Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Cantilan,Surigao del Sur 8317
Telefax No. 086-212-5132
www.sdssu.edu.ph

MODULE ONE
Introduction to Research

A Course Pack in Research 1

Technology Research 1(Methods of Research)

FRANKLIN M. GANANCIAS, DIT(CAR)

INSTRUCTOR II
August 2020

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 Weeks 2-3

DISCLAIMER

This module is a collection of the works by various authors by internet sources, manuals,
and books and will only be used for educational purposes. The authors who are the source of some
sections contained in this module are granted due recognition. The compiler/owner shall not claim
copyrights in respect of any element from other sources.

I. Course Overview
This course pack is specifically produced for the course Special Project 1 (Thesis
Writing 1) intended for the students of SDSSU Cantilan campus enrolled in the BTVTED and
BTLED program. This is the first module for the prelim period. This module begins by
describing what we understand by the term ‘research’. Research is considered as a process
and the key stages that provide a basic plan for conducting research are identified.
Discussions then move on to the role of research in both the natural and social sciences.
These discussions explore how data, information, knowledge, decision-making, and the
research–client relationship relate to research. Having provided this grounding, the unit
then focuses on the theoretical considerations involved in the first stage of the research
process: formulating the research problem and research questions, hypotheses or
objectives. Tips on writing research questions and developing hypotheses are provided.
Plagiarism is also introduced to insure original works.

II. General Instruction

This module begins with an Introduction that encapsulates the topics or lessons that
students of this course have to learn, understand and value. This Module is composed of five
parts of which the first part pertains to the Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs). The next part
is the course direction where students are directed to focus their respective course works. The
nitty-gritties of the course are also placed in the lecture and discussion which is the third part
of the module. Each student taking this course is also required to answer all the assessment
tasks (refer to tasks and completion time matrix below) to measure whether the student have
learned from the lessons. For the students to grasp all the essentials of the topics covered in a
particular lesson, links, urls, videos (in usb stick) and other supplementary reading materials
are provided in this module.

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III. Academic Integrity

Academic honesty is required of all students. Plagiarism--to take and pass off as one’s
own work, the work or ideas of another--is a form of academic dishonesty. Penalties may be
assigned for any form of academic dishonesty” (See Student Handbook/College Manual).
Sanctions for breaches in academic integrity may include receiving a grade of an “Failed” on a
test or assignment. In addition, the Director of Student Affairs may impose further
administrative sanctions.

IV. Introduction

Four major topics are included in this module. The first major topic discusses what a
research is all about. Knowing what research is all about we will now then explore on how to
write research questions. The differences between different research approaches will also be
tackled and the importance of plagiarism in maintaining a good research output.

Lesson 1: What is a Research?

Intended Learning Outcomes

After the lesson, students are expected to:

 explain what is meant by the term ‘research’ and describe the stages of the research
process

Research - is an Organized Inquiry carried out to provide information for

solving problems.
- it is said to be the cornerstone of every science

Re Search Process

again  Step by Step

find
 Phases
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3|Page TechnologyResearch1(MethodsofResearch)
 - is a process of acquiring solution to a given problem which the result can serve as
basis for POLICY FORMULATION AND ENHANCEMENT.
- is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our
understanding of the world in general and of the phenomenon under study in particular.

Research in our everyday lives

We all encountered research in our everyday lives. The results of research on various
topics are presented to us in the form of newspaper articles, books, reports, and television
programs. For example, crime level figures are presented to us by television news reports
and some topics, such as diet and health, are very popular with magazines as well as
television programs. Thus, through various media we have become accustomed to seeing,
reading and hearing about research and although we may not be aware of it, we are used to
making our own judgments about research findings. If we take the example of diet and
health, many of us have taken into consideration information that has been presented on
‘healthy eating’ and have made our own choices about diet within the context of our
own lives. We assess the information with which we are presented, form an opinion as to
the validity and relevance of the research, and come to our own conclusions based on
considerations such as:
 what we understand is the question or problem to be answered
 how the findings are presented
 why the research was conducted
 what we know about who conducted the research
 what other people think about the information
 how the research findings relate to us
We may choose to ignore the information, we may might not understand what the
findings mean, we may disagree, or we may agree with the findings and either adjust our
eating habits or decide that the costs of adjustment are too high relative to the benefits.
For some, because of their life circumstances, such as those suffering from a food shortage,
the information may be of little immediate value. In other words, you may not be aware
of it, but you already have some understanding of the research process, the role of research,
research concepts, and research evaluation.

Research as a process

Research can be seen as a series of linked activities moving from a beginning to an

end. Research usually begins with the identification of a problem followed by formulation of
research questions or objectives. Proceeding from this the researcher determines how best
to answer these questions and so decides what information to collect, how it will be
collected, and how it will be analyzed in order to answer the research question.

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 Research process — linear representation

Described in this way the research process is given the impression of linearity, yet
research investigation is often an iterative process whereby the process of conducting
the research will give rise to new ideas which, in turn, feed back into the data collection and
analysis stage. Decisions made early in the research process are often revisited in the light
of new insights or practical problems encountered along the way.

Cyclical or iterative research process

 (1) Through the process of designing your research, consideration of both practical and
conceptual issues may force you to reconsider your original research question.
(2) Difficulties with access to research sites or participants may cause you to
reconsider your questions or your methods.
(3) Issues arising during data collection may suggest that additional data are required
or reveal problems with the original research question.
(4) Problems or new questions arising from analysis of data collected so far may result in
a need to collect more data, sample elsewhere or employ a different technique.
(5) Finally you progress to the report writing stage.

Regardless of the route taken subsequently, research should start with the problem
and the research questions. If the intention of research is to answer your questions, it
follows that choice of method should develop from your question: choose the method
that can best provide the information you need to answer your research question given
the resources available to you. This is one reason why it is very important to be clear as
to what you are asking.
As you can see there are numerous choices to be made within the research process.
Planning your research involves the consideration of four overlapping themes.
 The conceptual approach – the philosophical underpinnings of research
 Research design – how data collection is organized
 Data collection techniques – how data are collected
 Sampling – from whom data are collected

These aspects of research planning can be represented as forming different layers of a

research ‘onion’.

The ‘onion’ diagram of research choices

 Each layer of the onion presents a different set of choices regarding research
philosophy, research approach, method and so on. All research involves choices at all these
levels, though these choices are not always made explicit. Choices further into the centre of
the onion are often, but not always, contingent on those made further out.

Other considerations

Choices in research planning must also take into account the following:
 the types of information outputs required – who needs the information and for what
purposes
 research resources – time, funds, facilities, staff, and access
 ethical considerations – for example, within the research plan is it possible to obtain
informed consent from all participants, does the plan involve any risks to the safety
of the researcher, can the researchers assure the confidentiality of all information
given?

Understanding Research terminology

You might notice when reading about research that different authors use an
assortment of terminology to describe the stages of the research process. This can make
reading around the subject somewhat confusing and unclear.
It is normally common that you encounter the following terms, some of which may seem
somewhat interchangeable.
 ‘Research topic’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing as others’
use of the terms ‘research problem’ and ‘research situation’.
 ‘Research strategy’ often used interchangeably or to mean the same thing as others’
use of the term ‘research approach’.
 ‘Method’ can refer to a broad strategy of data collection or a specific tool for
collecting data. For example ‘survey’ or ‘ethnography’ are sometimes defined as
methods, as are ‘interview’ and ‘observation’. For this reason we will limit the use of
the word method.
The various ways in which approaches and designs which had been identified are not
always distinct, but overlap and can be used in different combinations. Consistent use of
terminology is also complicated by overlap between some concepts or components of the
research process (for example, according to our definitions below ‘experiment’ is both a
research design and a research strategy). This reflects both the differing use of the same
terminology and the fact that designs may be combined. This module will apply terminology
according to the following definitions.
 Research process terminology, module definitions

Plan
General plan of how research questions will be answered, this includes the approach and
design.
Research approach

This is the theoretical or conceptual basis for the research. For example: positivist,
interpretive, realist etc.
Research design

How data collection is organized in order to answer the research question. Basic design
types are: (1) Situation, ‘snap-shot’ or Baseline (sometimes called case-study); (2) Cross-
sectional comparison; (3) Longitudinal; (4) Longitudinal comparison; (5) Experiment.
Research strategy

Refers to a methodological practice or tradition: For example: experiment, survey

research, or case studies.
Data collection techniques

How data are collected: questionnaire; interview; observation; documentary analysis.

Generalised summary of the research process

Whatever approach or strategy is followed, the research process can usually be

summarized as follows:
 Identify and formulate the research topic or problem

Select, narrow and formulate the topic or problem to be studied and conduct
preliminary literature search.
 Literature search and review

Read around the subject to help clarify your research topic, questions, and
methods. Critically review literature to compare your research with what has
already been done, and to give context. This stage interacts with other stages.
 Research objectives, questions, and hypotheses

Define clear questions and/or hypotheses.

 Research approach, design, and strategy

Select a research approach and design that will make it possible to answer
research questions and plan the overall research strategy.
Identify the data you want to record and from whom/where you are going to collect
it (sampling).
  Data collection
The process by which information are gathered it may also varies depending on the
type of research and the procedure it takes.

 Data analysis
The data collected are prepared in such a way that they describe and highlight what
was found in the research. Analytical tools are used to describe the data and
measure or explore relationships between the subjects or items of interest.
 Generalisation and write-up
The researcher relates the evidence collected to the research question(s), draws
conclusions about the question(s) or hypotheses, and acknowledges limitations of
the research.

What makes research scientific?

We place special emphasis on the process of research because it is the figure with
which this is carried out (the scientific method) that distinguishes scientific research from
other forms of enquiry, and scientific knowledge from other kinds of knowledge.
Scientific method is one means by which knowledge is created; however, it is not the
only way we know or understand our world. Three other modes of knowing in human
societies can be identified.
 Authoritarian – individuals serve as sources of knowledge by virtue of their social or
political position. These individuals may be religious or political leaders, kings or
‘experts’ such as respected scientists.
 Mystical – knowledge is sought from the supernatural world.
 Rationalistic – within the school of rationalism knowledge can be derived from the
rules of logic and without reference to the empirical world.
In contrast to the modes listed above, scientific knowledge about the world is based
upon empirical observation. Observation is used to develop theory to help us to describe,
understand, and predict how our world works. The procedures by which observations are
gathered, evaluated, and used to produce new knowledge are termed methodology.
Research methodologies are the rules and procedures by which knowledge is
generated and shared. They allow research and therefore knowledge claims to be
evaluated. The following criteria are commonly used to evaluate scientific research
(Bryman 2008).
 Reliability - Is the research study repeatable? – that is: are the measures used
reliable and consistent. If I go back and repeat the measurements in the same
conditions will I get the same results?
 Replication - This refers to the idea that the procedures (methodology)
employed in the study are reported in sufficient detail that a second researcher could
 repeat the study.
 Validity – This concerns the integrity of conclusions that are generated through a
research study. There are a number of issues raised here including
(1) does the measure employed accurately reflect the concept under
investigation; (2) is the causal relationship robust – can we be sure that X is the
cause of Y? (3) Can we be confident that we can extrapolate our findings beyond the
research context?
In certain instances and particularly where a research study is not seeking to
extrapolate statistical findings beyond the research context, the criteria of
trustworthiness has been suggested as a means to ensure the integrity of conclusions.
All the criteria above are judged by perceived figure in method; that is confidence
that the researcher has followed accepted procedures to ensure to the fullest that the
conclusions reached are robust. To achieve confidence in the results of a study
demands ‘disciplined inquiry’ such that the data, arguments, and reasoning are able to
withstand examination by other members of the scientific community.

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Lesson 2: RESEARCH FOR POLICY AND DECISION-MAKING

Overview

In the previous section we briefly considered the characteristics that are deemed to make
research scientific; in this section we will consider what makes research useful.

Intended Learning Outcome

By the end of this section, students should be able to:

 discuss the impact of information from research on decision-making by considering

‘who needs information’, the users of information (clients) and the quality of
information

Why research? The role of information

Research begins when we want to know something. Research is concerned with
increasing our understanding. Research provides us with the information and
knowledge needed for problem solving and making decisions.

Research is sometimes divided into pure (or basic) and applied research in order to make a
distinction between research that is carried out to further our knowledge and that which
seeks to apply pre-existing knowledge to real world problems. Our focus here is applied
research for decision-making for public policy. In this context the purpose of research is
‘problem solving’.

Research for problem solving

Problem solving can be broken down into a number of separate components, each of which
requires information and analysis:
 identification of problems
 diagnosis of causes
 identification of potential solutions
 decision for action
 monitoring and evaluation of action and outcomes
Information for policy-making will therefore serve one or more of the following
functions.
 Description – to provide baseline data or simply a picture of how things are.
 Explanation (analytical) – to understand why things are the way they are, what
factors explain the way things are.
 Prediction – to predict how systems will change under alternative scenarios
 (modelling).
 Prescription and planning (decision-making) – prescription and planning relating to
changes in existing systems.
 Monitoring and evaluation – monitoring and evaluation of the effects of changes
during and after they have been made. Investigations may be made to compare results
in practice with predictions, or to monitor the effects of a policy, management
technique or treatment.

Examples of research serving the functions listed above:

Function Natural science Social science

Description
Ecological survey of an Baseline survey of small
estuarine habitat businesses in a province

Explanation
Field experiment in grassland Study comparing two
community manipulating communities with differing
grazing pressure teenage pregnancy rates

Prediction
Study investigating the Study investigating the
response of fish populations effects of increased taxation
to increased nitrates in river on household savings

Monitoring and
Periodic surveys of soil Survey of school attendance
evaluation
quality adjacent to following introduction of fre
manufacturing plant school meals

Information, knowledge, and power

Behind the list of problem-solving activities or research functions is a set of very

important social and political questions about who is involved and who is in control at each
stage.
 Who identifies problems?
 Who diagnoses causes?
 Who identifies potential solutions?
 Who decides on action?
 Who monitors and evaluates action and outcomes?
 These questions emphasizes the central role of decision-makers in decision-making.
This may seem rather obvious, but it is important to recognize that different people have
different objectives, different information, different views of the world, different access to
resources and power. Research for policy is therefore far from being a neutral,
objective process.
Current observations, knowledge, and policy concerns therefore tend to influence
both the selection of topics to be researched and the way that they are researched. How
may this relationship between policy and research limit the benefits of research for policy-
makers? How may this relationship between policy and research pose problems for
researchers?
Research can limit policy change or stimulate it. Thus if current policy sets the
agenda for research, then research that conforms to the broad objectives and
assumptions of current policy and uses easily available data may not ask enough
questions to challenge the fundamental approach of policy. It may then promote more
effective design and implementation of an ineffective or inappropriate policy, without
questioning the policy or looking for alternatives. This is an important danger that
researchers must be aware of. We sometimes need to question basic assumptions, and
break out of the ‘box’ of current thinking. Political currents and pressures, the demands
of clients willing to fund research, ‘fashions’ in development thinking, an emphasis on
technology or modernization, our own experience, and the availability of data and
information can all, consciously or unconsciously, strongly affect our choice of problems
to research and the questions we address in our research. This is a danger that all
researchers have consciously to guard against.

The research–client relationship

Research clients usually have a say in the topic of research and in the definition of
research objectives. These objectives will normally be related to overcoming problems
that the clients define as important.
If certain categories of stakeholders (in particular the socially disadvantaged) are not
considered as research clients, their particular interests and problems (as they define them)
are unlikely to be investigated. This will then affect the focus of the research, how it is
conducted and the research findings. The cycle of learning and doing, research and
action, may thus exclude particular groups of people and their interests. This may occur
even when individual research studies are conducted using apparently sound and objective
research methodologies.

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 There are methods that explicitly recognize this relationship between research,
information, and development, these are participatory research methods. They attempt to
involve different stakeholders (and, particularly, more vulnerable groups) in the definition
of research problems and objectives and in the interpretation of research findings. The
process of different stakeholders reaching agreement about information on problems
and their solutions makes participatory research an implicit part of a participatory
development process.
Clients (often the research funders) are key drivers in determining the focus,
methods, and findings of research. Consequently, research may not necessarily focus on
issues that researchers may consider most important, but rather what the client is willing to
fund. Research findings should be considered in the light of the client– researcher
relationship. Clients and researchers may have a vested interest in the outcome of the
research and results may be presented to prove a point. For example, a client may
commission an experiment to show that the insecticide they manufacture is more effective
than one manufactured by another company. The results may show that their insecticide is
indeed more effective than that of their competitor under the specific test conditions.
However, are the results repeatable and do the insecticides perform in the same manner
under different test conditions?

The results should be critically assessed bearing in mind the focus and presentation.

This discussion shows that applied research topics and methods are closely related to the
philosophy, objectives, and approaches of researchers and their clients.

Research and decision-making

2.2.1 Research, information, and decision-making

Field situation Data Information Knowledge Decision-

making

Research activities

ObservationRecordingCollationAnalysis

Planning and management

Figure 2.2.1 represents the transformation of data into knowledge for decision-
making. In this context, data refer to raw, unanalyzed material; information is
analyzed data; knowledge the subsequent absorption, assimilation, and understanding
of that information. This diagram draws attention to the steps that link the situation being
studied to acquisition of data; data to information; information to knowledge; and
knowledge to decision-making.
Clearly there is scope for error, influence or bias, and delay at each of these steps.

Information for decision-making, what can go wrong?

Bias: data and information may reflect one aspect of a situation but not others. Bias may
arise by accident or deliberate manipulation of the data or information. Bias may arise
from faulty problem specification, research design, sampling, data collection, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation – that is at any stage of the research process. It can
be very difficult to detect and prevent as we all have inadequate understandings
which bias our research. Recognizing, and as far as possible reducing, bias is a critical
research skill and a major explicit and implicit focus of this module.
Recording and editing: recording, transcription, and editing errors may be introduced at
the observational stage, during recording, collating, and analysis.
Selection: data and information selected may not be relevant to the decision for which
the information is required. Information for one decision-maker may be data to another
depending upon the decisions they are concerned with.
Time: if each step takes too much time, then the whole process may not deliver
information to the relevant decision-makers in time to be used in decision-making.
Analysis and interpretation: particular problems may arise in analysis and interpretation,
such as the use of an inappropriate analysis technique leading to invalid
interpretation.
This summary allows us to identify some of the qualities required of information if it is to
be useful in decision-making.

Qualities of ‘good’ or useful information?

The definition of ‘good’ information varies between different users of information.

Therefore it may be helpful to consider who might be the users of information
generated by research?
 planners have clear information requirements as they seek to identify and solve
problems as outlined above
  implementers of projects need to monitor what they are achieving and the
impacts of their activities, in order to adjust their activities

 policy-makers, like planners, must be informed about problems, their causes, and
means of overcoming them

 donors seek to take actions to support other stakeholders and at the same time
pursue their own, sometimes contradictory, objectives

 service agencies (such as extension and research organizations, and input and
output marketing companies, for example) need to make decisions about how to
invest and what activities to engage in

 academics can be major users of information

 comprehensive (in its coverage of issues important for a particular decision)

 consistent with previous studies (as regards methods or coverage) and

internally consistent as regards facts and conclusions

 clearly presented and easy to comprehend without excessive detail

 relevant to the problem under consideration

 reliable and accurate

 representative of the situation as a whole, not biased or one-sided in its

coverage

 timely, with regard to the timing of decisions

 generalised and applied only to situations similar to those from which it was
obtained

 directed and delivered to the relevant decision-makers

 cost-effective, providing information as cheaply as possible at costs in

proportion to the potential benefits gained from improved decision-making
There are often conflicts between, for example, cost-effectiveness and timeliness on the
one hand, and comprehensiveness and reliability on the other. Considerable skill is
required in research design and management; there is usually a trade-off between these
parameters.
How knowledge is used in decision-making

The utilization of research for decision-making is mediated by social and political

factors. Research findings do not always feed directly into decision-making for policy and
practice. However, research may influence the policy process and the actions of
practitioners even if not used directly.
Four main types of research utilization identified:

(1) Instrumental use – research feeds directly into decision-making

(2) Conceptual use – research changes practitioners’ understanding providing new ways
of thinking
(3) Mobilization of support – research as an instrument of persuasion

(4) Wider influence – research findings may come into use through networks of
practitioners and researchers and alter policy paradigms or belief communities
 Lesson 3. FROM RESEARCH IDEA TO RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM

Section Overview

In this section we consider where ideas for research come from and the techniques
we can use to generate questions from general ideas.

Section Learning Outcome

By the end of this section, students should be able to:

 formulate a research topic or problem

Where do research ideas come from?

Ideas for research problems or topics can arise from a range of sources such as
personal or professional experience, a theory, the media, or other research studies.

Personal or professional experience

Our daily personal or professional experience may lead us to identify a problem for
which we would like a solution. Alternatively, we may encounter a question or
questions that we would like to try and answer.
For example, on a personal level, you may prefer the taste of organically produced
vegetables and thus wonder if people in general prefer the taste of organically
produced vegetables to those produced non-organically. The research topic is a study into
taste preferences and the question ‘do people in general prefer the taste of
organically produced vegetables to those produced non-organically?’ Alternatively, for
example, as a professional nature reserve warden you may want to encourage the
establishment and spread of a particular plant species because you know it is a food
source for a rare butterfly. The research problem may be, ‘how do I encourage the spread
of the plant species of interest?’

Theory

Theories are ideas about how things relate to each other. Theories may be general,
commonly held beliefs (such as, local insects which are the cause of a decline in rice
production in the Philippines) or more technical ideas (for example, that global warming is
causing a change to the timing of the seasonal responses of fruit bearing trees in the
Philippines).
There are many ways of expressing theories, some are very formal, others are
informal. Here are some examples:
  Keynes’ statement that ... ‘men are disposed as a rule and on average, to
increase their consumption as their income increases, but not as much as the
increase in their income ...’ is a theory.
 The idea that distance learners have different needs than on-campus students is a
theory.
 A hunch that crossing two particular strains of maize will produce a more
drought-tolerant variety is a theory.
 The assumption that every species has a fundamental niche, is a theory.

Theories may be useful in suggesting interesting questions and generally guiding

fieldwork, but should not restrict us from exploring alternative explanations. The end
result of the research process is knowledge.

Literature and the media

There are many sources of literature, such as books, journal articles, and
newspapers. When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter gaps in
information and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution. These
may provide a good basis for research. We are also flooded with information presented
by the media, such as television, which again might give rise to research ideas.

Formulating the research problem

Once the general topic or problem has been identified, this should then be stated as
a clear research problem, that is, taken from just a statement about a problematic
situation to a clearly defined researchable problem that identifies the issues you are
trying to address.
It is not always easy to formulate the research problem simply and clearly. In some
areas of scientific research the investigator might spend years exploring, thinking, and
researching before they are clear about what research questions they are seeking to
answer. Many topics may prove too wide-ranging to provide a researchable problem.
Choosing to study, for instance a social issue such as child poverty, does not in itself
provide a researchable problem. The problem is too wide- ranging for one researcher to
address. Time and resources would make this unfeasible and the results from such a
study would consequently lack depth and focus.
Statement of research problem

An adequate statement of the research problem is one of the most important parts of the
research. Different researchers are likely to generate a variety of researchable problems
from the same situation since there are many research issues that can arise out of a
general problem situation. Your research will be able to pursue only one in depth.
 For a problem statement to be effective in the planning of applied research it should have
the following characteristics (Andrew and Hildebrand 1982).
(1) The problem reflects felt needs

(2) The problem is non-hypothetical, ie it must be based on factual evidence

(3) It should suggest meaningful and testable hypotheses – to avoid answers that are of
little or no use to the alleviation of the problem
(4) The problems should be relevant and manageable

Formulating the research problem allows you to make clear, both to yourself and the
reader, what the purpose of your research is. Subsequent elaboration of method
should be oriented to providing information to address that problem. The problem
statement is therefore a very important device for keeping you on track with your
research. It is also one means by which your research will be evaluated – does the
research address the problem as stated.

So how do we get from the research problem to researchable questions?

Arriving at specific research objectives, questions or hypotheses from an idea or problem
is a highly personalized activity – there are different ways of doing it and we all do it
differently. Below is one suggestion based around the idea of ‘brainstorming’. The results
of this process can be displayed in the form of a ‘spider diagram’ or mental map of
ideas and themes related to your research idea. The resulting conceptual map can
serve both as a starting point and as a conceptual framework for your investigation.

Conceptual frameworks

A common tactic here is to ‘unpack’ your idea or problem thus generating a range of
possibilities before narrowing down on one or two themes. The following are the suggested
steps:
(1) write down the all the concepts involved, and all the sub-questions you can think
of pertaining to the issue. Reading around your research idea will help to generate
questions and information and to identify themes and potential information sources
(2) subdivide your questions where possible; split wide general questions into
smaller ones
(3) begin to order questions and develop focus: group questions together under
common themes, separate general and specific questions
 (4) start to trim by selecting those questions that you wish to deal with, consider the
resources that will be available to you
(5) collate these thoughts within a loose conceptual framework – this shows how
questions and themes are related and may help guide your thinking at a later stage.
This process of thinking wide and then focusing and delimiting your questions, should
result in a handful of research questions that you wish to investigate. These may still need
further modification to render them answerable; they may need to be operational.
Note: there are no right or wrong answers in such an exercise; the purpose is to get you
thinking about as many facets of your research idea as possible. It should also cause you
to question some of the concepts you might previously have accepted as given.

Step 1. Write down all the questions, themes, and concepts you can think of

Step 2. Subdivide questions – try and make general questions into specific ones

Step 3. Make links – we can group some of our questions under themes and make links
across the diagram .

Step 4. Identify the questions that you think you would like to deal with. ( This
student has identified certain areas he would like to focus his investigation on)

 Select a problem that is of interest to you so that you will be motivated in

conducting the research investigation.
 Lesson 4. FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES, OBJECTIVES and
PLAGIARISM

Section Overview

In this section we continue to explore the issue of turning ideas into questions by taking
a look at how to refine questions and generate hypotheses

Section Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section, students should be able to:

 develop and write research questions
 formulate and write research hypotheses
 formulate and write research objectives
 understand the context of plagiarism

Research questions
If you have gone through the ‘brainstorming’ process described above you will
probably have a number of questions which are close to your requirements as
research questions – they appeal to your interests and are likely to be answerable
within your time and resource constraints. Phrase your questions so that they are
simple and clear.
It is usually best to pose only one or two questions. Do not pose more than three questions
as this generally leads to a much larger research project. Start questions with terms like,
how, who, what, why, and when. Questions should be specific, not vague.

Example research questions

 When is the best time of year to transfer a meadow grassland from its original
site in Surigao del Norte to a new site?
 How does applying fertilizer affect the yield of a rice crop grown on the North
of Davao Philippines?
 What are the implications of de-regulating a hitherto controlled market for a
staple food commodity on producers and consumers in a named region of a
country?
 Why do residents of a named village object to the sitting of wind turbines 2 km from
their homes?
The questions above represent wide differences in scope and complexity and hence will
make very different demands on research resources. Some of these questions might
later need to be modified to fit resources (abilities, time, finance, equipment) while still
addressing research problem.
 Research hypotheses

What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can
be tested.

When do I use a hypothesis?

It is appropriate to use a hypothesis when you are testing a theory. Your immediate
answer to this may be ‘I’m not testing a theory’; however, remember that our
definition of theory is very broad – ‘an idea about how things relate to each other’. If you
have an expectation of how your research question will be answered (the outcome)
then it is fair to say you have a theory in mind. If you ask of your research question ‘What
is the expected outcome?’ and have an answer, you can ask why? What is my thinking
behind this prediction? This is essentially the theory that you will be testing.
If you are not able to predict the answer to your question then your approach is not
one of theory testing and you should not proceed with developing hypotheses to test. Your
research questions remain as such. This will be the case if your research is descriptive
or exploratory in nature.

 Which of the example research questions stated above do you think

could be restated as hypotheses?

Answer

When is the best time of year to transfer a meadow grassland from its
original site in Surigao del Norte to a new site? Yes, there is a narrow
question to be addressed to which a tentative answer could be
suggested. This research question is suitable for testing as a hypothesis.

How does applying fertiliser affect the yield of a rice crop grown on the
North Davao Philippines? Yes, again the question is amenable to testing.

Developing a hypothesis from a research question

Our definition of a hypothesis stresses that it can be tested. To meet this criterion
the hypothesis must be operational which means that the concepts employed in the
hypothesis must be measurable.
Developing hypotheses requires that you identify one character, variable or
descriptor of a sampling unit that causes, affects, or has an influence on, another
character, variable or descriptor of the same or other sampling units. The character,
 variable or descriptor that affects other variables or sampling units is called the
independent variable. The character, variable or descriptor which is affected by the
independent variable is called the dependent variable or response variable.
Note that although for the purposes of research methodology some variables may be
called ‘dependent’ when investigating their relationship with other ‘independent’
variables, this does not imply the existence of a causal (as compared with associative)
relationship unless strict rules of research design are followed. This issue is discussed in
more detail later in the module.

Good hypotheses
There are two criteria for good hypotheses. One, hypotheses are statements about
relationships between variables. Two, hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the
stated relationships. These criteria mean, then, that hypothesis statements contain two or
more variables that are measurable or potentially measurable and that they specify how
the variables are related.

Diagramminghypotheses

Diagramming hypotheses is a useful technique to help clarify your thinking. Usually a

hypothesis takes the form ‘X causes Y’ or ‘X is related to Y’.

X Y

X Y

For example, the first hypothesis stated above could be represented by a diagram as
follows

The two variables, or concepts are in boxes that are linked by an arrow going from one
concept to the other. The arrow indicates that one variable (financial resources) does
something to the other variable (adoption of new technology).
 The plus sign indicates that the relationship is seen as positive, that is more of the one
will lead to more of the other. Not all concepts have a positive relationship.

Once you get used to forming hypotheses and making diagrams then you can
explore new patterns involving more than two concepts. For example:

Finance + ve
Adoption of
new
technology
Distance from market – ve

In this case two concepts, finance and distance from market, are related as
independent concepts to the dependent concept, adoption of technology. One of the
independent concepts is positively related and the other negatively related to the
dependent concept.
There are endless possibilities. Most research projects deal only with one small area
of the diagram. But it is often useful to make a diagram of more than you plan to study
in order to show where your research fits into the larger frame of things and to help you to
identify factors which may have to be taken into account (these could be integrated into
your conceptual map).

Research without hypotheses

In exploratory research our base knowledge of a subject may be so low that we

cannot formulate meaningful hypotheses. Nonetheless, exploratory research should be
guided by a clear sense of purpose. Instead of hypotheses, the design for the
exploratory study should state its purpose, or research objectives as well as criteria by
which the exploration will be judged successful.
For example, if we are trying to encourage farmers to make use of compost, we may
first need to know the social structure or social norms of the farming community
before we can begin making meaningful hypotheses about which individuals will
influence the decision and the factors they consider when making their decision. We can
state that our exploratory study would have the purpose of generating hypotheses about
personal characteristics which correlate with the adoption/rejection of composting, the
composition of the decision-making unit, and the factors which influence the decision
either to adopt or reject. Success would be measured in terms of generating testable
hypotheses.
 Interpretative research, which seeks to develop knowledge through understanding
meaning, does not usually proceed with hypotheses.
Research objective(s)

What are the research objectives?

In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a project.

Research objectives are usually expressed in lay terms and are directed as much to the
client as to the researcher. Research objectives may be linked with a hypothesis or used as
a statement of purpose in a study that does not have a hypothesis.
Even if the nature of the research has not been clear to the layperson from the
hypotheses, s/he should be able to understand the research from the objectives.

A statement of research objectives can serve to guide the activities of research.

Consider the following examples.

 Objective: To describe what factors farmers take into account in making such
decisions as whether to adopt a new technology or what crops to grow.
 Objective: To develop a budget for reducing pollution by a particular
enterprise.
 Objective: To describe the habitat of the giant clams in the
Philippines. In the above examples the intent of the research is largely
descriptive.

 In the case of the first example, the research will end the study by being able to
specify factors which emerged in household decisions.
 In the second, the result will be the specification of a pollution reduction
budget.
 In the third, creating a picture of the habitat of the giant clams in the Philippines.
These observations might prompt researchers to formulate hypotheses which could be
tested in another piece of research. So long as the aim of the research is
exploratory, ie to describe what is, rather than to test an explanation for what is, a
research objective will provide an adequate guide to the research.
 What is Plagiarism

Many people think of plagiarism as copying another’s work, or borrowing

someone else’s original ideas. But terms like “copying” and “borrowing” can disguise
the seriousness of the offense:

According to the Merriam-Webster OnLine Dictionary, to “plagiarize” means

 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words

of another) as one's own

 to use (another's production) without

crediting the source

 to commit literary theft

 to present as new and original an idea or

product derived from an existing source.

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone

else’s work and lying about it afterward.

Why should you avoid plagiarism?

There are many reasons to avoid plagiarism. You should avoid plagiarism because
you aspire to produce work of the highest quality. Once you have grasped the principles of
source use and citation, you should find it relatively straightforward to steer clear of
plagiarism. Moreover, you will reap the additional benefits of improvements to both the
lucidity and quality of your writing. It is important to appreciate that mastery of the
techniques of academic writing is not merely a practical skill, but one that lends both
credibility and authority to your work, and demonstrates your commitment to the principle
of intellectual honesty.
SUMMARY

To summarize, the key learning points from this unit are as follows.
 Research is systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
 When we collect data we are collecting raw or analyzed facts or figures.
Information is data that has been analyzed, that is often presented in a form
specifically for a decision-making task. Knowledge is assimilated information, an
appreciation and understanding of that information.
 Information that is generated from research is used for problem-solving and
decision-making.
 Research clients have a major role in determining the focus, methods, and
funding of research. Participatory methods are those that also attempt to
involve stakeholders in the process.

 Research does not always have an impact on policy-making. There are many
potential reasons for this, including the lack of political will; inappropriate
research questions; or poor dissemination of results to policy-makers (for
example, through information overload or poor presentation).
 There are three main sources from which we can identify research topics or
research problems: personal experience, theory or literature.
 Research questions ask, how, who, what, why, and when, whilst a hypothesis is a
tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.

 Research objectives describe what we aim to achieve by a project and may be

linked to hypotheses or used for exploratory study without hypotheses.
 Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without
their consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All
published and unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic
form, is covered under this definition.
V. Assessment Tasks

Task 2
Direction: Answer the following guide question based on your understanding.

1. Based on your own understanding explain why research is considered to be an

iterative process.

2. Explain how would technology contributes to an efficient research development?

3. What is the role of science in technology research? Does it influence the validity
and efficiency of the research information output? if does, How?

Task 3
Direction: Based on your understanding of the context of research pertaining to
technology, science and problem solving you are instructed to formulate at least three(3)
researchable titles. Provide a descriptive abstract for each titles. (Note: I will approve one
title out from the 3 titles to be submitted for you to continue taking this course.)

Deadlines and Submission

The deadline for module 1 assessments tasks will be on Sept 25, 2020. Submit your output
to our class in Google classroom or on the Gmail provided on my profile.

Class Code: c65bkvc

Link for Google Classroom https://classroom.google.com/c/MTYzMzA4MzY3NDgx?cjc=c65bkvc

29 | P a g e TechnologyResearch1(MethodsofResearch)
References

Offline
 Bryman A (2012)Bryman A (2012) Social Research Methods, 4th edn. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
 Martin Dempster et,.al (2015.) Research Methods in Psychology For Dummies.

 Bora Pajo (2017) Introduction to Research Methods

 Bryman A (2008) Social Research Methods, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Online
 https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism
 http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/studentaffairs/repository/files/What%20is%20Plagiarism.p
df
 https://la.psu.edu/current-students/documents/TypesofPlagiarism.pdf

INSTRUCTOR INFORMATION

Name : Engr. Franklin M. Ganancias,

DIT(CAR) E-mail Address : gananciasf@gmail.com
Contact Number 09055406064
Consultation Hours : 3:00-5:00 PM (MWF)

Mode of Teaching/Learning Delivery:Online

Tools/Platforms : Google classroom, Messenger, Gmail