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A closer look at Philippine English word-formation frameworks

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 RESEARCH ARTICLE Adv. Sci. Lett. Vol. 24 (11) 8384-8388

Copyright © 2000-2018 American Scientific Publishers November, 2018

Advanced Science Letters
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America

A closer look at Philippine English

word-formation frameworks
1
Nimfa G. Dimaculangan, PhD. 2Leah E. Gustilo, PhD
1
Laguna State Polytechnic University, Sta Cruz, Laguna, Philippines
2
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

This paper is a meta-analysis of the word-formation processes’ frameworks used by Filipino speakers of English. It presents these processes that
operated in the creation of the Philippine English (henceforth PhilE) lexicon since the 1970’s and argues that Philippine English lexical-formation
creatively dances with the changing of time. The limited studies on the present thesis conducted from 1973 to 2015 show interesting lexical items
created through the existing L1 English word-formation processes. Philippine English lexical items culled from the early 21st century writings were
formed through the existing word-formation processes and through creative expansions or modifications of such processes with the deliberate
integration of figures of speech such as anagram, metonymy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, and pun. This paper, therefore, proposes a tentative composite
modified framework adopted from all existing L1 English and ESL variety frameworks surveyed in this study.

Keywords: Word-formation processes frameworks, Philippine English lexicon, new patterns

INTRODUCTION the country such as Koreans, Vietnamese, Chinese, or

Indians as well as L1 English varieties spoken by
The English language was introduced to the Philippines by Americans and other L1 English speakers in the country.
the American colonial power in 1898 after 333 years of As regards its vocabulary, PhilE words appear to
Spanish rule with the Thomasites as the first teachers and evolve at three different levels as suggested by evolution
teacher trainers as well. It spread throughout the islands and ecology theory of an Asian Englishes theorist1. The
through the public school system established by the first order variants manifest in its speakers’ idiolect. When
Americans in 1901. Its rapid spread was unprecedented in specific vocabularies manifest sociological significance,
colonial history. Bolton claimed that “Within 41 years, the they become second order variations incorporated in
American regime had done more to spread English than the register indicating social class, gender, or profession (e.g.
Spanish government did in 333 years (1565-1898) of presidentiable of the educated upper class, open the radio
colonization, for after the Spanish period, only 2% spoke of the lower class, and routinary of the educated middle
Spanish.”7 class). These conventionalized PhilE lexis lead to third
The 1974 Bilingual Education Policy which was revised order variations producing a dialect i.e., PhilE variety.
in 1987 mandated its use as the medium of instruction for Lexical items produced by believable and esteemed
Science, Mathematics, and English Communication Arts. speakers get diffused fast.
The 1987 Constitution recognized it as an official language PhilE lexicon is a product of the Filipinos’ lexical
together with the national language, Filipino. Being an creativity and innovativeness as well as their linguistic
official language in the multilingual Philippines, it has growth and preferences as multilingual speakers. Filipino
been the major lingua franca among Filipinos in the speakers of English engage in genuine communication,
different regions. Scholars7 on PhilE claim that by 1921, using words from physical and social contexts. They
91% of Filipino teachers of English were native born satisfy their self-expressions by liberally forming new
Filipinos; thus, almost from the beginning, Filipinos words without much attention to the constraints of written
learned English from fellow Filipinos, and PhilE began to norms. Their vocabulary needs motivate them to develop
evolve. words that enrich PhilE lexicon.
Philippine English is a transplanted variety which is the A review of the PhilE lexicon studies from the 1970’s to
product of L1 English presence and contact with other the early 2000’s revealed that semantic widening,
languages in this linguistically diverse country. English pleonasm, reduplication, shift in part of speech or wrong
comes in contact with Philippine languages, primarily with word-form, unidiomatic verb-preposition combinations,
Tagalog, which is the lingua franca of the region. It is also compounding, conversion, hybridization, affixation/
used with other languages spoken by other nationalities in derivational affixes, blending, clipping, initialism, and
1
 Adv. Sci. Lett. Vol. 24 (11) 8384-8388 RESEARCH ARTICLE

functional shift are the creative mechanisms by which developed elsewhere and have spread throughout the
PhilE words are formed. The only full lexicon study3 in English speaking countries. Its speakers regularly coin new
PhilE and the lexicographic project20 sponsored by Oxford words and expressions through the creative processes. Table
University Press revealed similar processes though. 1 shows the limited PhilE studies and the word patterns of
PhilE lexicon revealed by them.
METHODOLOGY
Table 1
Research Design
Summary of PhilE Lexicon Frameworks in Earlier Studies
This paper is a descriptive meta-analysis of the models Study Findings
used in developing Philippine English lexicon which are Four Categories of Filipinism
reflected in the studies conducted over the years. It argues 1) A study on the Nature 1. Spanish Loanwords,
of Filipinism11 2. New terms,
that the lexicon is growing; hence it has continually been 3. Terms with different meaning
studied using various frameworks which can be simplified 4. Cultural influences
into one modified framework from amalgamated existing 2) The lexicon of 1. English words from normal expansion,
L1 English and ESL variety word- formation frameworks. Philippine English3 coinages, and preservation of infrequent
forms.
2. Filipino words from borrowing.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures 3) Lexicography
Rigid review of literature and studies on PhilE lexicon and the description American teachers’ borrowing of words from
with focus on word-formation processes was done for the of Philippine English local languages and Spanish
Vocabulary8
researchers to be able to compare the processes found in
the earlier studies with those found in the present study. To Lexical items from semantic widening,
determine the processes applied by PhilE writers in the 4) Philippine English: A redundancies, wrong word form use,
Case of Language Drift17 unidiomatic combination and different spelling
early 21st century, a corpus of 400,000 word published and of compounds.
unpublished English texts written from 2005-2015 by
educated Filipino speakers from NCR, Luzon, Visayas, and 1. Productivity of lexical formation through
5) Lexical Trends in compounding, conversion, affixation and
Mindanao was built. PhilE lexical items and the word- Philippine English6 hybridization.
building mechanisms involved in their formation were 2. Potential for continuous lexical
identified from the corpus and analyzed using the L1 expansion and linguistic progress
6) Relationship between
English and ESL variety frameworks reviewed. World Englishes and PhilE words consist of borrowings from
PhilE words and expressions were identified from the Lexicography21 Tagalog, hybrid expressions, derivations,
corpus based on Bambose’s (as cited in a study15 on form compounds, blends and clippings, initialisms,
loan translations, conversions from one part of
which becomes an innovation) first two measures of ESL speech to another, and English words used in
Englishes well-motivated innovations and D’ Souza’s (as the Philippines but were given complete
different meanings
cited by the Filipino PhilE theorist4) first three criteria in
standardizing usages in new Englishes. As cited15, the 1. Structural nativization/
number of acrolectal users of a variety of English and the 7) Lexical trends in hybridization/independent developments.
Philippine English 2. Compounds, coinages, Nominal and
areas the variety diffuses are important factors in revisited5 adjectival suffixations
legitimizing such a variety. Further, the three criteria4 for a
variety to be considered standard regardless of conscious
acceptance or rejection of its speakers are the following: it
is widespread, it is systematic, and it is rule-governed. As can be gleaned in Table 1, PhilE lexicon has been
Coinages and expressions that do not have L1 studied over the last two decades, and the existing L1
dictionary citations as well as words, initials, and phrases English and PhilE word-formation mechanisms cause its
cited in the L1 dictionaries but communicate localized and continued growth from the 1970’s to the early 2000’s
contextualized semantics in the Philippines were identified although authors used different terms e.g., new terms11
Philippine English, too. The lexical items were then neologism, coinages, hybrid expressions or total
categorized according to the word-formation processes innovations in other papers3, 6, 5, 20. All the findings revealed
they were created to determine the processes at work. The the most productive process, which is compounding, as
items which could not be classified under the existing qualified by word-formation theorists’ frameworks: 1)
models were regrouped and described. endocentric, i.e. a compound which has transparent
meaning carried by the head (e.g. fishkill); 2) exocentric
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION compound with an unexpressed semantic head and
PhilE Lexicon-Development Frameworks therefore idiomatic (e.g. reproductive health); synthetic
in Earlier Studies compound which involves compounding and derivation
PhilE lexicographers are in agreement that lexical (e.g. informal settler); and 3) neoclassical compound (e.g.
development in Philippine English goes beyond borrowing. cyber bullying).
Philippine English lexicon includes not only distinct The only full lexicon study3 showed the most detailed
Philippine English neologisms but also neologisms that framework for PhilE word-formation processes. The
author’s paradigm of normal expansion is not just
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 RESEARCH ARTICLE Adv. Sci. Lett. Vol. 24 (11) 8384-8388

comprehensive and extensive but is really reflective of based English (GloWbE). He obtained high frequencies
Philippine English vocabulary. Her normal expansion is from ICE-PHI for nouns prefixed with co, nominal
tantamount to L1 English models’ of semantic widening, suffixed with ship (hero-ship), hood (tigerhood), ism
semantic shift, and extension of meaning. It involves two (cooperativism), ness (paranoidness), ee (shiftee), as well
processes: 1) extension or adaptation of meaning and 2) as hybridized and indigenous vocabularies like jeepney,
shift in part of speech. The first one includes examples of merienda, despedida party, sayang, and marcosian. His
adaptation of meaning (e.g. the proper noun Calvary is samples revealed that the most common and transparent
used as a common noun meaning hardships, sacrifices as way of enriching PhilE’s lexicon next to affixation is
conveyed by the hill where Jesus Christ was crucified) and compounding and that nominal compounding is a popular
same words with L1 English but different in meaning and word-formation category with PhilE writers. His5 data
usage (e.g. salvage for to kill in cold blood). The second revealed endocentric, exocentric synthetic, coordinative
one, shift in part of speech is tantamount to L1 English and neoclassical compounds; some of which (e.g., fastfood,
conversion process that is zero derivation (i.e., a word is steamboat, kill-joy, PhD holders, miniskirts) are found too
converted to another grammatical category without any in Dimaculangan and Gustilo’s study12.
morphological change). Shift in part of speech involves
sub-categorization of specific part of speech. The shift may Results from the Present Corpus
or may not be zero conversion but also conversion through Analysis of the present data recorded PhilE words and
suffixation (e.g. the noun and adjective cartographic expressions coined through the existing word-formation
referring to a rough drawing of a crime suspect’s face mechanisms found in the earlier studies. Interestingly, less
based on a witness’ description in PhilE but science or art than two-hundred lexical items not covered by the cited
of making maps and not a person’s face in AmE or the noun earlier studies were found formed through extension and
parent is shifted to the participle/adjective parentified to mean modification of the existing patterns and through the
given responsibilities of parents). The process also covers deliberate integration of figures of speech in the word-
unidiomatic verb preposition combination (e.g., based formation processes. Some samples include: (1) pun (e.g.
from instead of based on, share to instead of share with, cocolisap, the kind of insect that once pestered coconut
result to instead of result in). plantation; the word is a product of the writer’s punning on
Apart from coinages through established word- the meanings of kulisap/insect and coconut as well as the
formation processes, Bautista uses total innovation to refer sound of kulisap which is a bit homophonic with the new
to an item which is created independently and is not cited blend cocolisap); (2) metonymy (e.g. Eats more fun in the
by L1 dictionaries. Her study3 also revealed compounds Philippines; (3) anagram (e.g. DEAL from Department of
with Tagalog elements. She3 uses abbreviation for both English and Applied Linguistics to LEAD from Law
acronyms and abbreviations, unlike other theorists who Education at DLSU); (4) onomatopoeia (vocal segregates
distinguish between the two processes of shortening and tsk tsk tsk, mwah, zzzz); and (5) oxymoron (e.g. honorable
name abbreviation and acronym as independent ways of dismissal which refers to the university approval granted to
word-formation processes from initial letters of a set of a student who wishes to withdraw/drop from a class for a
words. L1 English word formation theorists2 use the term reason or another. As explained in a handbook, it is
initialism to cover abbreviation and acronym. awarded to one who has good academic record and
All the studies revealed coinages, though some authors conduct).
treated them as results of specific word-formation The present data show that PhilE users continue to
mechanisms; however, others3 use the term coinage as borrow expressions from the above semantic fields and
cover term for other word-formation processes inasmuch extend the borrowing to Tagalog particles and expressions
as coinages may be formed either through compounding, (e.g., hay naku, an interjection which means Gosh or my
blending, derivation or affixation, and analogy. goodness and pero a conjunction equivalent to but or
Table 1 also shows that borrowing has become a natural anyway) and general or everyday words (e.g., buwang,
and normal part of PhilE vocabulary. PhilE has been mentally ill or crazy; gala, a word which can be used as a
enriched by a number of borrowings from other languages noun or a verb meaning stroll) into writing. The corpus also
including Philippine languages as shown by a decade old revealed vocal segregates (i.e. common filler sounds such
study3 and an early 21st century study8. Four among the five as uh-uh-uh, er, ah, and tsk tsk tsk), which had been slowly
studies presented in the Table confirmed that PhilE keeps adopted in written English, specifically in creative writings
on borrowing lexical items from Philippine flora and fauna, and social letters in which writers can be personal. The
cultural artifacts, and colonial as well as external languages present findings found loan expressions as well such as
(e.g. Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese). going on, which shows the speakers’ consideration of the
A German World Englishes researcher5 revisited literal meaning of go to mean continue when they actually
selected word-formation categories in PhilE and compared mean ongoing in enrollment is going on.
them with India, Singapore, Hong Kong, Canada and Great PhilE speakers are mobile, and mobility requires
Britain Englishes lexicon processes using data from the constant expression of thoughts and emotions in the
International Corpus of English (ICE) and Global Web- language they are most fluent and comfortable with. When
3
 Adv. Sci. Lett. Vol. 24 (11) 8384-8388 RESEARCH ARTICLE

they run out of linguistic items to concretize their ideas amelioration when a word adopts a positive connotation
especially when engaged in informal speaking or writing and pejoration when it takes a negative or derogatory
tasks, they create or modify existing ones which are meaning13. One sample of pejorative connotation is the one
evidently understood in the speech community in which attached to the word matrona, an aged woman who may be
they belong. Processes such as hypocoristic clipping and searching for a young man. Matrona is a borrowed word
orthography calquing (e.g., ekstra for extra, Labyou for which comes from the Latin word matter, i.e. mother or
love you, sked for sched, klasrum for classroom) were matron. Among its Spanish definitions are married woman,
revealed. Quite interesting are lexical items like-- wife or matron especially of an honorable man.17 Matrona’s
bezt/bhezzie, a stylistic variation of best to mean best English form is matron, one meaning of which is an older
friend, and ‘n instead of and or & which show married woman who usually has a social position.
graphological creative changes in their surface structure
but retain their original semantic sense. CONCLUSION
In addition, the present study found creative expansion In sum, the word-formation processes found in the
of initialism such as A/Prof from Assistant Professor, studies under review and the new patterns found in the
NCAE from National Career Assessment Examination, present corpus of written texts confirm the PhilE users’
SALN from Statement of Assets Liabilities and Net worth impressive lexical creativity. The results showing new
which we described as abbreviation-acronym patterns lead to the proposal of tentative extension of the
combinations; whereas ARAL (study) from Action composite framework adapted from L1 and ESL theorists
Research Action Learning and HGDG (pronounced and scholars earlier mentioned. Inasmuch as the additional
hagadaga) from Harmonized Gender and Development word mechanisms are creative expansions and
Guidelines were labeled non-English sounding acronyms. modifications of the existing models, the same schematic
Number-letter abbreviations like 4P’s that stand for representation/grouping is used to show the expansions.
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program and 3E for enroll, Table 2 illustrates the proposed word-formation processes
educate, and employ were also found. Moreover, two framework for PhilE in the 21st century.
repeatedly used abbreviations were found agent suffixed. Table 2 reflects established word-formation processes;
Our present findings also revealed borrowed Tagalog hence, this paper argues that the new lexical items/patterns
morphemes which are compounded and blended into new found are products of rule-governed creativity, that is, they
lexemes. An example of this is the word aspin, the blended are created according to standard processes, morphological
form of two combined words aso (dog) and Pinoy (Filipino) rules or otherwise. Indeed, word-formation processes stay
or asong Pinoy, which developed from a slang word askal as they are; they are established mechanisms that come into
or asong kalye which means strayed dog. Another example operation when words and expressions are created due to
is Chinoy a blend of the word Chinese and Pinoy (a slang speakers’ communicative needs. However, because people
term for Filipino). Relatively, the English plural marker s possess innate linguistic competence which is enhanced by
was productively attached to Tagalog nouns (e.g., parols their linguistic environment, they creatively manipulate
for ornamental Christmas lanterns that take different sizes and modify them. The additional lexical patterns implied
and shapes including the traditional star shape and hurados the word builders’ flexibility in forming new words and
for panel of judges in a competition in a literary their deliberate disregard of the exonormative standards to
competition. fulfill their communication needs. The writers’ move
There were also instances of borrowing foreign lexemes beyond the existing word-formation rules produced
and giving them new meaning as in: 1) colorum which is deviant and stylistic units that made communication clear,
used as an adjective to refer to unlicensed operation of interesting and lively.
public utility vehicles; while it is the genitive plural form The richness of the presented word-formation
of the Latin noun, color10; and 2) plantilla document processes used in building PhilE lexicon attest to the
reflecting the list of permanent employees, their positions, growing vocabularies of the language and PhilE users’
titles, and other necessary information about their lexical formation competence. Coming from the lexical
employment when it is a Spanish word which refers to: 1) viewpoint, it is argued that English in the Philippines is not
inner sole of a shoes; 2) a sheet of a metal, waxed paper, deteriorating as others claim. It is growing as a distinct ESL
plastic etc. that has been perforated with a pattern, ink or variety because it is kept vibrant by neologisms as well as
paint; 3) a cooperative unit; and 4) group of people willing borrowings from other languages. The lexical formations
to obey orders18, among other definitions which are and expansions found do not communicate the decline of
different from PhilE use. PhilE but convey the variety’s linguistic progress.
The new patterns found show semantic shift that This paper, therefore, supports the PhilE scholars’ 3, 5,
19
involved semantic broadening and narrowing of observation that the vocabulary of this variety shows a
connotative meanings13. Unlike the Filipina scholar’s3 great potential for continuous expansion and progress.
notion of semantic shift which is limited to extension of Likewise, it seconds the assertion9 and the vision5 that
meaning only, this L1 lexicologist13 has both denotative
widening and narrowing. In terms of connotation, he uses

4
 RESEARCH ARTICLE Adv. Sci. Lett. Vol. 24 (11) 8384-8388

Table 2 REFERENCES
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[2] L. Bauer and R. Huddleston. Lexical word-formation. In The Cambridge
Grammar of the English Language. Edited by Rodney Huddleston and
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Macquarie Library Pty., Ltd. (1997) 49-72.
[4] M. L. S. Bautista. Defining standard Philippine English: Its status and
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3.Semantic Shift 2.Blending (Tagalog, Englog
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(narrowing, denotation, and Taglish Blends, Tagalog
(ed.), Studies of Philippine English: Exploring the Philippine component of
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(personifying redefining borrowed lexemes) model. Asian Englishes. (2016) 18: 232-241.
abbreviations, number and 2. Loan translation/calquing [10] Colorum definition from https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colorum
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*Acronym (abbreviation Master’s Thesis). Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City.
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[13] S. Gramley. The History of English: An Introduction.
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pg=PA329&dq=gramley+word+formation+processes&hl=en&sa=X&ved=
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0ahUKEwjiz7bPmdTLAhXnHaYKHabDrsQ6AEllzAA#v=onepageG&q=
PROCESSES gramley%20word%20formation% (2012).
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PhilE is about to 3.Graphological
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[18] Plantilla http:// www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/es/plantilla.
[19] D. Salazar. (2014). Towards improved coverage of Southeast Asian
Englishes in the Oxford English Dictionary. Lexicography ASIALEX (2014)
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surpassed the nativization stage when it develops its own
linguistic forms and when it has attained the status of a
stabilized new variety characterized by codification and a
high degree of homogeneity which is clearly reflected in
the reviewed lexicon studies.
Inasmuch as PhilE lexicon studies confirm the
continual growth of PhilE vocabularies through standard
word-formation processes, the publication of 21st century
PhilE dictionary or at least wordlists is recommended,
especially this time of globalization when ASEAN 2015
opens venues for more business opportunities, and when
the ESL and EFL English become the lingua franca of the
multilingual region. This material can help facilitate the
intelligibility of the variety.

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