B. Which Projected and Non-Projected Aids Are Suitable For Teaching Science Elementary Level Justify With Examples?

.
Q.1 a. Elaborate the concept of instructional technology.
b. Which projected and non-projected aids are suitable for

teaching Science elementary level
Justify with examples?
Instructional technology includes practical techniques of instructional

delivery that systematically aim for effective learning, whether or not they
involve the use of media. It is a basic purpose of the field of instructional
technology to promote and aid the application of these known and
validated
procedures in the design and delivery of instruction.
INSTRUCTIONAL VS EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The difference between educational technology and instructional technology
has to do the scope of the fields. Educational technology embraces all
areas of technology in any field of education. Instructional technology
covers a narrower field dealing with all types of teaching and learning.
In education, instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology
Committee. Instructional technology is often referred to as a part of
educational technology but the use of these terms has changed over the
years. Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating
learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources." Labels do matter!
While instructional technology covers the processes and systems of
learning and instruction, educational technology includes other systems
used in the process of developing human capability.
These are some of the key steps on which the instructional design
technology is based:
.
- Understanding User Requirements

Integral to the design process is analyzing the learners, learning contexts
and the purpose for the instruction. In order to gain an overview of the
learners’ skill level, cultural background, attitudes and motivations for
learning, it is mandatory to do the learners’ analysis. Another consideration
is how learners access content and instruction, for e.g., what is the medium
to be used for learning. In the final step of instructional analysis, identifying
the learning objectives and the purpose of the instruction like credit,
certificate or personal interest, etc., are to be done.
Creating Strategies and Content

This is the most time-consuming phase, wherein goals for the course are
identified and communicated. These can be specific or general, depending on
results from the analysis. This phase includes identifying and selecting
content sources on the web or developing new content, as well as
developing an instructional strategy. Another major phase in instructional
developing instructional materials, selecting the applications and methods to

support group collaborations, selecting or developing tools or methods for
learner assessments and course evaluation.
A critical activity in this phase is developing thorough and detailed
instructions for learners, while also providing a user-friendly platform, with
content and information that are presented in a logical and instinctive
format.
Forming Evaluation and Feedback Methods

In this phase, the course is put into practice with learners. Gathering
feedback from learners is critical to revising and updating the initial design
of the course. Conducting formative and summative evaluation is necessary
to modify the course’s interface, materials, content and instruction, to better
meet the needs of learners. Though revisions and updating to online courses
is an ongoing process, learning and teaching are dynamic, always changing
and evolving.
With the rise of the millennial-generation in workforce, learning methods are

changing drastically. Super-fast internet and the ever-changing technological
landscape have created new trends in instructional technology. The increase
in the prominence of mobile learning has urged developers to adapt to new
strategies suitable for the smaller screen sizes. Instructional designers are
getting more creative and adapting more gaming elements in the learning
process. Instructional technologies are increasingly taking the storytelling
approach to ma ke learning more engaging. As our ways to grasp and retain
information changes, instructional technologies are becoming more and
more sophisticated too.
PROTECTED AND NON-PROTECTED AIDS FOR TEACHNG
Teaching has become a science, there are many aspects and areas which
has to be considered to make it more effective e.g. age and ability of the
children, methodology of teaching, resource material used etc. similarly to
run a good school thorough planning has to be done, one has to devise a
sound school policy, a balanced curriculum, an effective way of teaching and
a good evaluation method.
According to (Tishna, 1997) every activity takes place through proper method
and technique, therefore a teacher should also teach his lesson through
proper method. Teacher should adopt the method of teaching which is
according to the mental age and psychology of the students and the students
take interest in it. The A.V aids motivate the students and arouse interest of
students in the teaching learning
process. Therefore A.V aids should be used effectively.
Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and

engaging Posters, cartoons, cnarts, pictures and graphs and what students
produced by them can provide powerful visual support for learning abstract
ideas. The non-projected media can be presented in the classroom or used
as part of classroom activity. No need to use equipment for observation so
non-projected visual are easy to use.
Projected visual are detained as media design in which still images are
enlarged and displayed on a screen .The types of projected visuals that we
can use in the classroom are software, digital visuals and document
cameras.
Projected teaching aids. The term, projected teaching as used herein, is
interpreted as referring to motion picture projectors, stripfilm projectors,
slide projectors or slide attachments, and opaque projectors. Other pieces of
more specialized projection equipment may rightfully be classified in this
grouping;
Audiovisual aids make a lesson or a lecture more interesting and a

memorable experience not only for students but for teachers as well. They
play a vibrant role in focusing the attention of individual student towards the
teacher or the topic. Human beings’ five senses are the doorway for
effective learning, especially seeing, hearing and touching brings maximum
knowledge for the individual. Jerome Bruner a psychologist at New York
University advocates, research has shown that people remember, o 10 o/ of
what they hear o 20% of what they read o 80% of what they see and do
Audiovisual aids are most effective tools for developing flawless
communication and interaction between student and content as well
as student and teacher.
These aids not only help to save the time of teacher but also help in
developing and arousing curiosity, creativity & motivation. It emphasizes on
the comprehension of knowledge and concept as well as keeps working on
developing sound foundations for higher and further studies.
Audio Visual Aid Examples
Schools are increasingly investing in software, classroom computers, iPads

and simulation laboratories. Commonly used SPIART Boards project the
teacher’s computer screen and allow the class to touch a big white board
and play interactive educational games. You can find great audio visual aids
ideas online that are age appropriate. Teacher’s guides are also available for
using the SMART Board to teach biology, chemistry and physics to older
students who can perform virtual experiments. Students of all ages enjoy
observing webcams of zoo animals on their computers as part of a science or
zoology module. multimedia systems in the classroom also make it easy for
teachers to show films, YouTube clips and instructional videos.
Integrating Visual Aids Ideas

Teachers stimulate critical thinking and generate discussion by integrating
visuals into their lesson plans. Visual learners are particularly inclined to
tune out if the teacher stands in front of the class lecturing. Therefore, effective
instruction should include visual aid examples like charts, diagrams, handouts,
models, posters, graphs, flannel boards and specimens. Even schools with
limited resources typically have basic technology, such as overhead
projectors. Colorful display boards can be used to reinforce ideas discussed
in class. Encourage children to make their own visual aids and present
them to the class as part of a hands-on project, such as a science fair
experiment.
• Educational posters to inspire and remind students
Educational posters are a classic teaching aid that can breathe life into a
classroom. Hanging posters up on your classroom walls will not only invite
color into the environment, they’ll also act as helpful resources for students.
• Educational info graphics to simplify complex information
Info graphics are a perfect classroom tool because they can make complex
information easier to understand.
Title SLicJe
Ve rticaL Layout vv/ List & H orizonta L Layout vv/ List & Photo s
Photos
Vertica L Layout vv/ List & Photos

Vert:i ca I Layout vv/ List: & Ph oto s
• Educational charts to make data accessible

Simple charts are another great visual aid for learning. They can make data
more approachable, and can also help reveal the stories behind data.
Q.2 a. Discuss differe pes of behavior problems usually seen in
children at elementary level.
b. Highlight teacher’s learning deficits.

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In general, a kid’s behavior is deemed to be normal if it is socially,

developmentally and culturally appropriate. You can consider a child‘s behavior
normal even if it does not meet the societal or cultural expectations, but is
otherwise age-appropriate and not harmful.
Children are cute when naughty. A few tantrums, arguments, and yelling
once in a while is not abnormal. But if such behavior becomes a daily
occurrence, then it is a cause for concern.
COMMON BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN

It is common for children to break the rules and go against the norm to ‘test‘
authority. Only that way do they understand what behavior is appropriate
and what is not.
3.. Disrespect and backtalk

If your child talks back but follows your instructions, then ignore it.
Ignoring backtalk may be okay if the behavior is not threatening or
destructive.
If the child follows instructions, even though he talks back, appreciate that
they did what you asked, even if they didn’t want to. You can then explain
that it is okay to be angry, but not okay to speak to you disrespectfully.
But if the child’s responses are threatening others or self, then you need
to pay attention to what they say and handle it carefully.
Do not respond impulsively. Let the child calm down and then address what
he or she said. Tell them calmly about what behavior is acceptable and what is
not.
a. Set limits and make them aware of the consequences.
'1 2. Abusive language
Children scream and yell when they are angry. But if they start swearing
even before they are all of ten years old, you should be worried. They may start
yelling or using abusive language to bring you into an argument or simply to
get their way. When your child uses offensive language and swears, here is
what you should do.
'L Make sure you are not using such language in front of kids.
Have zero tolerance for verbal abuse at home. There is no excuse for
swearing or cursing. So if they use such language, there is a consequence.
Explain the consequences clearly and ensure they are in place.
3. Aggressive or violent behavior

It is okay for children to get angry. But if that anger becomes violent or
turns into aggressive behavior in children it is a problem. blood disorders,
psychosis, conduct disorder, trauma, impulsiveness or frustration can cause
aggression in young children. At times, your child may resort to violence for
self-defense.
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The easiest way to respond to aggression in children is to yell back at them.

But if you do so, you end up teaching them the wrong things. Your kids look
up to you to learn how to control their impulses and emotions. So rather
than raising your voice, lower your tone and tell them to calm down.
4. Lying
It is common for children to lie. It is also common for parents to worry when
they catch the kids lying. You may feel betrayed, hurt and even wonder if
you can trust the child again. But here is what you should do to prevent your
kid from lying.
Do not take it personally. Think about it from your child’s perspective to
understand what compelled him to lie.
Kids may lie when they are scared that the truth might have negative
consequences. Appreciate tne positives rather than punishing negative
behavior to prevent your child’s need for lying.
Teach them to be honest. Start by being a role model.
Have consequences for lying. No arguments or discussions about it. Your
kid lies, he gets to deal with the consequences.
5. Bullying
Bullying is a serious problem and could result in emotional and physical
abuse of the victim. Children tend to bully others to feel powerful. Also,
bullying resolves their social problems easily. When dealing with feelings
becomes difficult, kids tend to take on bullying to fix things. If you find that
your child has been bullying others, you should act immediately.
Start teaching your kids from an early age that bullying is wrong. More
importantly, explain to them what or who a bully is and give them examples
of what bullies do.
6. Manipulation
Manipulation is tricky and a very exhausting behavior to handle. Children
tend to act out, lie, or cry to get what they want. If you give in to the bad
bRhavior in children, your child feels justified. For example, if your child
'L throws a tantrum in public for a candy bar and you buy her one, she has just
manipulated you.
In simple words, when your child manipulates you, she has power over you.
As an adult, you can always brea k the pattern and stop falling for your
child’s manipulative behavior.
8. Behavior problems in school

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“I hate school!” Is that something you hear your five-year-old say every morning? Kids often give parents
a hard time by refusing to go to school or complete homework assignments in time. Children could refuse
to go to
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school for many reasons: bullying, academic issues, resistance to authority

and rules, or anxiety of being separated from parents.
Start by getting to the root of the issue. Find out why your child hates
school or refuses to do his homework. You may want to help him with his
homework if he has trouble with it.
Your child may take time to perform academically and be okay with school.
Understand that the change will not happen overnight.
Encourage them by asking what they like doing in the school. Help them with
their homework, and make it more interesting.
Behavioral problems are not always simple enough to deal. You would have
to seek a professional’s help in complicated cases.
WHEN TO GET HELP---In case abnormal behaviors turn into something a«

unmanageable at home, or if your child is ma king a mistake repeatedly, it is @
time for you to see a doctor. There could be a deeper reason for him to @
behave in a certain way.
The professional will look into the physical and mental health of the child •••
before recommending medications, special therapy or counseling. •••
TEACHER’S ROLE IN LEARNING DEFICITS

All teachers need to learn how to teach students with behavior problems. No
matter if the child is one student in a classroom with a concern or if the
classroom is designed for children with these complex behavioral issues, the
methods to teaching and avoiding complications or outbursts are sometimes
the same. When teachers learn how to avoid situations that can push the
button on these children, it is possible to ensure the classroom’s lesson plan
is fully explored and all students get equal attention.
PRIOR TO AN OCCURRENCE
One of the best strategies for teaching in an environment like this is to learn
methods that help to prevent the occurrence of behavioral issues. While
every student‘s needs are different, there are some simple steps teachers
can ta ke to help prevent problems as a group.
'L Increase the amount of supervision present during high-risk periods.
When misbehavior is likely to occur, such as during group work sessions or
at specific times of the day, adding additional supervision can be a helpful
step in preventing problems.
Make tasks manageable. To avoid driving stress factors that can cause a
child to begin to misbehave, ensure that all the tasks you assign can provide
the student with small bits of information at one time. By dividing a lesson in
chunks, you’re less likely to overwhelm the student.
Offer choices whenever possible. Rather than creating a strict classroom
routine, provide the students with choices. For example, let students choose
which project they work on rather than having to focus on a specific project.
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Ensure children reach out for help. In some cases, behavior issues occur
because the child does not know how he or she can receive help or does not,
for some reason, feel that help is available. Reassure children that they can
reach out for the help they need. If they feel comfortable coming to you
when they’re lost, upset or overyvhel med, they’re not as likely to have an
outburst.
Prevention is always the best step, but of course it’s not always possible to
stop every occurrence of poor behavior.
1. Do What Your Students Don’t Expect

Whenever a student or child misbehaves, there is a high chance that he/she
will expect that the teacher will respond to their actions. However, as a
teacher, you can choose to react differently and instead do something
unexpected whenever such a scenario arises. For example, when a teacher
sees a child playing with dangerous things such as matches or in areas
that are outside the allowed boundaries, there is a response that these
students expect. The most common reactions that are expected include the
teacher saying, “Stop!” or “Can you get back within the boundaries
immediately!” However, you can choose to be different and uniquely handle
things. You could try and tell them something that will catch them off guard
such as, “You children seem too smart to be playing in such a restricted
place,” This kind of communication will surprise students and children to the
extent of prompting them to change their unwanted behaviors.
2. Find Positive Things about Them

For the children or students that misbehave on a regular basis, it can
become quite hard for you to find positive remarks about them. However, as
a teacher, you are required to strive to rectify this because the more
students receive positive attention; the less likely they become to draw attention
negatively.
You can step up and go out of your way to look for positive things to say
concerning these chronic naughty students. Often, you find that these children
'L lack belief in their abilities and require teachers to assist them in seeing that
they have the ability to become constructive.
3. Don’t Act too Bossy or Showcase Bad Modeling

A good number of times, acting too bossy leads to students crafting
thoughts of how they will seek revenge on you. As a teacher, you can take
your time and put yourself in their shoes and ask yourself whether you
would like being bossed around and have little space to breathe. Likewise,
children do not enjoy being bossed either!
You should always strive to express a strong passion and desire to have
significant relationships with your students or children. This will assist you
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greatly in curbing the growth of possible negative feelings such as loath and
’m- revenge from your students, thus making your teaching process much more
comfortable.
4. Support Your Students’ Sense of Belonging

Whenever children and students lack the sense of belonging in a classroom,
the immediate course of action is usually to act out. The reason behind this
is because by doing so, they are subconsciously attempting to justify the
feelings of being locked out of the class’ social circle.
In such a scenario, you should see to it that you put yourself in their
shoes and uplift the affected students' sense of belonging.
5. Reprimand in a Different Manner w

Whenever you seek to punish or reprimand a student, you can begin by @
reinforcing positive behavior through saying things like, "You’ve been doing
@ so well late/y. In fact, your behavior has been very impressive. Why did you
<L decide to get involved in such a bad habit today?“ By doing so, you will have •••
at hand head-on.
After you’re done reprimanding, you can wind up on a note such as, “/ am
sure that this mistake will not happen again due to the great student you
have been until this moment. fly faith in you is great. “You can use any
D- other technique that you think will work out great for you, but ensure that
@ you practice the element of acknowledging the child s positive behaviors.
Be aware of the many punishment mistakes that are made too often. Take a
)“ look at the punishment tips in that post as well.
CONCLUSION
The teaching profession is excellent in a vast array of ways with the highlight
of it all being the power you are given to shape the lives of the students
entrusted to you. However, it is important to note that it is not always a
'L wal k in the park due to the various challenges that you are bound to face
especially when dealing with children.As much as these problems could be
•m‹ overwhelming, you should know that there is always a way to solve them.
Q.3 a. Differentiate between management, control and discipline.
b. How can working with parents help ateacher in solving

classroom problems? (10)
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques
that teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on
task, and academically productive during a class. When classroom-
management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the
behaviors that impede learning for both individual students and groups of
students, while maximizing the behaviors that facilitate or enhance
learning. Generally speaking, effective teachers tend to display strong
classroom-management skills, while the hallmark of the inexperienced or
less effective teacher is a disorderly classroom filled with students who are
not working or paying attention.
CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE
Discipline is defined as the practice of teaching others to obey rules or w
norms by using punishment to correct unwanted behaviors. In a classroom,
a teacher uses discipline to ensure routine is maintained, school rules are
enforced, and the students are in a safe learning environment. While the
word discipline seems negative, the goal of using discipline is to teach
students boundaries and limits to help students achieve personal and
academic life goals.
Without discipline, learning cannot be accomplished. If students constantly
disrupt the teacher, the others in class are affected. If a student does not
follow the rules and does not complete class work or homework, that
student is missing out on valuable learning opportunities. The goal of
discipline is to ensure each student receives the most from their education.
Let's take a look at some strate ies teachers can use in the classroom.
CLASSRO ON
Classroo Con I giv e h e Ibid better manage internet
‹y access in eir lassroo ! CIassroom_ControI improves productivity by
helping teach schedule the duration and format of their lessons.
Classr oom management is crucial in classr ooms because it supports the
proper execution of curriculum development, developing best teaching
practices, and putting them into action. Classroom management can be
explained as the actions and directions that teachers use to create a
successful learning environment; indeed, having a positive impact on
students achieving given learning requirements and goals.
IMPORTANCE OF CLASS MANAGEMENT
Teachers do not focus on learning classroom management, because higher
education programs do not put an emphasis on the teacher attaining
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classroom management; indeed, the focus is on creating a conducive

learning atmosphere for the student. These tools enable teachers to have
the resources available to properly and successfully educate upcoming
generations, and ensure future successes as a nation. According to
Moskayvitz & Hayman ( 1976), once a teacher loses control of their
classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control.
Also, research from Berliner ( 1988) and Brophy & Good (1986) shows that
the time a teacher must take to correct misbehavior caused by poor
classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic
engagement in the classroom. From the student’s perspective, effective -
classroom management involves clear communication of behavioral and
academic expectations as well as a cooperative learning environment.
What Is the Difference between Classroom Management & @
Discipline? =•
A key component of teaching is effective classroom management. This is the
set of steps you follow to ensure that your students pay attention, don’t
distract each other and generally stay on task. This is different from
discipline, which is just one part of classroom management. Where
discipline describes the consequences you give students for not following the
rules, classroom management describes a more general set of procedures,
most of which are aimed at avoiding problems rather than responding to them.
“4 Classroom Setup
The classroom setup is an example of classroom management that is not
discipline. After a few weeks of teaching, it becomes fairly clear which
students should not be sitting near one another, as certain friends (and
enemies) will distract one another and the children around them for the
entire lesson. Discipline would be punishing these children every time they
disrupt the class; classroom management is moving them somewhere else
to keep the disruption from happening in the first place.
'L Rules
An example of the difference between discipline and classroom management
is the classroom rules. Classroom management is when you make the rules
clear to the children, either through discussion or by teaching through
another method. Posting these rules in a prominent place is another way to
help manage your classroom -- by making the rules clear to children and
making them visible, you make it less likely that the rules will be violated.
Discipline is how you respond to violations of these rules. This makes rules
an excellent way to highlight these differences - classroom management is
the front end of the rules and discipline is the back end.
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Occupying Students
Classroom management is also a matter of keeping students occupied,
either in a lesson, discussion or activity. When children have something to
focus on, they are less likely to create their own stimuli by "zoning out" or
misbehaving. So, particularly for younger years, it is strongly recommended
that teachers over plan their lessons in order to always give the children
something to do.
Discipline is a matter of dishing out consequences when students go off task,
whether the lesson is well-planned or not. In general, the more thoroughly
occupied students are, the less discipline they will need.
Tona setting
A final example of a difference between classroom management and
discipline is the general tone you set. You set a tone in classroom
management by your confidence, the way you present @
yourself and how well you relate to students. If you do these well, your •=
classroom will be well-managed because it will be clear to students who is in
control. -
Discipline also requires tone-setting. Once you’ve made the rules clear, you
need to follow through the minute someone violates them. This is basically
setting an example. It's often not enough to simply have rules; rather, you
need to let students know you're serious. This concept and that mentioned
above are examples of setting a tone in which the teacher is in control and
é creating a positive learning environment.
Good parent-teacher relationships
A good relationship with your child’s teacher and school is a great starting
point for handling any problems that come up at school.
You can lay the groundwork for a good parent-teacher relationship by

introducing yourself and getting to know your child’s teacher as early as
possible. Communicating and building relationships with your child’s teacher
is better than having contact with the teacher only when there‘s a problem.
Encourage the parental involvement

A parent’s contribution to the school community is huge. Many parents have
unique skills that can be used to support the school community. Parents are
great volunteers on field trips or school events. Parents also are great at
creating and spearheading programs within the school. As a teacher, it is
important when you speak to parents to listen closely. Du ring those
conversations, you not only learn about the student, but you also learn
number)
about the parents. During the conversation, your parents may come up with
’m- ideas that can benefit you as a teacher.
Research shows that parental involvement can free teachers to focus more
on the task of teaching children. Also, by having more contact with parents,
teachers learn more about students' needs and home environment, which is
information they can apply toward better meeting those needs. Parents who
are involved tend to have a more positive view of teachers, which results in
improved teacher morale.
Good two-way communication
Good two-may communication between families and schools is necessary for @
your students' success. Not surprisingly, research shows that the more
parents and teachers share relevant information with each other about a
student, the better equipped both will be to help that student achieve -
academically. @
Opportunities for two-way communication include: -
Parent conferences w
Parent-teacher organizations or school community councils
Weekly or monthly folders of student work sent home for parent review and
comment -
Phone calls
E-mail or school website
Communicate often and vary the communication

As a teacher, it is important that after making initial contact that you
continue the contact. Parent con tact is not always about calling them on the
phone. Blake an effort that if parents pick their child up, you stop and have a
conversation face to face. One of the best ways to build that relationship is
to communicate weekly in a newsletter. Parents will appreciate when they
are kept infor d about what is goin on in the classroom and in the school.
Q.4 a. Dis s r made achievement tests?
b. How can teacher made tests be improved by using table of

specif ications. (10)
TEACH ER MADE ACHIEVEMENT TESTS
Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for testing
classroom achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching
adopted by the teacher and other curricular programmes of the school.
Teacher-made test is one of the most valuable instruments in the hands of
the teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to solve the problem or
requirements of the class for which it is prepared.
It is prepared to measure the outcomes and content of local curriculum. It is
very much flexible so that, it can be adapted to any procedure and material.
It does not require any sophisticated technique for preparation.
Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test:
A teacher-made test does not require a well-planned preparation. Even then, -
to make it more efficient and effective tool of evaluation, careful
considerations arc needed to be given while constructing such tests. @
The following steps may be followed for the preparation of teacher-made -
test: "
Planning:
Planning of a teacher-made test includes:
a. Determining the purpose and objectives of the test, ”as what to measure
and why to measure’.
b. Deciding the length of the test and portion of the syllabus to be covered. -
c. Specifying the objectives in behavioral terms. If needed, a table can even
“4 be prepared for specifications and weightage given to the objectives to be
_
measured. •••
i) d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions) according to blue-
print.
e. Having a clear knowledge and understanding of the principles of
constructing essay type, short answer type and objective type questions.
'L f. Deciding date of testing much in advance in order to give time to teachers for
test preparation and administration.
g. Seeking the co-operation and suggestion of co-teachers, experienced
teachers of other schools and test experts.
Preparation of the Test:

Planning is the philosophical aspect and preparation is the practical aspect of
test construction. All the practical aspects to be taken into consideration while
one constructs the tests. It is an art, a technique. One is to have it or to
acquire it. It requires much thinking, rethinking and reading before constructing
test items.
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Different types of objective test items viz., multiple choice, short-answer

type and matching type can be constructed. After construction, test items
should be given Io others for review and for seeking their opinions on it.
The suggestions may be sought even from others on languages, modalities
of the items, statements given, correct answers supplied and on other
possible errors anticipated. The suggestions and views thus sought will help
a test constructor in modifying and verifying his items afresh to make it
more acceptable and usable.
Arrangement of the test
After construction of the test, items should be arranged in a simple to @
complex order. For arranging the items, a teacher can adopt so many
methods viz., group-wise, unit-wise, topic rise etc. Scoring key should also
be prepared forthwith to avoid further delay in scoring. -
Direction of the test
Direction is an important part of a test construction. Without giving a proper
direction or instruction, there will be a probability of losing the authenticity
of the test reliability. It may create a misunderstanding in the students also.
Standardized test vs. teacher-made tests
There are generally two types of tests used to evaluate environmental
education programs: standardized tests (prepared by publishing companies,
formal testing agencies, and universities), and classroom tests (prepared by
the teacher).
Standardized tests are formal tests that allow you to compare your students
with other students in the region or country. These tests are usually valid
') and reliable because they have been tested on large sample populations and
have been revised to eliminate unreliable or invalid questions. They are
useful if you want to compare your students with other students or if you ’
want to rank students against the "norm. "
One serious drawback to standardized tests is that they are not effective
with students that have abilities, needs, or problems that differ from those
of the "normal" student population. In addition, the content of standardized
tests does not always match what is taught in a certain school or classroom.
Standardized tests are often not appropriate measures of environmental
education learning. Not only do the questions often not deal with
environmental issues or ecological content, but the types of questions mainly
test for knowledge and facts—not skills and attitudes, two important
components of an environmental education program. Although standardized
tests are changing to include more variety and to encourage higher-level
thinking, they are still very limiting and should not be used as the sole
measure of a student's performance.
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Unlike standardized tests, teacher developed tests have not been tested on
sample populations of students and do not allow you to compare your
students to a standard. Instead, these tests (also called criterion-reference
tests), help test a student s understanding of a particular (and often limited)
body of knowledge.
WHAT IS A TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS?

A TOS, sometimes called a test blueprint, is a table that helps teachers align
objectives, instruction, and assessment (e.g., Notar, Zuelke, Wilson, &
Yun ker, 2004). This strategy can be used for a variety of assessment
methods but is most commonly associated with constructing traditional
summative tests. When constructing a test, teachers need to be concerned
that the test measures an adequate sampling of the class content at the
cognitive level that the material was taught. The TOS can help teachers map
the amount of class time spent on each objective with the cognitive level at
which each objective was taught thereby helping teachers to identify the
types of items they need to include on their tests.
The TOS is a Tool for Every Teacher
The cornerstone of classroom assessment practices is the validity of the
judgments about students’ learning and knowledge (Wolming & Wilkstrom,
20 10). A TOS is one tool that teachers can use to support their professional
judgment when creating or selecting test for use with their students.
é The TOS can be used in conjunction with lesson and unit planning to help
teacher make clear the connections between planning, instruction, and
assessment.
Table of specification can help teachers map the amount of class time spent
on each objective with the cognitive level at which each objective was taught
thereby helping teachers to identify tne type of items they used to include in
their tests. However, TOS consider how you can adapt the underlying
strategy to your own instructional needs. (Five & Didonal) Table of
specification serves to clearly define the scope and the focus of the test. It
ensures that teachers include test items that tap different levels of cognitive
complexity when measuring student’s assessment.
The table serves to clearly define the scope and focus of the test. It ensures
that the teachers include items that tap different levels of cognitive
complexity when measuring students’ achievement. Kubiszn and Borich
(2003, Suggested that teachers should use a table of specification so that
they won’t forget the details. Teachers can be assured that they are
measuring students learning across a wide range of content and reading as
well as cognitive processes requiring higher order thinking. By providing a
table of specification prior to the items writing stage, the test developer can
number)
guarantee that the resulting instrument contains a proper balance of topical

’m- coverage and taps a desired range of cognitive skills.
The use of test blue print or table of specification according to Akem and
Agbe (2003), Nehrens and Leh mann (2001) will help to ensure that:
“ 1. Teachers are able to determine what topic is being stressed and also
assist in the preparation of tests that reflect what students have learnt and
also limit the amount of time spent on each unit.
2. That no important objective or content area will be advertently omitted.
3. The table of specifications can assist immensely in the preparation of test
items, production of valid and well robust test, in the classification of -
objectives to both teacher and students, and in assisting the teacher to -
select the most appropriate teaching strategy. in
4. Only those aims and objectives actually involved in the instructional
process will be assessed. That each objective will receive a proportional
emphasis on the test in relation to the emphasis placed on that objective by
the teacher.
Q.5 a. Discuss e itiative ta n by t overnment for

Universalization educ n. (1
é b. Discuss at ducati in e li ati ies. (10)
UNIVERSALIZATION OFEDUCATION
Universalization of primary education remains a major objective of all the
government of Pakistan since its inception. For achieving Universalization of
primary education, the committee of the primary and secondary education
(1947) considered it is essential that a national system of education should
be based on the strong foundations of free and compulsory primary
education.
The Government of Pakistan is putting all its resources to achieve this target
but till today it has not been possible. There are some hurdles in achieving
the target of Universalization of primary education. On one hand education is
considered as a key to secure future and on the other hand lack of
awareness in the parents, School distance from home, market situation, and
strict atmosphere in schools, non availability of teachers and lack of basic
facilities are some common issues, which kept children away from schools.
Pa kistan is one of the most populated countries in the world. National
Education Policy and Implementation program (1979) declared that a
minimum level of education for all citizens is not only a basic human right
but also is imperative for conscious participation of the masses in the
development process of sovereign nation. To educate maximum mass
government of Pakistan announces in the Education Policy (1972 :3) that
education will be made free and universal up to grade 10. National Education
Policy (1992) documented that Universalization of primary education has
remained a desired goal of successive policies and plans. The policy
highlighted the following limitations which have obstructed universalization:
•Low female participation
• Rapid increase in the population of 5-9 age groups.
• Drop out rate of up to 50 %.
• Lack of access to primary schools.
• Resource availability.
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT
Pa kistan is a signatory of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
and many other declarations down to the World Declaration on Education for
All ( 1990), the World Education Forum: Dakar Framework for Action 2000,
the Recife Declaration of E-9 Countries 2000 and the Beijing Declaration of E-
9 Countries on ICT and EFA 2001. But Pakistan, despite policy statements
and target setting in various education policies and five-year plans is still far
below universal primary education access and retention. Almost all the
governments launched different campaigns for awaking awareness about
education among the parents and offer different rewards for sending children
“4 to schools.
National education Policy (1992) recognized the following strategies to
meet ') the challenge of Universalization of primary education: About 265,000 new
primary school teachers will be trained and recruited. As far as possible,
female teachers will be recruited for primary schools. The upper age limit for ’
appointment as primary teacher will be relaxed. The non-government
organizations (NGOs) will be encouraged to set up resource centre for the
in-service training of teachers- National education Policy (1998-2010) states
'L that in 1996-97, out of total 19.22 million primary school age (5-9 years)
population, only 13.72 million were in school and 5.5 million were left-out,
who were never enrolled.
According to Economic Survey of Pakistan (2009) , literacy rate is 5d %
(69% for male and 44% for female) in 2007-08. Literacy remains higher in
urban areas (71%) than in rural areas (49%) and more in men (69%)
compared to Women (44%). High population growth, cultural and socio-
economic barriers have kept literacy rates depressingly low in Khan 151
Pa kistan (Mohammad & Bregman, 1998).
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Federal and Provincial Governments are introducing projects with the aid of
foreign countries and Public-private partnership to increase the net
enrolment at primary level. Government also, collaborating with
nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to provide education in the far flung
areas of the country. One of the reasons of not sending children to schools
or drop out in the mid way is the children labor. To meet the expenditures,
parents send their children to workplaces. These children are unable to join
the formal institutions. To attract such children to schools is a challenge for
the government. The result of the formal institutional structure is that
millions of children have been deprived of elementary education because
institutional facilities did not exist but primary education clashed with their
jobs (National Education Policy, 1998-2010).
Shami and Hussain (2005) conducted a study entitled “Basic Education in
Pa kistan” and found the following reasons of low enrollment in primary
schools in Pakistan: majority of boys and girls could not be enrolled in the
schools because of Expensive education, Non-availability of schools,
Remote schools, No facility for further education, Providing help at home,
Teachers‘ harsh behavior and Less conveyan ce to remote sch ools. The
reasons for leaving school during the academic year were expensive
education, Lack of parents’ interest, large family size, Remote schools,
Security problems, Non- availability of good teachers, harsh behavior of
teachers and corporal punishment.
Government of Pa kistan is providing all the facilities to ensure the
universalization of primary education, it is needed that awareness about
.) education may be created among the parents so that they may send their
children to schools. Public schools may play their role in decreasing the
dropout rate. Curriculum may design in such a way that it may be helpful for
the students out of schools. In addition, teachers may be appointed in the
far flung areas so that people send their children. Local Community may be
involved after providing special training about importance of education. It is
also considered that public institutions are not catering quality education,
this notion may be abolished.
'L FEMALE EDUCATION
Among the factors keeping girls out of school, Human Rights Watch found,
are tne government’s under-investment in schools, lack of schools,
prohibitive school fees and related costs, corporal punishment, and a failure
to enforce compulsory education. Human Rights Watch also found poor
quality within government and low-cost private schools, a lack of
government regulation of private schools, and corruption.
In addition to these factors within the education system, girls are also
blocked from attending school by external factors including child labor,
gender discrimination, child marriage, sexual harassment, insecurity, and
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attacks on education. The Pakistan government has consistently invested

far less in education than is recommended by international standards. As of
2017, Pakistan was spending less than 2.8 percent of its gross domestic
product on education — far below the recommended 4 to 6 percent —
leaving the government’s education system severely under-funded.
Government schools are in such short supply that even in Pakistan‘s major
cities, many children cannot reach a school on foot safely in a reasonable
amount of time. The situation is far worse in rural areas. And there are many
more schools for boys than for girls.
“Even parents who are not educated themselves understand that their
daughters’ future depends on them going to school, but the government is
abandoning these families,” Gerntholtz said. “Pakistan’s future depends on
educating its children, including its girls.”
An “upward bottleneck” exists as children, especially girls, get older.
Secondary schools are in shorter supply than primary schools, and colleges
have even less capacity, especially for girls. Many girls who complete the
top level at one school cannot access a school where they could go on to
the next level. In the absence of an adequate system of government
schools, there has been a massive growth in the number of private schools,
many of them low-cost. But poor families often cannot afford any tuition fees
and the government’s near-total failure to regulate and monitor these
schools means that many are of poor quality.
The government recognizes that education reform is desperately needed
and promises to ma ke this a priority, espe all for irls — a ositive step.
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Q.1 a. Elaborate the concept of instructional technology.

b. Which projected and non-projected aids are suitable for

Instructional technology includes practical techniques of instructional

INSTRUCTIONAL VS EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

- Understanding User Requirements

Creating Strategies and Content

developing instructional materials, selecting the applications and methods to

Forming Evaluation and Feedback Methods

With the rise of the millennial-generation in workforce, learning methods are

PROTECTED AND NON-PROTECTED AIDS FOR TEACHNG

Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and

Audiovisual aids make a lesson or a lecture more interesting and a

Schools are increasingly investing in software, classroom computers, iPads

Integrating Visual Aids Ideas

Vertica L Layout vv/ List & Photos

• Educational charts to make data accessible

b. Highlight teacher’s learning deficits.

In general, a kid’s behavior is deemed to be normal if it is socially,

COMMON BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN

3.. Disrespect and backtalk

3. Aggressive or violent behavior

The easiest way to respond to aggression in children is to yell back at them.

8. Behavior problems in school

school for many reasons: bullying, academic issues, resistance to authority

WHEN TO GET HELP---In case abnormal behaviors turn into something a«

TEACHER’S ROLE IN LEARNING DEFICITS

1. Do What Your Students Don’t Expect

2. Find Positive Things about Them

3. Don’t Act too Bossy or Showcase Bad Modeling

4. Support Your Students’ Sense of Belonging

5. Reprimand in a Different Manner w

b. How can working with parents help ateacher in solving

classroom management; indeed, the focus is on creating a conducive

You can lay the groundwork for a good parent-teacher relationship by

Encourage the parental involvement

Communicate often and vary the communication

Q.4 a. Dis s r made achievement tests?

b. How can teacher made tests be improved by using table of

Preparation of the Test:

Different types of objective test items viz., multiple choice, short-answer

WHAT IS A TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS?

guarantee that the resulting instrument contains a proper balance of topical

Q.5 a. Discuss e itiative ta n by t overnment for

attacks on education. The Pakistan government has consistently invested

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