a Labour victory would usher in a new era of social programs. Many of the
nation’s problems will persist in either case. Some would argue that a
spiritual change must occur before effective political change is possible,
because political decisions will always reflect the people’s deeper systems
of values.
Activity 10.8: Apostrophe usage
1. Add apostrophes, where needed, to the following sentences.

a. Everything’s connected to everything else.
b. There are many environmental challenges facing the community
locally, nationally and globally. (No apostrophe needed)
c. There are three contrasting views about nature; nature’s fragile,
nature’s robust and nature’s robust within limits.
d. The business community’s been encouraged to donate goods and
services.
e. The board’s chair is very experienced and brings wisdom and insight to
the position.
2. Discuss the differences in meaning with apostrophe usage of these two
sentences.
a. The school’s academic achievement was acknowledged by the
Minister.
• Here, the apostrophe before the 's' denotes the academic

achievement of one school.
b. The schools’ academic achievements were acknowledged by the
Minister.

• Here, the apostrophe after the 's' denotes the academic

achievement of more than one school.
Activity 10.9: Defining and identifying subjects and verbs
1. Describe what a subject and a verb are and what they do.
The subject is the noun or noun group and it tells us who or what does the
action
The verb is the word (or words) that tells what happens in a situation (a
doing, being, or behaving word).
2. Underline the subjects and circle the verbs.
A recent new theory about dreams has ignited the world’s scientific com-
munity. A simple new solution to the mystery of dreams has been proposed:
we dream to forget and our dreams are the dustbins of the mind. According
to the new theory, dreaming is a deliberate process of unlearning by
which humans clear the mind of unwanted problems.
Activity 10.10: Subject/verb agreement
1. attends
2. enjoys
3. are
4. are
5. is
6. was
Activity 10.11: Identifying shifts in point of view
1. Point of view shifts from you to one.

When you are alone, you may observe details more closely than when
you are among friends
2. Point of view shifts from people to you.
Reflecting is an important part of learning, people must be able to slow
down and consider what you've been experiencing.

3. Point of view shifts from we to you. The shift from the plural we to the
singular you is especially distracting.
When we think about how we spend our lives, we are often surprised at
how our actions reflect our hidden values.
4. Point of view shifts from humankind (our) to they.
As a species, humankind has always responded well when our survival
has been challenged, and we’ll do so again now.
Activity 10.12: Identifying tense shifts
Corrected text indicated in bold.

Camus regarded the judgment of whether life is worth living as the funda-
mental question of philosophy. He considered this question the starting
point for determining meaning in life. He said that without an attempt to
articulate meaning, one is left trapped in absurdity; moreover, he argued
that absurdity of a form of suicide.
Activity 10.13: Identifying shifts in mood

declarative mood
1. Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, inform

patients of unintended drug interactions. imperative mood
Re-written version:
Experts in the field warn against over-prescribing antibiotics. Also, they
encourage doctors to inform patients of unintended drug interactions.
declarative mood
2. The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure; therefore,
change the laws that are the foundation of the policy. imperative mood
Re-written version:
The author clearly indicates that the current policy is a failure, and he
believes that the solution is to change the laws that are the foundation of
the policy.

Chapter 11
Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback
Introduction
Throughout this book, we’ve discussed the importance of viewing writing as a

process. In this section, we’ll look at the final steps in that process – editing and
proofreading your writing and receiving feedback.
Imagine you've got to the stage where you've done most of the hard work of
researching and drafting your assignment, you will discover that the process isn't
over yet. Editing and proofreading are the next crucial steps in the writing process.
It allows you to present a polished piece of work that indicates to your marker that
you’ve taken the assignment and all the learning it entails very seriously.
Interpreting the feedback you receive is the final interaction you’ll have with a
particular assignment, but it is also the first step of the writing process for your
next assignment. What you learn from that feedback should influence in some
way all the other writing you produce.
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe what place revising, editing, and proofreading has in the writing
process
• Create different drafts of your work that will help you to improve your
assignment
• Use a checklist to help you edit and proofread your work
• Interpret the feedback you receive on your assignment and apply it to

future assignments.

Editing and proofreading
Students often think that they need to write only one draft of an essay, correct any
mistakes they find and hand it in. Some students tend to leave only enough time
for one draft. More realistically, students need to work through several drafts to
come up with the best possible finished product. For this to happen, you will need
to:
• Revise your initial ideas
• Edit for content and structure
• Check the validity of content
• Proofread for grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Revising initial ideas

After getting your ideas down in the first draft, careful revision will help you to
improve and refine your assignment. When you revise, you are producing a new,
altered version of your text. Each succeeding draft is different in some way from
the one that preceded it, and with each draft, you move towards your goal of a
well-written assignment.
Following is a guide to help you to revise your writing at each stage of the editing
processes:
• Compose a rough first draft. This is where you focus on getting all your
ideas written down according to your plan or outline. Remember; avoid any
revising or editing at this stage.
• Compose a shaping draft. In this stage, you deal with macro issues such
as purpose, clarity of discussion or argument, and structure.
• Compose a style draft. Here, you are concerned with paragraphing,

sentences and word choice.
• Compose an editing draft. This stage involves you in proof reading and
working on grammar, punctuation and spelling.
• Compose a final draft. This is where you review your references and
check your presentation requirements before submitting it for assessment.

Editing for content and structure

After completing each draft, you should be in a position to stand back to get an
overview of what you have written. In fact, this constitutes the writing process.
Editing is the overall term we use for deciding whether the content is appropriate
for the task, and checking that the structure and format are suitable. Editing for
grammar and punctuation (or proofreading) is the final step in the editing process.
Typically, most students think that editing is merely checking their spelling and
punctuation. In doing this, they are most likely to pay attention to the text at the
word or sentence level and ignore the overall shape of the assignment. Instead,
you should concentrate firstly on decisions about structure and format and
appropriateness of content, and then edit for spelling and punctuation.
You need to remember that the editing process may involve re-writing, and you
should allow sufficient time to do this well. A useful rule of thumb is to set aside a
third of your total time for editing.
Ideally, you also should try to leave some time between each draft. This will allow
you to be more objective in assessing the effectiveness of your writing.
Use the marking criteria provided by your lecturer to help you to focus your
editing. Apply the criteria to your assignment as a checklist to ensure you have
met all the requirements.
Where there are no marking criteria, the questions in the checklist on the
following page can be used as a guide.

Editing checklist
9 Overall
Does the assignment answer the question/address the task?
Have I used the correct format (i.e., heading, sub-headings, tables, etc.)?
Is there a clear line of argument?
Is the thesis supported by connected arguments?
Is the discussion logical?
Is all the material relevant?
What further information is needed?
Is there evidence of critical thinking?
Are statements backed up with evidence?
Are judgements and evaluations appropriately qualified?
9 Introduction
Does it demonstrate an understanding of the question?
Does it have a thesis statement?
Does it indicate what will be discussed?
9 Body
Does each topic sentence clearly state the main idea of each body
paragraph?
Is each body paragraph adequately developed and supported with

evidence?
Are ideas linked with smooth transitions?
Does the material in the paragraphs support and develop the thesis?
9 Conclusion
Does the essay end with a separate paragraph that reiterates the main
points of the essay and confirms or qualifies the thesis?
Figure 49: Editing checklist

Checking the validity of content

After editing the structure and format, it is important to review the content and its
appropriateness for the task – that is, its validity. Reviewing content is the part of
editing which looks at the information you have included. You might ask yourself:
• Is the information appropriate for the topic?
• Is there sufficient material?
• Is there any material that is redundant because I have already said it

before or which is not relevant to the topic?
• Is the information accurate and up to date?
• Have I selected my quotations to support my argument?
• Have I relied too much on authors' words when I should have used my own?
• Have I strictly limited the number of quotations?
• Have I been careful not to use quotations as substitutes for my own words?
Proofreading for grammar, punctuation and spelling

When you are satisfied with the structure and content of the essay, it is time to
proofread for grammar, punctuation and spelling. Markers are often unduly influ-
enced by the presence of obvious errors such as misspelt words and inappropriate
use of punctuation, so make sure such mistakes are dealt with by careful editing.
If you know that the mechanics of grammar are your weakness, you should try as
many avenues as possible to improve these skills, and take particular care with
your proofreading.
Here are some tips you can use while proofreading:
• Check your references. Make sure that you have listed your references
accurately. Remember that if you have cited an author (whether in a direct
quotation or a paraphrase), you must acknowledge the source. For more
information about citations and references, see Chapter 8, Academic
argument and evidence.
• Step back from your work. Leave some time between your last revision
and proof reading the final essay draft. If you proofread when your mind is
fresh, you are able to be more objective about your work. Don’t leave it
until the last minute. You can’t proofread effectively in a rush.
• Read out loud. This enables some objectivity in your proofreading, and it
will allow you to hear awkwardness and mistakes in your writing that you
might not notice in reading silently.

• Check for typical errors. Review your lecturer’s comments on past

assignments to identify errors that you make repeatedly.
• Check your wording. Editing also involves checking that you have used
your words correctly. You should also check the accuracy of any 'technical'
terms, and make sure their meaning is clear to your reader.
• Check your visuals. Pictorial material, such as graphs, tables, figures,

and diagrams, must be positioned as closely as possible to the text it
applies to. Make sure you have labelled them clearly and appropriately.
Check, also, that you have accurately acknowledged the sources which
you have copied, and included a key for your own tables.
• Be thorough. Read slowly and carefully. Don’t just skim. You may have
accidentally left out a word, sentence or even a paragraph. Occasionally,
pages are put in the wrong order. Be careful to read through the final hard
copy of the essay, exactly as it is to be submitted.
The questions in the following checklist can be used as a guide.
Proofreading checklist
9 Punctuation
Are commas and end punctuation used correctly?
Are there any run on sentences or sentence fragments?
9 Referencing
Are quotes enclosed in quotation marks?
Is all quoted or paraphrased material referenced correctly and consistently

both in-text and in your reference list?
Does the information in the reference list follow the guidelines of the
referencing system?
9 Spelling
Has the spell checker located any misspelled words? (Be aware that spell
checkers are not always sensitive to context – don’t just change the word
because it tells you to. Ensure the suggestion it makes is accurate.)
Figure 50: Proofreading checklist

Receiving feedback on your assignment
When an assignment is returned to you, take time to read the feedback and consider
which parts of the assignment were done well and which parts could be improved
upon. Of course, the mark you get for an assignment is in itself part of the feedback.
It provides a reference point and signals the overall standard you have achieved.
However, often comments made by the lecturer actually tell you more about the
strengths and weaknesses of your work.
You should use this information to improve your writing for the next assignment.
Even if your assignment has not received a good mark, any constructive comments
made by your lecturer should help you to decide which aspects need improvement
and how this might be achieved.
Useful feedback should:
• be linked to the assessment criteria
• provide constructive comments
• advise you about any additional help you may need.

There are different ways of assessing work and lecturers use different types of
feedback. In some cases, lecturers may give each student a mark, and provide
only general feedback about the entire class's assignments. This is usually a
summary of the overall strengths and weaknesses of the assignments.
Many lecturers do try to give students individual feedback, so that students can
learn from it and develop a sense of their own progress. If you need to discuss
the mark you have received, it is appropriate to make an appointment to see your
lecturer.

Lecturer expectations
The table below identifies what lecturers often expect in written assignments.
Explicit language, structure and argument
Language: Words are to be selected carefully; specialised academic

vocabulary is to be used.
Structure: Texts have a clear structure. For example, essays have an

introduction, body and conclusion. Paragraphs have a clear
(often a single) focus or topic. Ideas in texts are linked by
logical connectors such as first, in conclusion, furthermore, so
and in contrast.
Argument: Essays have a clear argument, supported with appropriate

evidence. They do not just ‘retell’ knowledge.
Appropriate language
Hedging: Claims and conclusions are hedged or tempered with words

like could, may, this suggests.
Distance: The writer’s personal voice is not obvious, i.e. the first person
(“I”) is avoided, emotional words are avoided, and passive verb
constructions are frequent (e.g. “The findings are discussed”
instead of “I discuss the findings”).
Formality: Texts such as essays and reports are typically written in a

formal rather than informal or colloquial style.
Academic values
Critical thinking: Students need to question as well as understand and apply

what they read and learn. They must also learn to reason and
write in the ways that are common in their discipline.
Acknowledging Students must acknowledge other texts. They are expected to

sources: build on other texts through summary, paraphrase, and
quotation. In this way, they transform knowledge, and don’t just
retell it.
Referencing Students should reference their sources accurately and

conform to a recognised ‘style’, such as APA (American
Psychological Association), Harvard etc.
Genre Students need to learn and understand the purposes and

awareness: structures of summaries, essays, critical reviews, literature
reviews, etc.
Figure 51: Lecturer expectations

Although the lecturer expectations described in Figure 3 (on the previous page)
are typical, these expectations are variable. Expectations can vary between sub-
jects, lecturers, and assignments or tasks in the same subject. Some lecturers, too,
hope or expect that students will be creative, not just conformist, when they write. In
all cases, it is important to clarify what the lecturer wants.
Ask for examples of writing that are similar to the task you are completing; get
feedback before you submit an assignment; and read journals from your area of
study to get a feel for how experienced authors write.
Marker comments
The following table provides examples of the types of comments that markers may
give on your assignments. Alongside these comments are strategies for developing
ways to improve your work and references to the relevant chapters of this guide.
Marker comment Strategy
“You haven’t done enough Use the library to research relevant material – if
reading and therefore your you can’t find appropriate material you may need
essay is poorly researched” to consult a librarian.
“You’ve given lots of inform- You need to refrain from just using description in
ation but you haven’t really your essay, and instead apply critical thinking and
analysed the material” analytical writing skills to the topic. See Chapter 8,
Academic argument and evidence.
“The parts of your essay do You need to have a clear understanding of the
not seem to fit together very genre's structure in which you are writing. You
logically” need to be clear about the content and the line of
argument you are developing. If you need help in
planning essay structures, you could approach
your tutor. See also Chapter 6, The academic
essay and Chapter 8, Academic argument and
evidence.
“It’s difficult to understand the Your introduction should explain your overall
overall structure of your structure. The body of the essay should be
essay” consistent with your introduction. See Chapter 6,
The academic essay for guidance.
“You have made some good An essay should indicate that you have read to
points but you have not develop a conceptual understanding of the topic,
substantiated them” and then this evidence is used to support your
particular line of argument or discussion.
Referencing these sources shows the reader that
you have done both things. See Chapter 8,

Marker comment Strategy
“You have plagiarised parts It is important that you interpret the source
of this essay from several material in your own words as a paraphrase, and
sources! See me!” where this is not possible, you use direct
quotations. The lecturer needs to be able to see
that you understand the ideas and concepts in
your sources and that you can use these to
develop your own argument. See Chapter 8,
“You need to improve your You may need to seek extra help to improve your
English language skills” English writing skills. The Student Learning Unit's
Language & Learning Links website to online
resources may be useful for you. Alternatively, the
library has many English language workbooks and
textbooks that you can work through on a needs
basis and at your own pace.
“Your essay is untidy and You may need to allow more time after you have
poorly presented” completed your essay to check for presentation
details. See Chapter 2, Managing your writing.
You may also need to develop your word
processing skills.
Figure 52: Marker comments

In conclusion…
Students often find their writing more productive when they view it as a process;
editing your writing and receiving feedback are two of the last steps in that process.
Although your most comprehensive editing will most likely occur after you have
finished composing your assignment, you can also weave smaller editing sessions
throughout your writing. This involves generating texts by editing them, and then
revising them to correct and strengthen them – or drafting. Drafting can greatly
improve the quality of the work you produce.
You should consider your text on several levels, examining not only sentence
structure and grammar issues, but also the bigger picture aspects of your writing,
such as overall text structure and organisation, and content validity.
The writing process does not end after you submit your assignment for assessment.
You may not make any more physical changes to the text, but you should pay
attention to the feedback you receive from your lecturer. Think about ways you
could apply it to both this assignment and future writing tasks you will encounter.
Many oral presentations grow out of written assignments, and the feedback you
receive will help you to fine-tune your work. In Chapter 12, Tutorials, oral presen-
tations and group work, you will learn about other skills you can use to create oral
presentations, as well as ways to participate in tutorials and group work.

Chapter 12
Tutorials, oral presentations, and group work
Academic Skills Guide: Chapter 12
Introduction
Communication skills are fundamental to all fields taught at university, and the
ability to communicate orally in many different situations is a very important aspect
of this. In many courses, you are encouraged to develop your oral communication
skills in two main ways:
1. By being an active participant in the discussion of:
• tutorial topics as they are presented each week
• reflections on your tutorial group's, as well as your own, oral
interactions.
2. By making a brief oral presentation to your tutorial group about your
chosen topic, and leading a discussion in this.
This chapter will give you some basic information about what a tutorial is and what
will be expected of you regarding your participation. It will also give you some
strategies for organising, practising, and staging an academic oral presentation.
When you have finished this chapter, you will be able to:
• Explain what a tutorial is, how it differs from a lecture, and how your partici-
pation will be assessed
• Describe why you may be required to make an oral presentation, and what
you can hope to gain from doing so
• Organise and structure your oral presentation
• Identify the characteristics of an effective visual aid and describe the

positive and negative aspects of various types of visual aids
• Interpret the feedback you will receive after you make your presentation
• Employ strategies to make group work more manageable and productive.

Tutorials
Tutorials are small, interactive groups that meet regularly throughout the semester
to complement the lectures. They are designed to give you an opportunity to
express opinions, ask questions, and discuss lecture content with your tutor and
with fellow students.
The size of a tutorial group will depend on the number of students in the course,
but it will usually be between ten and twenty-five students. Your tutor may be your
main contact with the department running the course; he or she will try to get to
know everyone in the group and will probably be responsible for marking your
assignments.
(Adapted from: Hay, I, Bochner, D & Dungey, C 1997, Making the Grade.)
Tutorial participation
To be able to contribute effectively, you will need to prepare for each tutorial with
some reading from the subject's reading list. Based on this reading, you could
think of at least one question that you could ask, or one comment that you could
make as a contribution to your class discussion. Sometimes your lecturer might
invite you to pose your particular question or comment to get the discussion
started, or to encourage your involvement in the discussion.
Here are some other ways you can contribute to a tutorial discussion:
• Give an example to illustrate what someone else has said
• Agree with something someone else has said, but make suggestions
• Compare what has been said to something you know about (perhaps
something you have read)
• Disagree – and give your reasons
• Introduce a new (but relevant) topic.

(Source: University of Canberra, Academic Skills Online, at:
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/tutorials.html)
During the tutorial sessions, there will also be opportunities to think about how
oral interactions in the class are going. You may be asked, for example, to give
feedback to a fellow classmate who has made an oral presentation. Your lecturer
may get your tutorial group to discuss generally how well the group is interacting,
and whether any ground rules need to be established or clarified.

Assessment of tutorial participation

In many units, tutorial participation is part of your assessment. The assessment is
not based on how often you contribute (quantity), but how well you contribute
(quality). This means that you should aim to be an active participant in discussions,
even though you might not say something every time.
When you do make a spoken contribution, you need to put your view reasonably,
justify your claims, and so on. You also need to be tolerant of alternative points of
view, and respect the rights of others to their views.
Oral presentations
Oral presentations create the opportunity to develop your thinking on a chosen

topic through explaining your understanding of the topic to others, and through
exploring your analysis and interpretation of ideas further in discussion. You have
three roles to play in making a presentation:
Expert on Where you will have read much more broadly and deeply than
the topic your fellow classmates who have chosen alternative topics.
Teacher Where you will explain the topic to your fellow classmates,
and then invite their questions and comments about your
presentation.
Learner Where you will develop your own understanding of the topic
through explaining it; explore the topic further through
discussing different interpretations and points of view with
others; and receive feedback on your point of view from both
your lecturer and your classmates.

Preparing your presentation

Preparing an oral presentation is a process, just like preparing a written assignment.
Following are six steps to help guide you through the process.
1. Brainstorm your topic and write a rough outline.
2. Research your topic. Keep your research focused – there will be a time
limit for your presentation.
3. Organise your material and write a draft – keep the time limit in mind.
4. Summarise your draft into points to write on overheads or cards.
5. Plan and prepare your visuals.
6. Rehearse your presentation and get the length right.
(Source: University of Canberra, Academic Skills Online http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oralpres.html)
As you rehearse your talk, here are some pointers to keep in mind:
• Time your presentation to make sure it is neither too short nor too long
• Have an audience to speak it out aloud to; e.g., someone at home or a

fellow classmate
• Decide how you will deliver your presentation physically. Think about
whether you will be:
i. sitting down or standing up and where – e.g. behind, on, or in front
of the table and facing your audience
ii. writing on the board or using the overhead projector to talk about
your topic. Either way your audience will certainly find it more
interesting if you look at them, rather than away from them for the
majority of the presentation.
• Try to talk to your audience in a natural way, rather than reading out
from something you have written. If you feel you have to speak from a
prepared text, then try to write it in more 'spoken' language, otherwise
your text could end up sounding 'dense' and hard for the listener to
follow. By talking in a natural way, you will probably end up using more
words to say the same thing, but your message will get through to your
audience more clearly. Also, explaining things in your own words,
rather than just using the words of the original academic source, is a
good way to help you to clarify your understanding of the topic.

Differences between written and spoken language
The following two texts illustrate the differences between written and spoken
language. The written text presents a lot of information that has been condensed
into a single sentence using 'written' language forms (e.g. long noun phrases,
formal vocabulary etc.) typically found in academic writing. This text would be
harder for the listener to follow because it is so 'dense'. Whereas, the spoken text
presents the same amount of information as the written one, but spread over a
number of shorter, simpler sentences. These sentences exemplify and elaborate
on the facts using 'spoken' language forms typically found in an academic talk
(e.g. phrasal verbs, informal vocabulary etc.).
Written text Spoken text
In general, the Green and White So, generally speaking, the Green and
Papers successfully highlight the White Papers are successful because
government's well-placed concern for they show that the government cares
equity towards the unemployed, and about equity towards the unemployed.
propose practical recommendations Also, they've come up with recommen-
which are likely to lessen the problem dations that are practical — what I
of mass unemployment such as the mean by this is that their recommenda-
training wage. tions are likely to help without the problem
of mass unemployment. For example,
they recommended the training wage,
which is a good way of trying to deal
with the problem of unemployment.
Figure 1: Example written and spoken text comparison

Organising your presentation

An oral presentation has a structure similar to an academic essay; it has:
• an introduction
• a body
• a conclusion.
Introduction
In your introduction, outline clearly what you are going to talk about, how your talk
is going to be structured, and perhaps what you are intending to achieve with the
talk. If you don't do this at the start, you may very easily loose your audience's
attention because they are confused.
Example introduction
My talk today is about the government’s policies on mass unemployment

topic of talk — in particular about the Green and White Papers on unemployment
and how effective these policies are. I'm going to begin by giving a brief
summary of their main policy recommendations, and then I'm going to
outline of talk
focus on just three of their recommendations and talk about each one in
terms of how practical it is, and how effective it is likely to be in dealing
with the problems of mass unemployment. At the end I'll make a few
suggestions for other alternatives that the government did not think of.
Body
In the body of your talk, present your main points logically. Use verbal headlining
and rhetorical question form to guide and include your audience through the talk
(e.g. so, where do we go from here? that brings me to my next point ..., so far,
we've looked at ...). Remember to give time between each point for your listeners
to take notes or to think about what you’re saying.
Use your visual aids to support the main points in the body of your talk.
Conclusion
In your conclusion, be sure to recap the main points and restate your position on
the issues clearly (as in an essay). Go for a 'big finish' by inviting questions from
the audience – try to predict these questions in preparation for their responses.
Alternatively, you can present some questions or issues to your audience to
create further discussion - a useful strategy to have up your sleeve in case your
audience has no questions to ask you.

Creating your visual aids

Visual aids can enhance an oral presentation by:
• increasing interest
• holding attention
• clarifying an idea
• reinforcing a concept.
However, it is important that your visual aids do not do the presentation for you or
that they detract from your talk. Below are several types of visual aids you can use
to enhance your talk; within each type are some positives and negatives.
Overheads
• Prepare them to be written, printed or photocopied on – easy to use and

make
• Use them as a prompt – don’t read them word for word!
• Make sure your audience can see them – use a sufficiently large font for
the text and avoid standing in front of the projector.
• Give your audience time to absorb each overhead – present small chunks
of information at a time by creating effective text charts that:
i. Introduce only one idea per chart
ii. Use emphatic headings to grab attention and summarise the chart
iii. Use short words and sentences
iv. Use no more than 6 – 8 words per point
v. Use no more than 6 – 8 lines per chart
vi. Use no more than 50 words per chart.

PowerPoint
• Create professional-looking computer presentations with a minimum of

effort – PowerPoint processes text, graphics, digital pictures using colour
and special effects like fading.
• Make sure your PowerPoint presentation is compatible with the version

installed on the presentation computer – make transparencies of your
slides as a backup just in case there’s a problem with the computer.
• Show only the material you are discussing at the time. Don't leave a visual
on the screen – professional graphics won’t save a poor presentation.
Whiteboards
• Write information on the board before you begin to avoid spending a great
deal of time during your presentation with your back to the audience.
• Can be time consuming to write as you present.
• Check that the markers are non-permanent. If you use a permanent

marker on a whiteboard, it can be cleaned with solvent, but this is time
consuming and a nuisance.
• Write neatly.
Human aids
• Use people to add impact to your presentation – e.g. have two (or more)
presenters where one presents while the other operates equipment, writes
on the board, looks up statistics etc. Alternatively, invite members of the
audience to contribute.
Handouts
• Use them alone or in conjunction with overheads or PowerPoint slide show.
• Decide when you want to distribute them – before or after the presentation,
never during, as the audience are likely to read them and not pay attention
to you.
• Be sure to bring enough for each member of your audience.

(Adapted from: Academic Skills Online, University of Canberra at
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oralpres.html)

After you’ve created your visuals, use this checklist to assess their effectiveness.
9 Visual aid checklist
Introduce one key point per visual
Use large font size that's visible from the back of the room
Summarise main points – avoid whole sentences or pages of dense text
Use of symbols, pictures, maps, graphs, etc.
Use no more than three curves on a graph
Use no more than three colours per visual

Figure 2: Visual aid checklist
Assessing oral presentations

The development of oral communication skills is a key learning outcome at uni-
versity. Oral presentations are designed to simulate workplace interactions and to
give you the opportunity to develop competence in this area.
The feedback you receive may include criteria similar to those used in assessing
essays or other written assignments. It is more likely, however, that the criteria
will be specific to the presentation, the task at hand, its objectives, and its overall
weighting within the unit. It is, therefore, useful to consider the individual weightings
given to each criterion and prepare accordingly. Use the criteria as a checklist
when you edit your presentation to ensure that you have paid the appropriate
amount of attention to each criterion.
Because oral presentations are also often designed to help you form your ideas for
a written assignment, feedback will indicate whether you are on the right track, or
whether you should consider re-thinking your approach to the topic. You will be
expected to respond to that feedback in preparing your written assignment.
As well as your lecturer's feedback, you should also take account of the feedback
you get from your fellow classmates.

General criteria for assessing an oral presentation
Criterion Example
Is the presentation well • Evidence that relevant reading has been undertaken
researched?
• Deep and/or broad understanding of issues are exhibited
Is the presentation well • The main organising units of the presentation are devel-
structured? oped in response to the tutorial topic
• The main organising units of the presentation reflect an

analytical and critical interpretation of the topic, rather
than merely describing or summarising
• The introduction provides a clear beginning to the

structure and purpose of the presentation
Is the presentation well • Relationships between ideas are made clear

argued and substantiated?
• Significance of statements is made clear
• Appropriate evidence is used to support statements
Is the presentation well • Speech is clear; the pace and volume of delivery are
delivered? appropriate.
• Degree of technicality and formality in language is

appropriate
• Speaker establishes and maintains appropriate eye

contact with the audience and actively engages the
audience during question and answer time
• Presentation is completed within the designated time

limits
Is the presentation well • Speaker uses written notes appropriately to support

supported visually? presentation
• Speaker uses visual aids where appropriate
• Visual aids are clear, legible, and relevant to presentation
Figure 3: General assessment criteria for an oral presentation

Group work
You may be asked to complete an assignment as part of a group. Lecturers set

group assignments for a variety of reasons:
• To prepare you for your professional future. In your professional

career, you will almost certainly be required to work as part of a group –
often a group not of your own choosing.
• To give you a chance to tackle significant projects. You can achieve

much more if you have a group of people working together, contributing
their different talents and their time. In group assignments, you can tackle
much larger projects that might be professional in nature.
• To enable you to demonstrate teamwork skills in your CV. A record of

good performance in a group assignment is an excellent contribution to
your curriculum vitae. Employers are particularly interested in teamwork
skills, and a professional piece of work you have prepared during a group
assignment can be very impressive.
(Source adapted from: Academic Skills Online, University of Canberra,
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/groups.html)
Working in groups can be an immensely rewarding experience as well as a poten-

tially frustrating one. Understanding the dynamics of groups and gaining appropriate
skills and strategies can enhance both the process and outcomes of group work.
Developing a team
Group work requires people to work together as a team. You have to work at being
a team even when you have a very limited time together. How you behave when
you are first together will have quite an impact on the team then and for the rest
of the time together.
So, get to know each other. Some of the following may be helpful in establishing
a bond with your other team members:
• Have some fun together
• Disclose some personal information to the group
• Express feelings about being in this team
• Identify your strengths and potential shortcomings as a team
• Identify your skills that may benefit the team.

Team roles
Once you’ve become more comfortable with each other, it is a good idea to agree
on what role or roles each member will play in the group. The following table sum-
marises some of the major roles that will need to be filled in a team:
Role Responsibilities
Chair • Sets the agenda
• Moves the group through the agenda items
• Summarises discussion and decisions
• Helps the group to decide how much time needs to be

allocated to each item on the agenda.
Note taker • Keeps a record of decisions, assignment workload

allocation, etc.
• Produces an outline set of notes after the meeting
• Sends a copy of the notes to each team member.
Progress chaser • Makes sure everyone in the group stays on target
• Identifies potential oversights and makes sure they’re

covered
• Reports at the beginning of each meeting where “the

team is at.”
Time keeper • Keeps the group to an agreed-upon schedule
• Alerts the group to timeframes, e.g., “We allocated 15

minutes to this, so we’ve got 5 minutes left to finish off
the discussion on this topic.”
Figure 4: Key team roles
Activity 12.1: Thinking about team roles
Think about each of the responsibilities outlined for the different roles in a team.
Which role do you think you would be best at? Why?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Team goals
There are ground rules for every social occasion. In a new team, these ground
rules are often very fluid at the start. It may be helpful to set up broad ground
rules to begin with, such as, achieve harmony and efficiency in the group.
To implement this, you might create more specific ground rules about:
Punctuality: That meetings will start no later than xx minutes after
the agreed start time, when everyone should be there.
Minutes: How or what minutes of meetings are going to be kept
and by whom.
Roles: Whether the organisational roles of chair/note taker will
rotate.
Conflict How domination or conflict caused by an individual or
resolution: section of the team will be handled.
Language: What level of language is acceptable – e.g. swearing
Decision making: How decisions will be made in the absence of a clear
consensus.
Group dynamic: How the team will handle non-contributors.

Destructive team behaviours
Ineffective teams allow destructive behaviours. If problems are recognised and

resolved before they become too entrenched, a team can continue to be productive.
There are a number of reasons why teams experience difficulties:
• Not joining in – remaining silent
• Having aimless chat
• Allowing an individual to dominate
• Not including certain team members to participate
• Not listening to each other
• Allowing groups to develop within the team
• Not having formal structures and agreements (i.e. minute-keeping, schedule

of responsibilities for individual group members)
• Ignoring social aspects to meetings (e.g. an occasional coffee together)
• Expressing hostile/negative rather than constructive criticism.
Activity 12.2: Problem solving in a team
Following are five scenarios. Think about how you might resolve them if they occurred
in your group. Write a brief description of your solution in the space provided.
1. A team member is constantly undermining the group with: “You’re a
hopeless lot.”
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. There are two groups within the team. Each group has loyalty to its ‘leader’.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. One person insists their ideas are the only ideas that will lead to success
of the team. “If you want to do well, you had better do it my way because I
have spoken to the lecturer and this is the way to do it”.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4. The majority of the team do not stay on task but are easily diverted into
social conversation.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
5. A person is a non-contributor – the deadline for the assignment is fast

approaching and despite lots of promises, this member has still failed to
deliver any material she/he is responsible for.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Addressing the task

Just as in any other kind of academic assignment, you must first understand the
task before you can produce a successful response. But it’s not just you that must
understand – each group member must have the same understanding of the task
as you do in order for it to be addressed effectively.
Use the following checklist as a guide to ensure every member of your group has
the same understanding of the assessment task ahead.
9 Task checklist
What is the purpose of the task project? What skills/learning are you
supposed to develop?
What are you supposed to produce? What should the final product look
like? What are the unique features for this piece of work (if any)?
What are the criteria for assessing this assignment? What will gain good
marks? Are all marks allocated to team involvement, or are they individually
allocated? What will happen if there are disputes about team members who
do not do their fare share?
What are the main components of the task? Are there clear stages to go
through? Will the assignment consist of clearly defined parts?
What are the deadlines? When is the final date for submission? What
happens if the deadline is missed? Do you need to set your own deadlines
or 'milestones' for parts of the task?
Figure 5: Task checklist
Breaking down the task
Completing a task as a group requires you to think about the task differently than
if you were doing it on your own. One of the main advantages of working in
groups is that you have an excellent resource in your fellow group members. So,
to use them effectively, you must first decide which member will take on which
job. This can be worked out systematically by:
1. listing all the jobs that need to be done and estimate how much time each
is likely to take
2. trying to divide big jobs into components
3. deciding who does what.
Use the table on the next page as a guide for who does what, when.

What needs doing? How long will it take? Who will do it?
Figure 6: Task assignment guide
(Source: Gibbs, 1994)

Writing collaboratively
Although writing in a team is hard work, the best writing can be produced by
drawing on the combined skills and knowledge of the group. Remember,
collaborative writing involves a messy, multi-stage process of noting, expanding,
drafting, reviewing and rewriting – just as it does when you write on your own!
A group assignment is not usually successful when either of the following occurs:
• one person writes the lot
• each person writes, and the finished product is cut and pasted together.
To avoid either practice, use the following three strategies as a guide:
1. Develop a team report plan.
Meet to discuss and agree on the overall structure of your assignment –
what sections it should have and roughly what should go into each section
and how each section relates to the other sections. Make sure everyone
understands the function of each section before any planning is done.
2. Allocate rolls for each section of the text.
Instead of simply dividing up the work, it can be helpful to allocate roles for
each section of your text. The main ones being writer and reviewer. The
reviewer should discuss outline plans and look at drafts with the writer as
well as review finished sections.
You can do this on a reciprocal basis with pairs reading and reviewing
each other’s work. Alternatively, you can allocate functions using the role
assignment table below as a guide:
Section Writer Reviewer 1 Reviewer 2
Figure 7: Role assignment table

Other roles that can be useful for writing collaboratively are:

Editor to improve style, impose uniformity and correct
grammatical errors
Proof reader to check with great care for spelling errors, section
numbering, references, etc
Publisher to take responsibility for layout, presentation, etc
3. Conduct a team review.

Once the assignment is completed, then the whole team should make a
time to review the work. The agenda for such a meeting could include
asking yourselves the following questions:
• Is the purpose of the assignment clear?
• Are the conclusions of the assignment clear?
• Do the conclusions follow from the earlier sections?
• Does the assignment meet the marking criteria?
In conclusion…
You may be asked to participate in your course in other ways than your individual
written work. For instance, many courses include your verbal contributions to the
class in your final assessment as well.
Tutorials are the main avenue for you to speak out about the concepts and activities
that make up your course. Many tutors will organise this conversation by asking
you to make an oral presentation, which demonstrates your knowledge of a topic
and encourages other students to engage in a discussion of the issues you raise.
You may also need to participate in group work activities. Group work can allow
you to pool your talents and resources with those of other students to tackle
larger, more significant projects than you could feasibly handle on your own. All
the skills you’ve learned to analyse tasks and organise responses individually will
apply in a group work situation, in addition to other skills for working with others.

Activity 12.1: Thinking about team roles
Answers will vary.
Activity 12.2: Problem solving in a team
Answers will vary.

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Academic skills guide

Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney

Fourth Edition: February 2007

Contributions to this evolving workbook:

Edited and adapted for online delivery by Maria Inglis

Unistart: Academic Literacy 2 (2002) Resource book

Material has also been adapted from:

Chapter 1: Beginning university studies

Chapter 3: Understanding the task

Chapter 4: Thinking critically

Chapter 6: The academic essay

Chapter 7: Other academic genres

Chapter 9: Features of academic writing

Chapter 11: Editing, proofreading, and receiving feedback

What this guide contains

How to use this guide

• Identify the expectations (both yours and others) surrounding university

• Examine ways you can direct your own learning.

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 1

Studying as an adult student

You will be surrounded by expectations during your university studies – the

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 2

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 3

applies appropriate numerical skills to understand,

 has in-depth knowledge in one or more chosen fields of study

Figure 1: UWS Graduate Attributes (approved by Academic Senate, 12 September 2003)

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 4

University survival kit

Identifying skills and potential

Activity 1.1: Identifying the positive

curious good attendance willing to ask questions

honest enthusiastic able to solve problems

patient logical mind good at speaking in public

able to negotiate good communicator willing to learn new things

mature assertive able to manage projects

able to learn quickly sincere able to follow instructions

good sense of humour friendly able to get along with others

self-motivated results-oriented willing to take risks

dependable strong research skills able to motivate others

intelligent creative pride in doing a good job

willing to be a leader decisive persistent

Figure 2: List of personality traits and skills

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 5

My top three skills are:

Rules for survival

• Put an effort into developing and maintaining supportive friendships.

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 6

• Combat perfectionism. Many students suffer from unrealistic

• Attack problems quickly. If things do go wrong, do something about it as

• Strike a balance. Your university studies are certainly an important part of

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 7

• Talk rationally to yourself. Ask yourself what impact the stressful

• Get organised. Develop a realistic schedule of daily activities including

• Talk to friends. Friends can be good medicine. Daily doses of

• Seek professional counselling help before your problems become

© 2006, Student Learning Unit, University of Western Sydney 8

Five symptoms of poor time management

• Fatigue/tiredness even after many hours of non-productive activity.

• Constantly intending to complete tasks but never really getting anything

has in-depth knowledge in one or more chosen fields of study