HISTORY

DECLINE OF HARRAPAN CIVILIZATION

A definite reason for the decline of the Harappan civilization still remains quite elusive, as no
reliable literary record of the period exists and what remains is only archaeological, so
historians can only speculate. All excavations however do prove that the decline occurred
suddenly between 1800 BC and 1700 BC. Although there are a number of theories or
hypothesis which try to dig deep into the matter of definite decline, no theory had been
altogether accepted and therefore wasn’t spared from criticism. The decline of the civilization
through archaeological evidences which exists seems to hint that cities like Harappa,
Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan experienced gradual decline in urban planning and construction.
Houses made of old dilapidated bricks and shoddy construction started encroaching on the
roads and streets of the city. The utterly planned sewage system ceased to exist and the cities
were more or less turning into slums. A detailed study of Mohenjodaro indicates that various
entrances to “The Great Bath” at a later stage were blocked and eventually this came to total
disuse along with “The Granary”. Also the number of figurines, beads, bangles and sculpture
show a distinct reduction in number in the later stage. Mohenjodaro was later shrunken to a
city of 3 hectares only from the original 85 hectares.

This happened the same with Harappa also, where other groups of people started domination
of their culture. This was evident from their burial practices and the types of pottery they
used. Their culture is known as the “Cemetery H” culture. Valuable goods and buildings were
decaying and later on these cities were completely abandoned. The abandonment of these
cities is roughly dated to 1800BC and the Mesopotamia literature stopped referring Meluhha
by the end of 1900 BC.

There have been many theories for this sudden decline in the civilisation. Some of the
plausible theories are –

i) That it was destroyed by massive floods.

ii) That the decline took place because of the shift in the course of the rivers and the
gradual drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
iii) That the barbarian Aryans destroyed the cities.
iv) That the growing demands of the civilization disturbed the ecology of the region
and the area couldn’t support them anymore.
Referring to point number I, it is said that Mohenjodaro used to experience catastrophic
floods which used to leave silt deposits as high as 70 feet vertically. This silty deposits
seemed to have been left by the flood waters which had submerged peoples’ houses
completely. People used to rebuild their houses and streets on top of the debris left by
previous flood. This kind of catastrophic flooding and rebuilding had happened at least thrice
and a stage came when the impoverished Harappans couldn’t take it anymore and simple
abandoned the settlement. This theory has been criticised by many scholars on the grounds
that slit deposit would take place along the bottom of the former course of the river and thus
the slit of Mohenjodaro might not be the deposition of a flood. Also this theory fails to
explain the abandonment of the areas outside the Indus river system.

Referring to point number II, it is said that the course of the river Indus could be the cause for
the destruction of the Mohenjodaro. The Indus is an unstable river system which keeps
changing its bed. Apparently, the river Indus shifted 30 miles away from Mohenjodaro and
the people of it and the surrounding villages starved of water and left the area. And that the
slit observed in the city is actually the product of the wind action blowing lots of salt and slit
in the city. This theory was too criticised because at best this theory can only explain the
desertion of Mohenjodaro, not the decline of the civilization in totality.

Referring to point number III, it is said that the invasions by the barbarian Aryans destroyed
the Harappan civilization. It has been pointed out that in the late phases of occupation in
Mohenjodaro, there are evidences of a massacre. Human skeletons have been found lying on
the streets of Mohenjodaro. Also the geographical area of habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans
included the Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra regions. And since no other cultural groups lived
there, it is believed by some that the Harappan cities were being destroyed by the Rig Vedic
Aryans. To support this theory more, the Rig Veda mentions a place named Hariyupiya where
the Aryans fought a battle. Although this theory is quite attractive, it is not accepted by a host
of scholars as the Aryans are believed not to have come here before 1500 BC so there was no
chance of the Aryans meeting the Harappans ever. Furthermore, neither the Harappa or the
Mohenjodaro show signs of any large scale military conflicts. The bodies found on the streets
might have been the subject of a raid from any surrounding area as in any case, these cities
were in a state of decay.

Referring to the point number IV, it is said that ecology was the major factor in the decline of
the Indus Valley civilization. According to many scholars, the delicate ecological balance of
these semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the human and cattle population of these
areas were fast depleting the scanty forests, food and fuel resources. The needs of the
Harappan civilization far exceeded the resources of these areas. With the forests and grass
cover gradually decreasing, there were more floods and draughts. This depletion of the
subsistence base strained the economy and so they had to move further east and south
towards Gujarat, away from the Indus. And this decline was completed with the frequent
raids and attacks by the surrounding communities. The Harrapans couldn’t invent any new
technology and ultimately they had to perish. This theory is the most accepted of all the major
theories; however, this also hasn’t been excluded from criticisms. The main criticism of this
theory is that the enduring fertility of the soil of this part of the Indian sub-continent over the
subsequent millennia disproves this theory.

Thus, any theory based on such scanty information will forever remain a hypothesis until and
unless substantiated by more evidences in its favour.
HARRAPAN SITES
MAURYAN EMPIRE

Family Origin
Brahminical Origin - Shudra
Most historians agree to assign either a 'low caste' or a tribal origin to the Maurya family.
According to some accounts Chandragupta was the son of the last Nanda king by a "low
born" woman called Mura; from her came the family name Maurya. The Puranas do not link
the Nanda and Maurya dynasties, though they too describe the latter to be Shudras

Buddhist Origin - Kshatriya

The Buddhist tradition tells us that he was a member of the Moriya clan of Pipphalivana and
thus suggests that this dynasty was in some way linked to the tribe of the Sakyas to which the
Buddha belonged. In this explanation the family name Maurya is said to have been derived
from the name of the tribe. This also indirectly implies that as an old family of chiefs they
were in some senses Kshatriyas.

Chandragupta Maurya
He is the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He founded it around 321BC by defeating
Dhananda, the last of the Nanda kings. He was either a Shudra (brahminical origin) or a
Kshatriya (Buddhist origin). He was known to the Greeks as Sandrocottus.

Rise to Power and Expansion of Empire

It is said that Chandragupta encouraged Alexander the Great to invade the Ganges kingdom.
At the same time Chandragupta took control of the outlying Nanda areas and then moved
North-West to occupy the power vacuum created by the departure of Alexander.
He then targeted the Magadha empire defeating the King of Magadha and ascending the
throne in 321BC.
One of the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the military front was his
contact with Seleucus Nikator who ruled over the area west of the Indus around 305 B.C. In
the war that ensued Chandragupta is said to have turned out victorious and eventually, peace
was established with this Greek viceroy in around 303 B.C. Seleucus gave him eastern
Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus in exchange for 500 elephants. By
the end he controlled the area from the Indus to the Gangetic plains and from Afghanistan to
Karnataka (acc. to Jain Literature).
He ruled for 25 years and then took up Jainism and asceticism and gave the throne to his son
Bindusara.

Chanakya
Chānakya (c. 350-283 BC) was an adviser and a prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor,
and architect of his rise to power. Also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta. Before assisting
Chandragupta he was professor in Taxila. He authored the book Arthashastra which sources
says was written for the purpose of teaching Chandragupta how to rule Magadha. One day the
queen, Durdha, shared the food with the Emperor while she was pregnant. Since she was not
used to eating poisoned food, she died. Chanakya decided that the baby should not die; hence
he cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby. A drop of poison had passed to the
baby's head, and hence Chanakya named him Bindusara. Chānakya's political rivalry with
Subandhu, a minister in Bindu Sara’s court, lead to his death. One day he told Bindusara that
Chanakya was responsible for the murder of his mother. It is said that Chanakya, on hearing
that the Emperor was angry with him, thought that anyway he was at the end of his life. He
donated all his wealth and sat on a dung heap, prepared to die by total abstinence from food
and drink. Bindusara meanwhile heard the full story of his birth from the nurses and rushed to
beg forgiveness of Chanakya. Subandhu, who asked for time to beg for forgiveness from
Chanakya. He still hated Chanakya, wanted to make sure that Chanakya did not return to the
city . So he arranged for a ceremony of respect He put the charcol inside the dung heap Aided
by the wind, the dung heap swiftly caught fire, and the man behind the Mauryan Empire and
the author of Arthashastra was burned to death. (highlighted portion optional)

Bindusara
Succeeded his father and ruled for 28 years, 301 BC to 273 BC. From sources we know that
he appointed his son Sumana as the Viceroy of Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. A mutiny broke
out due to maladministration by Sumana and Ashoka was called later on the quell it. He
maintained the Imperial Kingdom of his father and continued to have good relations with
Seleucus Nicator. A struggle for succession broke out after his death among his four sons, but
in the end Ashoka was crowned Bindusara’s Successor.

Mauryan Administration
First attempt to make administration centralized. The Mauryan state had developed a highly
organized bureaucratic administration. Centralized administration was practiced and king
was highest authority of the State. He had unlimited powers. He led his army in war and was
supreme authority in the administration of Justice
Council of Ministers
To discharge the duties, king was assisted by a council of ministers called Mantriparishad.
The power of the Council might have varied from time to time; yet its primary role remained
that of an advisory body. This was because the final authority vested with the King. There
was no fixed number of ministers and Kautilya mentions that it should be decided according
to the needs. But he opined that "a large council is beneficial for the King". He has also listed
the issues on which the King should consult his ministers. These included:
1. Consultation on how to start the works which the state wants to undertake,
2. To determine the manpower and finances involved in carrying out these works,
3. To determine the areas-where the works have to be carried out, and
4. Finding solutions to deal with calamities, etc.
Apart from this they also supervised the works of the Amatyas (Civil Servants). The most
important ministers were Purohit (High Priest), Senapati (Commander in Chief), Yuvraj (Heir
Apparent).
Minster should posses the qualities like Integrity and intelligence. On the basis of their merits
they appointed and could also be dismissed by him.
Secretariat
There was highly organized secretariat for the conduct of State business. Kautilya mentions
18 tirthas.
27 Superintendents Adyakkshas: concerned Mostly with Economic Functions and few with
Military Functions
Panyadhyaksha- Superintendent of Commerce
Samsthadyaksha – Superintendant of Market
Navadyaksha - Superintendant of Shipping and Maritime
Shulkadyaksha – Superintendant of Tolls
Administrative Division of the Empire
The Empire was divided into number of Provinces during Chandragupta Maurya’s time.
However the number is not clear but at least four were there,
During the Ashoka there were five province (Governor of whom was called Mahamattra)
1. Magadhga
2. North Western-Taxila
3. Western Province-Ujjaini
4. Souther Province-Swarngiri
5. Kalinga with its capital Toshali add later

The Mahamattras were assisted by

Yuta - Tax Collector
Rajuka - Revenue Collector
Sthaniks - District Officers
Nagarka - Town Officer
Gramika – Village Officer
Municipal Administration
To deal with City Administration Municipal Administration was established and divided in 6
boards
Each of the board constituted with 5 members, every board had different duty to perform
1. Board to look after Art and Craft
2. Boards to look after Foreigners
3. Registration of Birth and Deaths
4. Trade and Commerce
5. Manufacture articles in town
6. Collection of sales tax on sold good i.e. 1/5 to 1/25 of the selling prize
Revenue Administration
Different sources of Revenue
State collected the revenue from
Durga – Taxes from cities
Rashtra – Taxes from Rural Areas
Khana – Taxes on Mines
Vanikpatha – Road and Traffic Tax
Vraja – Tax from Pastures
Setu – Tax from Plantations
Vana – Tax from Forests.
Land Revenue System
All land was considered as crown land
Different type of taxes were imposed
Bhaga - Land Revenue
Pindikara - Tax on group of villages. Customary in nature
Hiranya- tax paid in cash
Bali-
Pranya-
Sales Tax
Three rates of sales tax
1. 9.5.%on the item sold on the basis of calculation
2. 5% on the item sold on the basis of measurements
3. 6.5% sold on the basis of weight

Justice and Punishment

Forms of the Court
1. Dharmasthya
2. Kantakshodhna

There were four sources of law

1. Dharma
2. Vyavhara - Contemporary Legal Code
3. Charitra – Customs
4. Rajshasana royal decree or order
Punishment
 Imprisonment, corporal, fines
 Capital punishment was known and practiced- ashoka given relaxation
 Penalties during the Mauryan Period were based on hierarchy.

An Espionage and Spy System was also present.

Ashoka
Ashoka succeeded Bindusara to the throne in 273BC. The earliest event of Ashoka’s life that
has been recorded was what is probably his first and definitely was his last war. The Kalinga
War. This war took place during the eight of Ashoka’s reign and was a devastating war with
one lakh people killed and many more disabled. Ashoka was so affected by this war that his
personality changed after it. He abandoned the policy of aggression and tried to conquer the
hearts of the people.

Ashoka’s Dhamma
Ashoka’s personal religion was Buddhism, as he had admitted in the Bhabru edict. But he did
not thrust it on the population. In fact he evolved an ethical code which was the essence of all
the religions and propagated it as Dhamma.
The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma. Dhamma has been
variously translated as piety, moral life, righteousness and so on, but the best way to
understand what Asoka means by Dhamma is to read his edicts
Why did Ashoka formulate Dhamma?
 Chandragupta’s well organized administrative machinery & Ashoka’s Dhamma
policy were the two remarkable features of Mauryan rule in ancient India.
 In fact Ashoka’s Dhamma is even more remarkable than Chandragupta’s
administrative setup. It is Dhamma that has made Ashoka one of the greatest rulers in
Indian history.
 There were several factors that prompted Ashoka to formulate the policy
1. The Mauryan imperial setup encompassed various cultures, beliefs & social
and political trends. So Ashoka was left with only 2 options to control so
complex an empire:
a) Maintaining structure by force; or
b) Defining a set of social order which could be acceptable to all.
Ashoka wisely chose the latter, hence the policy of Dhamma.
2. The rise of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism, all opposed to the domination
of Brahmins, generated tension in society. These heterodox sects had a
growing number of followers but Brahmins still commanded a stronghold on
society. Given the situation, hostility among the different sects seemed
inevitable. Hence Ashoka developed dhamma to bring about a climate of
harmony and natural trust.
 3. Within the empire there were some areas where neither the Brahminical
system nor the heterodox sects had an access. The example of Yavanas
country, as referred by Ashoka himself, maybe mentioned in this context.
Hence the need of a mechanism envisaging some common pattern of social
behavior and common approach to the problems of society was felt.

Contents of Dhamma
The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to
different communities and following any religious sect.
1. It emphasised on toleration and general behavior. Dhamma stressed on dual
toleration-it emphasised on toleration of people themselves and also an toleration of
their various beliefs and ideas.
2. This was an attempt to create religious harmony
3. The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence.
4. Non-violence was to be practised by giving up war and conquests and also as a
restraint on the killing of animals.
5. The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures, like planting of trees,
digging of wells, etc.
6. Asoka attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions as
meaningless.
A group of officers known as the Dhamma mahamattah were instituted to implement and
publicise the various aspects of Dhamma.
Medium of Expounding Dhamma
Asoka used the medium of his Edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma.
1. Major Rock Edicts
2. Minor Rock Edicts
3. Pillar Edicts
Asoka engraved his views about Dhamma on these edicts which were meant to be read by
people of various areas. In doing so, Asoka was trying to establish direct communication with
his subjects.
There are 14 major rock edicts.
MRE 1
It bans festival gatherings and the killing of animals. At the time of writing this edict, only 3
animals – 2 peacocks and a deer were killed in the kitchen of Ashoka’s palace, thought the
king wished to discontinue this practice.
MRE 2
It mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputra and Keralaputra kingdom in South India. It provides
for medical care of man and the care of animals.
MRE 3
It was issued after 12years of Ashoka’s consecration. The Yuktas (sub officers) with the
Rajukas (revenue collectors at rural level) and Pradeshikas (Head of District) shall go on tour
every 5 years to spread the Dhamma policy. The edict is generous to Brahmans.
MRE 4
It declares Dhammagosha and not Bherigosha to be the ideal of human beings.
MRE 5
It mentions for the 1st time of Dharma Mahamantras and expresses concern over public
welfare policy regarding slaves and masters.
MRE 6
It speaks of well being of the people and the king’s desire to be informed constantly about the
condition of the people.
MRE 7
It requests for tolerance of all religions.
MRE 8
It speaks of the beginning of Dhamma Yatra and reports that the first Dhamma Yatra was for
Bodh Gaya in the 10th year of Ashoka’s realm.
MRE 9
It condemns various popular ceremonies.
MRE 10
It condemns the desires for fame and glory and calls for implementation of the policy of
Dhamma.
MRE 11
It elaborates Dhamma and mentions its spread.
MRE 12
It makes a direct and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects.
MRE 13
It speaks of Ashoka’s annexation of Kalinga. It mentions his victory by Dhamma over Greek
kings Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Mages, Alexander and in South India over the Cholas,
Pandyas and Andhras.
MRE 14
It mentions the engraving of inscription by Ashoka in different parts of the country.
Minor Rock Edicts
The Queen’s Edict
It mentions Ashoka’s 2nd queen, the mother of Tivala, Karuvaki.
Barabar Cave Inscription
It mentions about donation to cause of Ajivija sect in the 12th year of the king’s coronation.
Kandhar Rock Inscription
Issued 10 years after adoption of Dhamma. It expresses satisfaction over implementation of
Ashoka’s policy.
Pillar Edicts
PE1
Mentions Ashoka’s principle to protect people through Dhamma, to administer affairs
according to Dhamma, to please the people with Dhamma and to guard the empire with
Dhamma.
PE2
Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins, many of virtues, compassion, truthfulness and purity.
PE3
It exhorts people to consider cruelty, harshness, anger and pride as sins and the indulgence in
them as ruinous.
PE 4
Engraved in the 26th year of Ashoka’s rule. Deals with duties of Rajukas.
PE5
Provide list of animals and birds which shouldn’t be killed on some days and others which
shouldn’t be killed at all. Also mentions release of 25 prisoners by Ashoka.
PE6
Mentions Ashoka’s engraving of Dhamma policy after 12 years of his rule.
PE7
It describes at length the work done by Ashoka for spreading Dhamma policy.

Decline of Mauryan Empire

1. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings.
The quick succession of kings made the strict supervision of the administration
difficult as none of the rulers could actually settle down and be in the control of
things. Linked to this is the fact that dynastic empires depend much on the ability of
its rulers. But the successors of Asoka failed in this respect. Each one of them ruled
only for a short period of time and therefore could not formulate either new policies
of governance or maintain the old ones.
 2. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the
partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance
to the Mauryans to re-establish some degree of their previous power.
3. Revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist
policies of Ashoka and pro-Jain policies of his successors. Basing themselves on this
thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the
decline because of the following reasons.

Aftermath of Disintegration of Mauryan Dynasty

In contrast to the Mauryan period the period between 200 BC and 300 AD was an age of
small kingdoms many of them foreign in origin.
Evolution of Jatis
The post-Maurya period witnessed a series of small kingdoms ruling in various parts of the
subcontinent and at the same time a tremendous expansion in both internal and external trade.
The Mauryan and Post Mauryan periods witnessed the beginning of a major change in the
agrarian system with the assignment of land grants and revenue grants and revenue grants to
both religious and secular assignees resulting in a new politico-economic structure in many
parts of the subcontinent. The migration of the Aryan speaking peoples brought in the new
Aryan elite.
Though the brief campaign of Alexander did not seriously disturb the centres of powers in the
Punjab and Sind, the invasions of the Indo-greeks, Sakas and Kushanas for two centuries
definitely affected Indian society in the northern and western parts of the subcontinent. The
impact of the Huna invasion in the 5th century AD was felt as far as the heartland of the
Ganges. The migrations of people from central Asia to northern and western India in the post-
Mauryan period produced an even greater impact.
Kanva Dynasty (75-26 BC)
The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75
BC. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. 
Little is known about the Kanvas; however, their dynasty was brought to an end by
the Satavahanas of the south.
Satavahana dynasty (230 BC–220 AD)
The Sātavāhana Empire  or Andhra Empire, was a royal Indian dynasty based from
Dharanikotan and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar(Pune) and Prathisthan
(Paithan) in Maharashtra. 
Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to theMauryan dynasty, but declared independence
with its decline. They are known for their patronage of Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist
monuments from Ellora to Amaravati.
The Pūrānas list 30 Andhra rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well.
After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty, conquered
Maharashtra, Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh. He was succeeded by his
brother Kanha (or Krishna) (r. 207–189 BCE), who further extended his kingdom to the west
and the south.
The Vishnu Purana, the Vayu Purana etc, all state that the first of the Andhrakings rose to
power in the 1st century BCE, by slaying Susarman, the last ruler of the Kanvas This feat is
usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi (c. 30–6 BCE), who then ruled over
Pataliputra.

Gautamiputra Satakarni (78–106 CE)

He defeated the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, restoring the prestige of his dynasty by
reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Sātavāhanas.
Gautamiputra Satakarni may also have defeated Shaka king Vikramadity in 78 BCE and
started the calendar known as Shalivahana era or Shaka era, which is followed by
the Gujarati, Marathi,Kannadiga and Telugu people and is the Indian National Calendar.

Alexanders Invasion of India:

Alexander divided his army in to parts one lead by him and another lead by Hephaestion, and
perdikkas,Alexander took to northern india and defeted a tribe leader hasti(capital
pusbkalavati),
The arvanyas and askanyas fought him,40000 prisoners were taken by alex,lead by quuen
kripa,they assembled at the fort of massage on the bank of river Masakavati.After defeating
their army he crossd Indus and recived Ambhi’s(ruler of taxila) submission (over lordship).
Battle of Hydaspes,Poros king of Jhelum refused to submit, armies faced on opposite bank of
Jhelum,he crossed the river overnight by deceiving Poros,and defeated him,impressed by
poros as he wanted to be”trearted like a king” gave him his kingdom back under his over
lordship.
Alex then crosse Chenab and subdued the tribes then he defeted kathas and Saubhuti without
facing resistance,
After reaching beas the army refused to moved further,as they were exhausted,were suffering
because of diseases and many of them had died,homesick and the resistance they faced in
punjab.326 B.c retreat.2000 boats and 120000 men.6 satraps were created,peithon governor
of sindh,vicanoir of “india west of Indus”,phillipus of Lahore and Ambhi king of Taxila of the
remaining three.
On reaching the lower course of Ravi they faced Mallous and Oxydrnkai,Alex received a
serious wound and there was a massacre of people,On the basin of Indus,Mousikanos chief of
that area refued to submit,Governor of Sindh had to fight him,he then reached patala,marched
to Babylon through perisa and died at the age of 33.
Position of greek governors:
Kandhar:Asvakanyas killed nicanor,replaced by philippos who was assassinated,Alexander
assigned the king of TAxila to take control of the territory,his rule extended to Kabul and
hindukush.Eudamus incharge of greek military operations in India left.After Alexander’s
death,his empire was divided,Peithon greek governor of Sindh was removed and put in
charge of the province between Indus and Paropanisadai,Eudamus also left India to help
Eumenes where he died fighting.
Alexander was successful in his conquest because India had a large number of small
kingdoms,which lacked unity they had no direction or a common leadership.
Effect of Alexander’s Invasion:
(1)Political unification if the country.
(2)opened Intercourse between India and western countries
(3)Direct contact between medditeranain civilization and Central asia,Punjab.Broke down the
wall of communication between the west and east through land and sea.
(4)influence o n art,Bactria and Partia greek settlements,kanishka invited artists to make
images of Buddha which represent the blending of india and greek style of image making.

Persian and Macedonian Invasions:

Pukkusati ruler of gandhara sent a letter and embassy to the ruler of Magadha,In the middle
of 6th century b.c. hordes of Cyrus invaded India and destroyed Kapisa,the district west of
Indus became tributary to Persians,Darius successor of Cyrus,sent a naval expedition to the
Indus under Skylax which paved way for the annexation of the Indus valley as far as the
deserts of Rajputana,which constituted the 20th satrapy of the Persian empire,Xerses
successor of Darius I maintained some control over the Indian proveinces, however later
archamenians lost hold of the terrirory which led to its division into four small states with
practically independent rulers,the city of nysa founded by greek colonists,Gandhara was
divided into two parts by Indus,Pushkalavati and Takshasila,Taxila was governed by good
laws and it was an emporium of commerce and a center of learning, Mahabharata was recited
in the city,the mountain territory above taxila was occupied by Urasa and Abhisara,to the
south east of Taxila lay Purus also known as Poros,the southern part of the Jhang district
was occupied by sibis and malavas,lower down the Chenab lived the Ambashthas,these tribes
was autonomous,In the Indus delta was the city of pattala like Sparta was governed by two
kings of and senate of elders.

THE MAHAJANAPADAS –
Literally means Great Kingdoms
SOURCES OF INFO FOR MAHAJANAPADAS –
LITERARY –
  From Vedic and Buddhist texts.
 Brahmanas and Upanishads provides insights into the settlements of agricultural
communities.
 The Pittakas tell about preachers, princes, rich, poor, towns and villages of that
period.
 Jatakas – graphic descriptions of contemporary society, references to various regions
and geographical divisions.
ARCHAELOGICAL –
 Important places like Hastinapura, Kausambi, Ujjaini, Vaisali dug up.
 Discovery of remains of house, buildings, towns, objects used by people.
 Deluxe pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
 Findings of usage of iron on a large scale.
 Excavations of prosperous agricultural settlements and towns.

JANAPADAS –
 Meaning – place where people place their feet.
 In Early Vedic Age, janas were pastoral groups who roamed around in search of
pastures. In the later Vedic Age, they started to settle down and take up agriculture.
These settlements gradually developed and were called Janapadas.
 The settlements were named after dominant Kshatriya lineages, eg – Kuru, Panchala,
 A period of expansion of agriculture because –
o Use of iron tools rather than stone, copper tools. Iron tools could clear the
forests and dig deeper than the stone or copper tools
o Wet rice cultivation. Rice yields are higher than wheat yields per acre.
 So now chiefs of tribes had more to defend than just cattle. Due to expansion of
agriculture, looting did not remain limited to cattle raids.
 Due to the expansion, war and conquest, the vedic tribes came in closer contact. Led
to the formation of larger territorial entities.
 Thus some of the janapadas developed into the Mahajanapadas, eg – Panchal
represents the coming together of 5 tribes.

EMERGENCE OF NEW GROUPS DURING JANAPADAS –

GRAHAPATI –
 Master of an individual household which owned land
 Brahman grahapati owned large amounts of land, needed 5 ploughs to cultivate it.
 Earlier in the Later Vedic Age, land – jointly owned by lineage.
 Value of land increased with the emergence of agricultural activities. So ruling clans
of Kshatriyas Brahmanas brought it under their control. Out of them emerged
Grahapatis.
 Signified the disintegration of joint ownership and the emergence of big individual
landowners
  Gahapatis got their land cultivated by slaves (dasa), hired labourers (karmakara) and
Shudras
 People captured during wars, impoverished members – slaves and labourers.
 Product of land would go to Grahapati and not the Sudra/dasa.

MERCHANTS –
 Emerged from the Grahapatis.
 Sale of produce gave capital which was used for trading.
 Referred in Buddhist texts as Setthi, ‘a person having the best’.
 shows that the people who dealt with money matters had acquired considerable
prestige and power.
 Brahmanical sources generally looked down on trading and the vaisyas. However it
changed in the 6th century.
 Emergence of traders related to the emergence of towns and cities.
 Merchants lived in cities, traded over very large areas.
 By trading among different principalities they created a possibility for kings to try and
control larger areas visited by merchants
 A class of free peasants and merchants emerged in 6 th century. They freed themselves
from clan obligations of sharing surplus food or wealth with the lineage.
 Private property emerged as dominant economic reality.

RULER AND THE RULED –

 Change in nature of polity
 Rule over a territory rather than rule over lineages as in Vedic period.
 Regular taxation system and army unlike the Vedic period.
 Krsaka – peasants who paid taxes to the King.
 Distinction between the Raja and Praja. No kinship tie like in vedic period and
included people from the non-lineage groups
 Standing army implied control over local peasantry through force and an attitude of
permanent confrontation with the people and kings of the neighbouring territories.
 Cattle raids replaced by organised campaigns.
 Bhagadugha – collected bhaga(share) of the agricultural produce, survey of
agricultural land – Rajjugahaka
 Did not bear the name of the dominant Kshatriya lineage in most of the cases, eg –
Magadha, Avanti, Kosala etc.

THE 16 MAHAJANPADAS: -
I) Kashi 9) Kuru (Mention in Mahabharata)
2) Kosala 10) Panchala (Mention in Mahabharata)
3) Anga – Champa (seat of commerce) 11) Maccha (Matsya)
4) Magadha 12) Surasena (Mathura- religious centre)
5) Vajji 13) Assaka
6) Malla – Kushinagara (seat of Buddhism) 14) Avanti
7) Chedi 15) Gandhara
8) Vatsa 16) Kamboja

NOTES ON IMPORTANT MAHAJANPADAS –

1) KASHI –
 seems to have been the most powerful in the beginning
 Located in and around the present day Varanasi district
 Capital – Varanasi, situated on the convergence of the Ganges and the
Gomati rivers, so in the midst of fertile agricultural tracts.
 Famous for its cotton textiles and market for horses.
 Signs of major towns only around 450 BC, no urbanisation before that
 Cloth manufacturing centre and market during the time of Buddha, e.g. –
Kashaya (orange brown robes of Buddhist monks)
 Kings of Kashi are mentioned as having conquered Kosala and many other
Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas Kingdoms.
 All important religious traditions of ancient India associated themselves with
Kashi.
 By the time of the Buddha the Kashi Mahajanapada had been annexed by
Kosala and was a cause of war between Magadha and Kosala.

2) KOSALA –

 Bounded on the west by the river Gomati.

 To its east – river Sadanira, north – skirted Nepal hills, south – river Syandika.
 Emerged out of an assimilation of many smaller principalities and lineages.
 Names of Kings like Hiranyanabha. Mahakasala Prasenajita (his son –
Virudhaka) and Suddhodana are mentioned as rulers of Kosala in the 6th
century B.C.
 Ruled from Ayodhya, Saketa. Kapilavastu or Sravisti.
 Probably, in early years of 6th century – Kosala under control of smaller
chiefships ruling from small towns.
 By the end of 6th century, above mentioned kings(point 4) managed to bring
all other chiefships under their control.
 Became prosperous, 3 big cities under its control- Ayodhya, Saketa & Sravasti
 Kosala also annexed the Kingdom of Kashi in its territory
 Favoured both Brahmanism and Buddhism.
  Kosala proved to be one of the most formidable adversaries of the emergent
Magadhan empire.

3) MAGADHA –

 Consisted of the areas around Patna and Gaya in south Bihar.

 Protected by the rivers Son and Ganga on its north and west, south –
Chotanagpur plateau, east – river Champa.
 Capital was called Girivraja or Rajagriha, shifted to Pataliputra somewhere in
the fifth century B.C
 Rajagriha - impregnable city protected by five hills, earliest evidence of
fortification in the historical India
 Brahmanical texts indicated that they were inferior people because they did
not follow the varna system and Brahmanical rituals.
 Buddhist tradition – great importance. Buddha achieved enlightenment here.
 Fertile agricultural tracts suited to wet rice cultivation. control over the iron
ores of south Bihar, open social system – Magadhan became the most
important Kingdom in the subsequent history.
 Control over the trade routes of the Ganges, Gandak and Son rivers could
provide it substantial revenues.
 Prosperity with extension of its control over the Vajjis of Vaisali.
 Culminated in the 4th century BC with the Mauryan empire.
4) VAJJI –
 Literal meaning – pastoral nomads.
 Centred around the Vaisali district of Bihar, north of Ganga.
 Extended upto the hills of Nepal in the north. It was separated ftom Kosala by
the river Gandak.
 contemporary texts refer to them as a Ganasamgh – which translated to a
republic or oligarchy,
 represented a rule not by an all-powerful King but a joint rule by a group of
Kshatriya Chiefs.
 represented a confederacy of eight clans of whom the Videhas, Licchavis and
the Jnatrikas(this clan produced Mahavira) were the most well known
 Licchavis headquarters – Vaisali, which seemed to be the metropolis of the
confederacy.
 Conducted their affairs in an assembly.
 Seems to not have possessed a standing army or a system of revenue
collection from agriculture
 Magadhan king Ajatsatru is supposed to have destroyed this confederacy.
 Major power in 6th century BC
 Republic features – No monarch but a popular assembly and elders who
carried on the business of the State. This type of politics was known as Gana
 or Republic. Important officials were elected. Internal autonomy. Besides this ,
there were a number of smaller republics who exercised internal autonomy
such as Sakyas, Bhargas.
o LICHCHAVI REPUBLIC –
 Strongest of all republics. Structure of confederacy.
 High regards to women.
 Lichchavi assembly well disciplined and had regular meetings
 Element of democracy though not pure.
 Internal harmony & co-ordination in public administration.
 Love for justice, righteousness and honour for the law.
 JUDICIAL SYSTEM –
 High standards of justice.
 Prevailing penal code – Paveni Pattonaka
 No marriage outside the Vaishali.
 Separate departments and officials to look after
administration of justice.
 According to the Aṭṭhakathā, a criminal was first
handed over to a Viniccaya Mahāmātta (the inquiring
magistrate), who after the investigation and the
interrogation of the accused if found guilty took him to
the Vohārika (the jurist-judge). He could discharge him
if he found him innocent, otherwise he handed over him
to the Sūttadhāra (the master of the sacred code).
The Sūttadhāra after confirming the guilt of the
accused, handed him over to the Aṭṭhakūlakā (literally,
the eight clans, probably a federal court).
The Aṭṭhakūlakā if satisfied of the guilt of the accused
made him over to the Senāpati, who after satisfying
himself about the guilt of the accused made him over to
the Uparājā. If the Uparājā also found him guilty, he
handed him over to the Rājā. In case, the Rājā found
him guilty, the convict received the punishment
prescribed in the Paveṇipotthaka (the book of
precedence) for the offence committed by him.
(Wikipedia).
5) VATSA –
 One of the most powerful principalities of the sixth century B.C
 Capital at Kausambi
 Settled around modern Allahabad near river Yamuna.
 Descendant of the Pandavas, Nichaksu shifted his capital to Kausambi after
Hastinapur had been washed away by floods.
 Dramatist Bhasa, has immortalized one of the Kings of the Vatsas named
Udayana in his plays. plays are based on the story of the romantic affair
between Udayana and Vasavadatta, the Princess of Avanti.
 Indicate conflicts among the powerful Kingdoms of Magadha, Vatsa & Avanti
 Seems to have lost the struggle as subsequent texts don’t give too much
importance to it.
6) KURU –
 Supposed to belong to the family of Yudhisthira.
 centred around the Delhi-Meerut region
 Arthashastra and other texts refer to them as Rajasabdopajivinah, i.e., carrying
the titles of Kings.
 indicates some kind of a diffused structure of chiefship.
 did not have absolute monarchy, Hastinapura, Indraprastha, Isukara are each
mentioned as the capital of the Kurus having their own chiefs
 know about the Kurus through the epic Mahabharata.
7) AVANTI –
 One of the most powerful Mahajanpadas of the 6th century B.C.
 Core area - Ujjain district of Madhya Pradesh, extending upto the river
Narmada.
 Mahismati – sometimes mentioned as capital. Several other small and big
towns
 The Puranas attribute the foundation of Avanti to one of the clans of the Yadus
called the Haihaya.
 In 6th century BC – powerful king Pradyota ruled over Avanti.
 Seems to have conquered Vatsa and even Ajatsatru was afraid of him

BIMBISARA –
 Most remarkable king of the Haryanka line.
 Anointed king at the age of 15 by his father.
 Was a resolute and energetic organiser.
 Pursued a policy of expansion from the first.
 Had certain advantage of a compact kingdom protected on all sides by mountains and
rivers.
 Capital – Girivraja, enclosed by five hills. Also girded with stone walls.
 Soil of the country was rich, yielded luxuriant crops. People profited by trade.
 Controlled whole kingdom (direct rule of King), no provinces as administrative units.
Administrative units – village, district, state, centre.
 Administration at grass root level.
 Most notable achievement – annexation of neighbouring kingdom of Anga or East
Bihar, which had its capital at Champa
 Also entered into matrimonial alliances with ruling families of Kosala and Vaisali.
 His Kosalan wife brought a Kasi village yielding large revenue, given by Prasenajit.
  Vaisali marriage paved way for expansion in North to the borders of Nepal.
 Efficient system of administration. Dismissed inefficient officials.
 Called village headmen for discussion and made regular supervision of the kingdom.
 Credited by a Chiniese pilgrim for having built a new city – Rajagriha.
 Under him, Magadha became a flourishing kingdom and attracted the most
enlightened men of the age.
 Both Buddha and Mahavira preached their doctrines during Bimbisara’s reign.
 Deposed, imprisoned and murdered by his son Ajatasatru.

AJATASATRU –
 Also known as Kunika.
 Prasenajit of Kosala, his maternal uncle decided to avenge the parricide as it resulted
in the death of his Ajatasatru’s mother too.
 Republican tribes of North, North-West borders of Magadha entered into a league
with the enemies of Ajatasatru in Kasi-Kosala.
 Had to face hostility of rulers of Sravasti, Vrijis, Mallas and the Parvas.
 Fortification of Pataligrama village to repel the vrijs. This developed into the stately
city of Pataliputra, the metropolis of India.
 Defeated al his adversaries due to his tenacity & Machiavellian policy of his ministers
 Vriji territory annexed, Lichchavi was annexed after 16 years of war. Kosala humbled
but not crushed. Prasenajit had to give up his claim to the Kasi village which had
become a bone of contention. Also had to give his daughter to Ajatasatru for
marriage.
 He had a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapult. He also had
chariots to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killing. These were very
helpful in war.
 Patron of Devadatta – schismatic cousin of Buddha.
 Mahavira and Buddha are said to have died early in his reign.

SUCCESSORS –
 Udayana – Foundation of the city of Pataliputra nestling under the shelter of the
fortress erected by the ministers of Ajatasatru.
 The Haranyas were succeeded by Sisunaga who carried on the forward policy by
destroying the power of the Avanti and merging it wih Magadha.
 After Sisunagas, Nandas became new kings.
o Vigorous ruler.
o Exterminated all kshatriyas and became the sole monarch according to
puranas. Greek evidence – one sovereign with the capital at Pataliputra. King
also held sway in Kalinga, evidence – a Kalinga inscription.
o Vast treasure and a vast army.
o 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots, 6,000 war elephants.
o Heavy taxation due to this size of army.Detested & held cheap by his subjects
REASONS OF MAGADHAN ASCENDENCY –
1) Ambitious monarch - great rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasutra - Wanted to expand
and conquer the kingdoms - Hunger for power - Went to the extent of killing his
father – annexed territories.
2) Strategically situated capital – covered and protected by mountains and rivers on all
sides – strategically located capitals.
3) Rich Iron Deposit – proximity of the mines – raw material available – weapons –
export import.
4) Fertile alluvium – alluvial soil, cultivation – surplus
5) Use of elephants – Greeks surprised to see elephants being used – other warfare
techniques, chariots with mazes etc.
6) Developed trade and commerce – trade routes, control over the trade routes of the
Ganges, Gandak and Son rivers could provide it substantial revenues.

Arab Conquest Of Sindh

 Earlier tries in the times of Khalifa Omar (naval expedition) and Osman
 Latter under Abdullah bin Amar
 1st unsuccessful, 2nd unsuccessful in capture of Sindh
 Still not considered worthwhile (water scarce, poor land in Sindh)
 8th Century : Capture of Baluchistan

Causes for Arab Invasions

 Provoked to take undertake conquest in 711 AD
 Immediate Cause: King of Ceylon embraced Islam, sent troops and valuables to
Caliph, plundered off the coast of Sindh by pirates of Debol
 Caliph asked for reparations from Dahir (ruler of Sindh)
 Dahir refused, pirates not under his control

 Real Cause: Spreading of Islam,

Greed of Wealth
General Aggressive Policy

 712 AD : Mohammad bin Quasim(general of the Umayyad caliphate) sent to conquer

Sindh
 Army : 6000 Syrian horses, 6000 cavalry, 3000 Bactrian animals, 5 catapults, 2500
artillery

Towns conquered
DEBAL

 Jats and Meds joined him

 Debal under nephew of Dahir
 Brahmans of Debal placed talisman near red flag to protect them,
 Secret disclosed by a Brahmin, broken by Arabs
 Everyone above 17 slaughtered, females made slaves
 Built mosque in place of damaged temple

Nerun, Sehwan captured too.

DAHIR

 Qasim ordered bridge of boats to cross Indus

 Dahir had elephants and powerful army
 Dahir on elephant, got frightened, went into the river
 Army in despair, Dahir defeated and killed
 Ranibai (Dahir’s widow) put up stiff defence
 Ultimately lost to Arabs

AROR
 held by son of Dahir
 defeated by Qasim
 completed Sindh conquest

MULTAN

 Arabs cut water supply to the city

 People surrendered
 Found lot of gold
 Multan named city of Gold

Death of Qasim
 2 rival groups in court of Khalifa
 One group Opposed to Hajjaj ( son in law : Qasim)
 Poisoned ears of Khalifa
 Orders passed to torture him to death
 Control of Khalifa became loose
 750 AD : Omayyids replaced by Abbasids
 Chiefs of Sindh became more independent
 2 kingdoms established : Sindh upto Aror and Multan

Administration
 Captured hindus asked to convert, put to sword, enslaved
 Women and treasures appropriated
 Mosques built on ruins of temples
 Later, policy of partial religious tolerance
 Allowed to follow their religion in home
 Imposition of Jiziya (religious tax) in 3 grades : 48 , 24 and 12 Dirhams
 Khiraj ( land tax) imposed as : 2/5 for wheat and barley in lands watered by public
canals
 1/4 : other cases
 1/3 : garden produce like grapes and dates

 Land divided into iqtas, military officer incharge of iqta

 Soldiers given jagirs
 No uniformity of law or courts
 Capital law inflicted
 Punishments on Hindus very severe
 Common people unhappy
 Not allowed to ride horses
 Head branded, frequently humiliated

EFFECTS

 Arabs Amazed by Indian abilities

 Learnt scientific astronomy from Brahmins
 Also learnt chemistry, medicine and mathematics
 Adopted parts of Indian culture in Islam
 Took architecture ( Mandapam temple dome : dome of Mosques
Indian towers: Minars of mosques)
 Sowed the seed of Islamic rule in India
 Invasion not inspired by religion : Brahmins appointed in admin
 Dahir’s queen married Qasim
 Thus Arab Invasion : a business enterprise

Causes for Success of Arabs

 no united front against invaders
  Dahir unpopular
 Poor country ( could mantain large standing army)
 Sindh isolated from india ( nobody took interst)
 Arabs more inspired ( fight for islam) , more united
 Superior fighting equipment

Failure To Leave Behind Permanent Footprint

 Qasim’s premature death
 Rivalry of Umayyids and Abbasids
 Entered from wrong quater : Sindh very poor country

RISE OF GHASNAVIDES
 Turks took over Khalifas
 More aggressive in spreading Islam
 Thoroughly materialistic
 Full of ambition

ALAPTGIN
 Originally slave of Abdul malik
 Rose to rank of Hajib-ul- Hajjab by ability
 956 AD: appointed Governor of Khorsan
 962 AD : Abdul Malik died, struggle of power, Malik’s brother gained power
 Alaptgin settled in Ghazani with 800 followers
 Died after 8 years

SUBUKTGIN
 977 AD : ascended throne of Ghazani
 Originally a slave
 Given promotions by master, married master’s daughter
 Title : Amir –ul – Umra
 Caputured Khorsan in 994 AD
 Attack on Raja Jai Pal’s Kingdom
 Battle in valley of Lamghan
 Jai pal’s plans disturbed by snow storm, called for truce
 Treaty for 1 mil Dirhams, 50 elephants, 2 hostages, some cities and fortresses
 Jai pal broke treaty, imprisoned Subuktgin’s soldiers
 Formed confederacy of rulers of Ajmer,Kalingar, Kanauj
 Defeated by subutgin
 Died in 997 AD, 20 yrs reign
 MAHMUD GHAZNI
 Son of Subuktgin and daughter of noble of Zabulistan
 AKA Mahmud Zabuli
 Trained in warfare, admin. , science of statecraft
 Khorsan under his charge
 Important role in battle of Lamghan
 Relations not cordial with father
 Brother Ismai declared successor, asked brother to keep Balkan and give him Ghazni
 Ghazni revolted, defeated Ismai
 Accepted by Khalifa
 Titles : Yamin ud daulah ( right hand of the empire)
Amin ul Millat ( Custudian of Faith)

EXPEDITIONS
1. The first campaign he directed against frontier towns in 1000 A.D.
2. In the same year against Jaipal ruler of Hindushahi Dynasty.
3. Against the Raja of Bhira who in spite of his promise failed to help
Mahmud. He stabbed himself and a large number of hindus massacred,
only those spared who converted to Islam

4. This invasion was against Daud the ruler of Multan in 1006 he defeated
Daud and Sukhpal alias Nawassa Shah was made In-charge of the Punjab
and Multan and retired to Gazni

5. After some time Mahmud came to know that Sukhpal had declared
himself independent and also given up islam ….. So to punish Sukhpall he
invaded one more time India and defeated him

6. In 1008 against Anandpala, who organised the confederacy of Rajput Kings

but defeated again.

7. In 1009 he attacked Nagarkot in Kangra hill. To Plundered the enormous

wealth of the temple .

8. 1010 marched to Multan to defeat the rebellious chief Doud.

9. 1014 Anandpal and his son Trilochanpal fought with Mahmud aided by
Kashmir. As a result established himself in Shivalik hills. Trilochan pal
was succeeded by his son Bhimpal with his death in 1026 the hindushahi
dynasty came to an end.

10. 1014 Mahmud led his expedition in Thaneshwar and plundered the wealth
of temple

11. Between 1015-1021 he made to unsuccessful expedition to Kashmir

 12. In 1018 he invaded Kannoj

13. From Kannoj he marched to Mathura and plundered the wealth of temples.
The temple contains idol of Pure gold he plundered the whole city.

14. Brindaban:- from here also he earned a great booty.

15. In 1019 invaded the territory of Gonda and Chandellas

16. In 1021-22 he laid siege to Gwalior

17. The most important of all was the expedition to Somanath in 1025. (50000
defenders killed)

Estimate of Mahmud Ghazni

 great soldier
 very courgeous
 did not focus on consolidating empire
 ill knotted kingdom
 disintegrated soon after his death ( 10 years)
 only Punjab with Ghaznavis
 not a great statesman
 Threatened Khalifa with death when he refused to give him Samarkand
 Also took with him Indian craftsmen to make grt. Buildings in GHazni
 Main Objective : Acquisition of wealth
To make Ghazni powerful in Central Asia
Breaking morale of Indians
 Took away over 150 crore of gold and silver, large quantities of jewels,
hundreds of elephants and slaves

SCHOLARS OF HIS TIME

 Utbi = Kitab-ul- Yamini

 Firdausi= Shahnama
 Al- Beruni = account of Socio- Economic Conditions
 Baikhi = Tarikh-i- Subukhtgin

 Architecture : the Celestial Bride- wonder of the East

Big mosque surrounded by 3000 quarters for University Students and Teachers
 Very strict in administration of justice
 15 sucessors after Mahmud Ghazni, from 1030 to 1186 AD

EFFECTS
 Breakdown of Indian defence against foreign Invaders
 Lack of unified defence exposed
 Religious effect: loot and destruction of temples
 Effect on Art : Damage to Cultural Heritage
 Economic Effect : loss of men and money

MUHAMMAD GHORI
 Real founder of Muslim empire in India
 Full name : Muiz- ud – din Mohammad bin Sam
 Also called Shihab –ud-din Muhammad Ghori
 Very ambitious, wanted to gather prestige, wealth and Spread Islam
 Desired to establish empire, not merely loot India

CONQUESTS

Multan & Sindh

 Conquest in 1175
 Easily defeated ruler of Multan
 Later conquered Uch and Lower Sindh

Anhilwara
 Also called Patan
 Capital of Vaghela ruler of Gujarat : Bhima II
 Defeated by ruler, retraced steps

Punjab
 Key to India through Punjab
 1179 AD: attacked and Captured Peshawar, under Khusrau Malik
 Malik sent costly gifts to make peace, Ghori continued to attack
 Malik formed alliance with Khokars, still defeated, son captured
 Later invited Khusrau to safe visit, promise to release son
 Malik killed on meeting son

1st BATTLE OF TARAIN

 In Tarain near Thanesar, in 1191
 Attacked Prithvi Raj Chauhan’s kingdom
 Chauhan’s army : 2 lakh horses, 3000 elephants
  Ghori used left right and centre tactics, was in the middle of the army
 Govind Rai ( Prithvi Raj’s brother) attacked by Ghori
 Counter attacked and severely hurt Ghori
 Ghori saved by a soldier, army retreated and defeated
 However, Prithvi Raj Chauhan did not fortify his kingdom

2nd Battle of Tarain

 In 1192 AD
 Ghori took an army of 120000 men
 Prithvi Raj had 150 Rajput Princes on his side
 Ghori managed to destroy hindu army
 2 techniques used : horse shoe( longer life and protected hooves)
 Iron stirrup ( better control on the horse)

 Govind Rai killed

 Prithvi Raj believed to have been taken to Ajmer and put to death
 Battle considered landmark in Indian History
 Demoralized the hindu kingdoms
 Son of prithvi raj : incharge of Ajmer, agreed to pay tribute
 Qutb –ud- Aibak : In charge of all Indian possessions
 Mohammad Ghazni went back to Ghazni

KANNAUJ
 Attacked in 1194
 Very powerful kingdom, ruler considered greatest king of India
 Ruler Jai Chandra
 Defeated after bloody battle
 Also led to capture of Banaras

 Ghori Fought turks for next few years

 Position of empire consolidated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak

BUNDELKHAND
 1197-1198 AD
 Conquered Badaun from Rashtrakuta rajput
 Next attacked chandelas
  Cut off their water supply, chandelas surrendered

BIHAR
 Under Ikhtiyar-ud-din Aibak
 Commander of Qutb ud din
 Attacked and captured bihar with 100 horsemen
 Killed monks and students and occupied a monastery

Bengal
 Ruled by Lakshmansena
 Completely lethargic, negligent of duties
 Advantage taken by Ikhtiyar-ud-din Aibak
 Secretly attacked with only 18 horsemen

 Ghori defeated by turks in 1204 AD

 Khokhars revolted
 Ghori came in person to India to handle situation
 Aibak and Ghori crushed revolt
 Killed on his way back from Lahore to Ghazni, assassinated by Khokhars and
Shia rebels on the banks of Indus

ESTIMATE
 Not as great a general as Mahmud Ghazni
 Superior as constructive statesman
 Conquests wider and more permament than Ghori
 Always had the zeal to build an empire in India
 Shrewd diplomat
 Kind and generous
 SCHOLARS : Fakhrudin Razi and Nizami Uruzi

CAUSES OF MUSLIM SUCCESS AND RAJPUT FAILURE

 Lack of political unity in the country

 Defective military tactics ( elephants instead of horses, swordsmen instead of archers)
 Musliims : no adherence to any rules in war
 Rajputs : everything staked on single battle ( did not retreat to fight later)
 Lack of attack strategies by rajputs
  Caste system divided Indians ( only 1/4th of the people available to fight)
 Strong slave system of Muslims ( treated according to merit)
 Communities within India helped Muslims

IMPACT OF TURKISH CONQUEST

 Ideal of centallized organization controlled by monarch with unlimited powers
 Touch with outer world restored ( Asia and Africa)
 Urban Revolution ( cities without social demarcations created)
 Changes in military startegies ( proper training, emphasis on speed and mobility)
 Improvement of trade
 Introduction of Persian as laguage

SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

Slave dynasty-First sultanate of Delhi, founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

Only 3 Kings slave-i) Qutb-ud-din Aibak (freed from Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din)

ii) Iltutmish (freed from master)
iii) Balban(freed from 40 turkish slaves of Iltutmish)
All rulers were turks, not pathans or afghans.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-10)

The real founder of Turkish dominion in India-Born in Turkistan-purchased as a slave by a
local Qazi when he was merely a boy at a market in Nishapur- Qazi gave religious and
military training-At death of Qazi, sold by his sons to a merchant-merchant took him to
Ghazni and he was purchased by Muhammad Ghori-

Rise
laudable qualities, admirable impressions but no outward comeliness-attracted attention of
new master by his courage, manly bearing, faithfulness and generosity-appointed
commander of a section of the army-Master of Stables (Amir-i-Akhur)- placed in charge of
conquests after second battle of tahrain (1192)- made Indraprastha near Delhi
headquarters-
Entered into matrimonial alliances-married daughter of Taj-ud-din Yildoz, married his sister
to Nasir-ud-din Qabacha and married his daughter to Iltutmish.
1192 A.D.- crushed rebellion in Ajmer and Meerut
1194 A.D.-second rebellion in Ajmer crushed
1197 A.D.- helped Ghori defeat Jai Chandra, ruler of Kanauj in battle of Chandwara-punished
Bhimdev of Gujarat
1202- Besieged fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkahnd and captured the same.
Took control of Mahuba and Badun, richest cities of Hindustan, his lieutenants conquered
Bihar and part of Bengal, possession of North India as lieutenant of master and his
representative in India
Succession
Muhammad Ghori died in 1206 A.D. - no male heir-Taj-ud-din Tildoz ascended throne in
Ghazni but Qutb-ud-din succeed him in India- Ghori conferred title of ‘MALIK’ on Qutb-
ud-din-accesion in Lahore, also seat of powe- Aibak roused jealousy of Tildoz, captured parts
of Ghazni but driven out and returned to Lahore-
Bengal and bihar accepted Aibak as overlord even after death of his lieutenant and the call of
an independent state, annual tribute to Delhi-not follow a policy of aggression against
Rajputs-died in 1210, injured from fall from his horse while playing polo-
Writers not consider him independent Sultan of India, I) no coin of Aibak, II) no mention in
accounts of Ibn-batuta (Moorish spain) and III) name not included in the Friday Khutba in the
list of Sultans.
Legacy

helped in expansion of power and expansion policy of Ghori while he was busy with Central
Asia- Aided in spread of Islam as made India separate of Ghazni-built masjids at ajmer and
dehi-great military leader-open hearted monarch- title of Lakhbaksh (giver of lakhs)-image
of justice and large-heartedness-patron of learning and patronised writers like fakhr-ud-din
( tarikh-i-mubarik Shahi)-
No sound system of administration-entire thing on military power-garrisons everywhere-
local administration in hands of people- not kind to Hindus-wars against Anhilwara and
Kalinjar, Hindus enslaved and converted and masjids built on ruins of temples-in times of
peace tolerant-responsible for detailed planning and initiation of the Delhi State
Real founder of Turkish dominion and de facto Sultan of almost entire Hindustan-coronation
in 1206 but freedom from slaveri in 1208-never got a title higher than Malik or siphasalar-no
coin in his name ( coin mark of sovereignity)- latest Sultans did not accept him as Sultans,
Iltutmish as first Sultan in Firuz Shah Tuqhlaq’s list-Yalduz claimed suzerainity over India,
mere colony of a central Asian empire-No capital but Lahore and Delhi were 2 military
headquarters-had no sons

ARAM SHAH
On throne for sake of restraining tumult-relation to Aibak not known, some say son, others
brother, no conclusive view-weak and worthless young man- no recognition-danger of civil
war-invited Iltutmish, Governor of Badaun, to avoid civil war-Iltutmish defeated Aram
Shah at Judd- realm for 8 months

ILTUTMISH (1211-1236)
Greatest slave king-rose to eminence on merit-Turk of ilbari tribe in Turkestan-belonged
to noble family-smart, intelligent- sold to a merchant of Bukhara and later sold to Aibak-rose
step by step and made Governor of Baduan- married to daughter of Aibak-famous battle
against Khokhars-earned freedom ( letter of manumission) and given rank of Amir-ul-
Umara-election to throne of Delhi opposed by commander of Aibak and qazi (Wajih-ud-din)
but no serious backing and also a free man-
No usurper- sovereign power on 3 things:-
I) elected by officials
II) could claim by the right of conquest and power to enforce
III) formally recognised by Khalifa of Baghdad, conferred Sultan-i-Azam or Great
Sultan(1229) ( Islamic King)
Iltutmish on his coins mentioned as lieutenant of Khalifa.
Consolidated position around Delhi-defeated Qutbi and Muzzi Maliks- secured letter of
manumition from Yildoz ( foe of Iltutmish-didn’t want an independent Muslim empire in
india) Yildoz defeated in battle of Tarain- Iltutmish disposing one of his enemies.
Qabacha ( ruler of Uch and Multan)- occupied portion of Punjab- refused to recognize
Iltutmish as overlord-Iltutmish declared war in 1217 and successful in driving him out of
pujab-Qabacha still managed to remain in power for another decade- 1227, again launched
offensive against Qabacha, captured Uch- Bhakka also besieged, Qabacha tried
negotiating peace-failed- died ( drowned or suicide)- Iltutmish appointed Muhammad
Junaidi to complete the conquest of lower Sindh

Bengal
Ali Mardan declared independat Bengal after death of Aibak and tool title of Ala-ud-din,
died 2 years later- succeeded by Hisam-ud-din Iwaz who took title of Ghias-us-din- struck
coin in his own name- Khutba was read in his name- Iltutmish expedition in 1225- Ghias-ud-
din humbly submitted and agreed to pay a tribute-submission not a lasting one-once again
revolted and another expedition was launched- Ghias-ud-din killed and Bengal completely
brought under throne of Delhi-revolt later by Khalji Maliks under Balka suppressed in
1229- Iltutmish defeated Balka and Ala-ud-din Jani in charge of Bengal.

Rajputs
After Aibak died, rajputs tried to drive out Turks, Chandelas recovered Kalinjar and
Ajaigarh- Paritharas drove away Muslim garrisons fron Gwalior- Narwar and Jhansi
occupied- Chauhan ruler of Ranthambor turned out the Turkish Groups and brought
Jodhpur and other areas under control ( Bharmer, Ratnapur, Sanchor, Khera amd Bhinamal)
1226- Iltutmish besieged Ranthambor, captured it, Mandor ( capital of Parmara Rajputs )
captured again and garrisoned.
Udai Singh-ruler of Jailor- resisted but later surrendered-Ajmer and Nagir recovered
1231- Gwalior besieged, Malayvarma Deva fought bravely but surrendered- Kalinjar
plundered-
Chandelas able to turn out Muslims, Iltutmish lost in Nagada, Iltutmish tried to subdue the
Chalukyas of Gujarat but unsuccessful
1234-35 Iltutmish plundered Bhilsa and Ujjain, destroyed temple of Mahakal at Ujjain-no
war of conquest, ,merely a raid
Doab
Badaun, Kanauj, Banaras and Katehar, asserted their independence-Iltutmish took action
against them-recaptured all-Katehar also recaptured- Avadh brought under control after stiff
resistance-local tribes subdued after death of Prithbu-expeditions also against Chandwara
and Tirhut
MONGOLS
1221- Mongols appeared on banks of river Indus under Changiz Khan- Khan attacked Jalal-
ud-din Mangarbarni or Jalal-ud-din Khwarzin, the last Shah of Khwarzim of Khiva, and
Mangarbarni fled to Punjab and asked Iltutmish for shelter-refused for fear of attack ( climate
would not suit him)-infant empire saved
Banian ( Sagar Doab)-last expedition of Iltutmish-attacked by severe illness- carried back to
Delhi in litter- disease fatal ad died on 29 April 1236

Legacy
Completed Qutub Minar (1231-32), named after Khwaja Qutb-ud-din ( a native of Uch)-
held in great esteem by Iltutmish- Built magnificent masjid at Ajmer-his reign saw decline
of Lahore and rise of Delhi ( became centre of learning), scholars like Aufi and Hasan
Nizami in his court-saints, artists flocked to Delhi-received a robe of honour and deed of
investiture Al-Mustandir Billah in 1229-first Muslim ruler to introduced Arabic coinage
and issued silver coins called Tankah and the copper Jital-inscribed proud legend “ Mighty
Sultan” & “Aid of the Commander of the faithful”-earlier coins bore symbols familiar to
Hindus (bull of Shiva and horseman), Nagari script-Iltutmish a great moneyer as well
Pious Muslim-particular about 5 daily prayers-intolerant towards Shias (Ismail-shias
revolted)-persecuted Hindus-not a constructive statesman-not much support, accomplished on
his own-added dominions-restored and maintained order-great realism, steadfastness and
foresight-laid foundation of absolute monarchy-compromise with religious leaders, disarmed
moral opposition-described as “protector of lands of God” & “helper of servant of God”-gave
country a capital, independent state, monarchical form of govt. and a governing class-patched
up Hindustan-Delhi became a culture hub as well as centre of Turkish Empire-
Delhi Sultanate owes Outline of administrative system to Iltutmish- Organised Revenue and
Finance departments, not attempted by any other Muslim ruler-tackled problems on spirit of
reconciliation and compromise-
Iqta system-divided empire into iqtas which were assigned different nobles- Iqtadar
maintained law and order and controlled revenue- after deducing salary and expenses of
government, he sent surplus revenue to central government-not owners of land like
feudalism-mere functionaries-iqtadars coulf be transferred from one assignment to another
and deprived of Iqtas at will of emperor-not ideal but best suited model-
helped kept nobles under check- prevented in-fighting- nobles not too powerful-
Iltutmish created a political unity and centralised government
Turkan-i-Chahalgani-nobility of slaves or corps of forty-personal slaves of emperor- loyal
and allegiance unquestioned- could keep grip over affairs of govt. through them-advised and
helped the Sultan-assumed great power after death of iltutmish, for few years decided
selection of Sultans-eliminated by Balban who was a former member.

RUKN-UD-DIN FIRUZ SHAH

Iltutmish wanted daughter, Raziya at the throne, but nobles too proud. Rukn-ud-din firuz
shah, in charge of govt. of Lahore and Baduan, became king. Worthless fellow-sexual thirst-
neglected govt. work-pleasue loving fellow-reign 6 months and 7 days-left govt. control to
mother, Shah Turkan- not accepted or recognised-conspiracy hatched to kill Raziya-muslim
nobles disgusted- put Shah Turkan and Firuz Shah to death

SULTANA RAZIYA (1236-40)

reign 3 and a half years- her selection was unique, most daring and significant given society
of that time, outlook of people, religious and military classes,- freshness and robustness,-
Sucession:- I) Decided succession issue on their own initiative
II) Support of Delhi Population main source of strength for Raziya, concentrated in Delhi
III) Accession a form of contract, depose if not fulfil expectations
Indicates- robustness and virility of Turkish mind in accepting a woman-indifference and
impotence of theologians in matters of state as the elevation of woman, contrary to Islamic
practice- The army, officers and the people of Delhi had placed Raziya on the throne-
Governors were humiliated and felt ignored-
She was a great sovereign, just, patron of learned, dispenser of justice, endowed with
admirable attributes and qualifications necessary for a king- put aside dress as a woman, gave
up veil, donned tunic and head dress of man-rule ended because she was a woman-
Governors of Multan, Baduan, Hansi and Lahore revolted against her-couldn’t reconcile ruler
is a woman-Great weakness was her sex-talents insufficient
Began to show favours to Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, A Abyssinian slave, who was raised to the
post of the master of the stables-challenged the monopoly claimed by nobles-Her fondness
criminal ( Ibn Batuta)-no allegation by Minhaj-us-Siraj ( contemporary writer)- Abyssinian
favoured attendance upon Raziya-allegation of love- nobles jealous of Yaqut and turned
against Raziya- simultaneous revolts in various parts of the kingdom-Governor of Lahore
first to create trouble- crushed but rebellions in bhatinda ( Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia,
govenor) refused to acknowledge her suzerainity- Raziya against Altuia- Turkish followers of
Altunia murdered Yaqut and Bahram proclaimed Sultan of Delhi- Raziya thought to marry
Altunia as a solution-marched to Delhi with new husband-reached Kathila, deserted by
followers of Altunia, defeated by Bahram and put to death next day with husband.

NASIR-UD-DIN MAHMUD
Son of Iltutmish-Resigned all powers into hands of Turkish aristocracy, particularly Balban,
and continued to reign only in the name for about 20 years- lived simple life- most time
copying Holy Quran-wife not allowed maid-servant-trustee of state & couldn’t spend on
personal comforts-more than one wife and many slaves
Began reign with enthusiasm-far-sighted and waited for opportunity to challenge Balban-
Balban controlled everything- banished Malika-i-Jahan, his own mother on Balban’s bidding-
Sultan showed great energy in waging wars against infidels-turned to religion to escape terror
of political life-
Mongols created trouble for him- several raids upon Multan and Lahore and extorted lot of
booty and gold- Kishlu Khan (brother of Balban) accepeted suzerainty of Mongol and
Multan part of Mongol empire-Balban poisoning his master-Balban had close relations

GHIAS-UD-DIN BALBAN
Early Life:
Balban was the greatest of the slave kings-original name Baha-ud-din-He was a Ilbari Turk.
In Small age- captured by Mongols- carried to Ghazni and sold to Khwaja Jmal-ud-din
Basra(pious and learned)-brought him to Delhi and then ultimately sold to Iltutmish. He
belonged to the famous band of 40 slaves of Iltutmish (the Chahalgan). He rose in position-
was Amir-i-Shikar or Lord of the Hunt under Raziya’s regime and in charge of Rewari (jagir)
and Hansi- and was instrumental in overthrowing Masud Shah and putting Nasir ud din
Mahmud on the throne of Delhi. Nasir-ud-din placed all powers in his hands. Balnan
appointed Naib-i-Mamlikat in 1249. He married his daughter to Sultan Nasir ud Din- thus,
establishing his power- Prime Minister from 1266-86
For some time in 1253- temporary eclipse of power of Balban- nobles hated him- Raihan,
head of Balban’s opposition became Prime Minister- after Sultan joined them- Balban and his
brother was dismissed- but Raihan wasn’t able to remain in power for long- thus Balban
returned.
After his return- continued consolidation- he took control of Bengal after the death of Tughan
Khan- Balban also took steps to crush the Hindus of the Doab- bitter fighting- large number
of Hindus slaughtered and women and children made slaves- after suppressing a rising of
Chandela Chief of Kalinjar- he led expedition against Gwalior.

Balban as King:
After Nasir ud din Mahmud died- Balban became sultan- faced many difficulties- affairs of
the state in confusion due to incompetency of the successors of Iltutmish:- I) royal treasury
empty II) prestige of government very low III) Arrogance of the nobles increased IV)
Common man had no fear of government V)Possibility of Mongol raids.
Doab:
After creating strong and efficient army- order in Doab- raids made it difficult to collect
revenue- Balban cleared neighborhood of robbers and rebels punished with a heavyhand-
personally took part in operations against rebels-military posts at Bhojpur, Patiali, Kampi and
Jalali-attacked villages to prevent rebellion in Katehar-he created fear in the minds of the
people- slaughtered and made people slaves- no uprising since then.
Bengal:
Tughril Khan, Governor of Bengal- declared independence (old-age of Balban and Mongol
invasion)- the 1st expedition under Amir Khan failed- 2nd expedition under Malik Targhi also
failed- king personally with son ( Bughra Khan) decided to go to Bengal- Governor fled- but
was discovered by a follower of Balban ( Sher Andaz)- killed along with all his followers and
relatives- imposed exemplary punishment on followers and relatives of Tugril Khan-
Mongols-
Mongol menace became great-raids frequent- sultan kept himself in readiness- followed an
aggressive policy of crushing the Khokhars and other revolting tribes- so that the invaders
won’t get a safe passage, attack on Salt Range-chastised Khokhars-failed to establish
permanent foot there-other measures- defense methods-forts on the routes of the invaders-
well equipped army and garrisoned forts-new forts-watch posts-Mongol invasions-hurt
Sultan- defence priority-Balban recovered Lahore and Multan and compromised by holding a
line between Beas and Ravi rivers ( leaving western Punjab in Mongol hands)-beyond Ravi
everything Mongol
Death:
Death of Balban’s son Prince Muhammad in the hands of the Mongols- sultan could not
recover from the shock- when he sensed his imminent death- summoned son Bughra Khan
from Bengal- didn’t come- afraid of sultan’s stern nature- Balban appointed his grandson as
his heir.
Destruction of ‘the forty’:
Balban was responsible for the destruction of the forty- because he knew full well the forty
would never allow to exercise his full powers-forty had reduced Sultan to position of figure-
head- he promoted junior Turks to high positions- any member of the forty made mistake
(Malik Babaq and Haibat Khan flogged, Amin Khan hanged)- was severely punished- others
were killed by poison (Sher Khan Sanqar)- thus he was able to destroy the forty.
Spy System:
Balban organized a very efficient system of espionage- secret reporters in every departments-
secret news writers in every province & district, provided good salaries- all kept independent-
correct news unmindful of person involved- punished severely if they failed in duty- he
strengthened his position
Cancellation of grants:
Balban had reorganized his army- Iltutmish gave land grants for military service- grantees
enjoyed the lands although many died and their descendants took possession of the grants-
general tendency to evade service in the field- Balban resumed old grants and allotted
subsistence allowances according to age- but cancelled the orders for resumption of lands due
to discontentment of people and abuse continued
Army:
Imad ud Mulk- head of army- appointed Diwan-i-arz or army minister- resulted in strict
discipline and made the army very efficient-independent of Minister of Finance- There is also
indication that Balban endeavored to change the payment of the soldier’s salaries from Iqta
(land grants) to cash payments-Re-organized the army
I) placed cavalry and infantry under experienced faithful officials
II)Turkish or Persian slaves Maliks
III) Hindus and converted Muslims not appointed as officer in the army

Conception of Kingship:
Balban’s conception of kingship- similar to theory of divine right of kings-regency of God
(Niyabat-i-Khudai) and its dignity was next to prophethood-took the title of shadow of the
god or zil-i-ilahi-divine sanction-respected more if in line with beliefs of Muslims ( respect
Khalifa, inscribe name on coins)-He believed in despotism, despot could maintain security-
claimed descent from Afrasiyab of Turan - he maintained strict court mannerisms and himself
gave up wine and jovial company after becoming the Sultan- kept himself aloof- introduced
Sijda or prostration and Paibos or kissing the sultan’s feet in court as normal form of
salutation-introduced system of Nauroz -he wanted to restore prestige of the king-revival of
monarchy (achievement)-Racialism in his rule-abhorred Indian muslims like Iltutmish-
problems of his rule were that he never encouraged Indian muslims in administration and
hindus who learnt Persian and his emphasis on high blood

In discharge of his kingly duties- was inspired and guided by God at all times- believed that
the source of the power of the king lay with the divine- heart repository of divine guidance-
actions not subject to scrutiny-refused to talk to people-appeared in court in full regalia and
royal paraphernalia- made distinction between high born and low born people- dismissed low
born persons from offices- he believed in Persian customs ( organised court on Persian
model)-emulated Persian customs and traditions- named his grandsons after Persian kings
( Kaiqubad, Kaikaus)

Other:
administration of justice-inflexible, not favoring anyone-gave redress and comfort to injured-
no conception of Clemency and forgiveness- affectionate and tender in private life, gave
shelter to refugees from central Asia-no one joked with him or in his court-Great patron of
learning, liberal maintenance allowances given-Amir Khusru flourished in his time-
 THE KHILJI DYNASTY
Jalal ud Din Khilji (1290-96)
-was the founder of Khilji Dynasty - came to power after over-throw of slave dynasty –
Killed Prince Kaiqubad of Slave Dynasty; Event = Khalji Revolution.
His assumption of power was not universally accepted – Turkish Amirs hated Khiljis,
considered to be low-born Afghans – Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban, wanted to overthrow
him – Came to Delhi only when he felt that he had won over people by his generosity. Malik
Chhajju was allowed to retian governorship of Kara - Confirmed Turkish nobles in the offices
they held previously – Ahmad Chap = Amir-i-Hajib or Master of Ceremonies.
Before becoming king, had won many battles – most experienced and powerful Turkish
nobleman. After becoming king, followed the policy of peace and tolerance – Welfare state –
avoiding harsh punishment – “Govt can sustain with the willing support of people” Refused
to shed blood for political or territorial gains – didn’t use his sword even to punish rebels,
thieves or thugs – “too kind to be a king in the age when blood and iron alone could tell” –
mild policy resented by followers, attributed to old age and cowardice. Thieves and robbers –
gave them lectures on evils of stealing.

Revolt of Malik Chajju: In 2nd yr of his reign, had to face revolt of Malik Chhajju (nephew of
Balban). Opposed Jalal before becoming king but later submitted and given Jagir of Kara –
Inspite of all this, raised revolt – marched towards Delhi – he & his followers were defeated,
captured and brought before Sultan – did not punish them, pardoned them- Ahmad Chap and
others protested against the policy and warned of consequences of such a weak policy – did
nto pay any heed – Ala-ud-Din made governor of Kara.

Some Amirs were disgusted with mild policy, plans to overthrow Jalal – came to know –
challenged them – stern warning and then pardoned them.

However, killed Siddi Maula – Maula had built a Khankah, fed thousands of poor –
allegations of plot by no. of Amirs against the Sultan and put Siddi to throne – arrested and
killed – there was a huge storm, people attributed it to death of Dervaish.

First expedition against Ranthambor – ruler offered stiff resistance –Sultan gave up the
campaign and came back to Delhi – warned again of mild policy but no heed.

Ala-ud-Din’s Exploits: Ala-ud-din invaded Malwa, captured town of Bhilsa – on his return,
made governor of Avadh as well – defeated ruler of Devagiri and brought a lot of wealth.
Mongols- India attacked during Jala’s reign, Jalal personally went to oppose them, defeated
them. Sultan allowed some of Mongols to settle in India – their descendants to be known as
NEW MUSALMAS.

Devagiri- Ala was ambitious – heard of wealth of Deccan, decided to have the same- started
for Deccan – on way, proclaimed that he was dissatisfied with his uncle and going to south to
have service under some Hindu ruler, therefore, no resistance to him on way – As he entered
the boundaries of Devagiri, ruler Ram Chandra decided to fight –Ram defeated – Ala ud din
came back to Kara getting lot of riches.
This was done without the consent of Sultan – people had advised Jalal that AUD was
ambitious and eyed the throne – JUD said he loved him like his son and was ready to do
anything for him-
PLAN: AUD informed JUD that he was anxious to present to JUD the wealth from South but
was afraid of coming to Delhi – JUD, disregarding warnings of advisers, left for Kara with
his army – Again told he was afraid of the army, please come alone – JUD went with a few
unarmed attendants – JUD embraced AUD, signaled his followers to stab him – JUD: “Ye
tune kya kiyaaa?” – other followers of JUD killed – head of JUD paraded throughout-

“As far as Muslim rulers of India are concerned, Military forces proved to be more potent
source of sovereignty – they conquered by force, maintained authority by force, lost position
as they failed to command adequate force.

THEREFORE: Perfect gentleman, one of pious Musalmans of the time - merit and fortune
raised him to highest pinnacle of greatness, still not proud – God-fearing – affectionate to his
family, kind to all – behaved with nobles not as a king but as a friend – Kingship span short,
but ruled as a father in family – declared himself incapable of tyranny!

Ala-ud-Din Khilji: (1296-1316)

Nephew of JUD, son-in-law also – fatherless – brought up by JUD – given fief of Kara – here
he became ambitious – decided to make himself independent – invaded Malwa – given
governorship of Avadh – defeated ruler of Devagiri – came back with a lot of booty in gold,
silver, silk, pearls and precious stones – no intention to share with Sultan but clever enough to
bring about JUD’s murder.
Murder of JUD didn’t put AUD on throne – Malika Jahan (wife of JUD) put her younger son
Qadir Khan on throne – AUD marched towards Delhi from Kara – On way, scattered small
gold and silver coins among people – won him a large no. of followers – able to win over the
bulk of army by fair and foul means – Resistance impossible, Qadir fled Delhi with mother
and Ahmad Chap – AUD entered Delhi, occupied Balban Palace – proclaimed the Sultan of
Delhi.
Knew his position is insecure, sent army to capture his rivals.
Stong measures against Nobles not loyal to him – confiscated their Jagirs, incorporated into
Khalsa land, wealth incorporated into state treasury – some blinded, some thrown to prison –
some put to death.

AUD faced more than a dozen Mongol invasions; Ist – Zafar Khan defeated Mongols – 2nd –
came to Delhi, Zafar Khan defeated them again – 3rd – very serious, Zafar Khan killed in
battlefield – Mongols lost heart and retreated – 4 th – AUD forced to take shelter in Siri fort
besieged by Mongols for 2 months, Mongols plundered surroundings, retreated miraculously
after 2 months. Seriousness of Mongol invasion forced AUD to take effective measures – Old
forts repaired, new one built – garrisoned with troops –additional army created for frontier –
Despite, Mongol invasions continued – defeated every time – made prisoners – sold as slaves
– put to death.
AUD followed the frontier policy of Balban. Strengthened the defence – most able officers
put there – new workshops to manufacture improved types of weapons – powerful armies
stationed at strategic places - Mongols who had embraced Islam and settled in India were
massacred – wives, children killed – frightened Mongols, gave up idea of conquering India.

First Delhi Sultante ruler to have a standing army - Sent people to Attack Mongol bases-
Mongol policy – very successful – No danger from Mongol, therefore, Large standing army
utilized in conquest of south – most eco measures to meet expenses of huge army.

Conquered Gujarat- defeated the ruler – queen taken to Delhi -plundered rich forts of
Gujarat – took away large amount of booty and a eunuch named Kafur – Kafur ultimately
rose to be the most influential person in the state.

Dreams – wanted to conquer the whole word – establish a new religion by sword – but on
advice, took to the task of conquering the whole India.

Ranthambor had been conquered by Qutub-u-din and Altamash but it had become
independent – ruled by Hamir Deva - 2 reasons to conquer Ranthambor, - Hamir Deva had
given shelter to some New Muslims, offended AUD, wanted to punish him for his audacity 2-
considered it pious duty to recover a fortress that once formed part of Delhi Sultanate. Nusrat
Khan got killed by Rajputs here – AUD came personally – Took control of fortress with the
help of PM of Hamir Deva, Ran Mal – Hamir Deva and New Muslims killed.

Mewar- next expedition against Mewar – for territorial expansion – fort of Chittor besieged -
Rajputs put up a strong fight – when further resistance became impossible, Rajputs preferred
Death to disgrace -
Malwa – ruler of Malwa killed and defeated – Ain-u-Mulk appointed governor of Malwa.
Jalor – also captured- Ruler killed.

Almost all the important states of Rajputana submitted before AUD. Reasons: Rp’s disunited
politically – singly none of them match for Delhi Sultan – Reliance on forts built on hillocks,
once fort besieged, provisions could not reach it – age old traditions of warfare, no new
techniques – their resources were limited, their country was hilly and barren.

Deccan- whole of N India into hands of AUD, so afforded attention towards Deccan –
economic reasons: tempting wealth of Deccan – political – establish control over South. 4
regions Devagiri, Telingana, Dwarsamudra and Pandya Kingrom -
Devagiri –under Malik Kafur- destruction – lots of war booty – Ram Chandra forced to sue
for peace – continued to rule Devagiri as a vassal of AUD.
Telingana – did not want to annex, only wealth – under Malik Kafur - immense war booty.
Dwarsamudra- Malik Kafur plundered rich temples, captured all property –
Pandya Kingdom – From Dwarsamudra, Kafur marched against Pandya Kingdom –
plundered.

Causes of Success in Deccan:

Many causes – Kingdoms of south fighting among themselves, no untiy – e.g., Pandya
brothers were deadly enemies of each other – Rulers also helped invaders against one another
– efficient army, staggering mobility – speedy horses – before enemy could be ready, they
were defeated – zeal for religion and greed for plunder – superior in discipline, strategy, and
tactics –
Mostly to get gold, silver, pearls, jewels and elephants to pay for the expenses of a huge
army- AUD had no religious motive in the wars – demolition of temples, only eco reasons, no
religious reasons.

Death- 1316, ill health- said to be accelerated by poison, administered by Kafur.

Ala ud Din’s Kingship:

“Kingship knows no Kinship”. His order was like the command of God and his will was law -
Departed from the predecessors in the conception of sovereignty – courageous, not prepared
to be dictated by Ulemma – “To prevent rebellion – I issue orders for the good of all, benefit
of state – men are heedless, disobey my commands, I am compelled to be severe to bring
them into obedience – whether lawful or unlawful, what I think is good for the state, that I
decree” – Realized the importance of maintaining the high image of king - Although illiterate,
had extraordinary knowledge of the art of politics – Revived theory of Kingship of Balban –
Majesty of king – Representative of God – the king had no kinship, All people to be servants
or subjects – not influenced by anyone in administration – Separated religion from state -
Nobles and Ulemma to be kept at a distance – rule the country according to his own lights –
did not consider it necessary to get sanction of Khalif- Styled himself as Yamin-ul-Khalifa
Nasiri Amir-ul-Mumanin. AUD had decided not to be influenced by any person, or party in
finalizing the policy of the Sultanate - Sultans of Delhi were influenced mostly by two
classes, Amirs or ulemas. AUD did not intend that the Amirs should grow powerful and
influence the policies of the Sultan.

Militarism:
Established a militaristic regime – based kingship on military power and force – knew he
claimed power by force, had to be maintained by force – did not allow Nobles to keep army –
Maintained 475,000 horsemen –decent salaries to soldiers – 234 tankas a year – payments
made regularly – Introduced system of Dagh or branding of horses and Huliah/Chehra
system or the preparation of the descriptive rolls of soldiers – Diwan-i-Arz was head of
military establishment, enforce rules stringently- AUD could never be deceived by clever
nobles w.r.t identity of horses and soldiers – efficient spies in every unit of army – daily
reports to Sultan regarding conduct of military officers –

AGRARIAN reforms:
Many reforms in land revenue – all land measured and then share of state fixed – extended
Duab region- land revnue determined on quality of soil – introduced the unit Biswa which is
equal to 1/20th of Bigha – Land revenue = Kharaj was to be 50% of produce – -Khalisa Land
(Crown’s Land) was directly taxed - needed large amount of money to maintain his large
army – Taxes in cash as well as kind – cash from distant areas and kind from capital and
nearby areas (fertile areas, crop lasted long) – only general taxes – 3 types of taxes – Kharaj,
Ghari 2.5%, Charri 2%. – Karvanas and Banjaras – mobile money lenders, gave cash, took
grains – Ranas and Rai at district level and Chaudhary/ Kulkarnis/ Khuts reduced to the level
of peasantry – Abolished intermediaries.

Treatment to Hindus:
Very cruel – all measures to crush them – reduced to poverty and misery – not able to ride
horse back, get fine clothes etc.

Measures Against Nobility:

Believed in strong govt at the centre – not possible if certain elements continue to revolt –
rebellions due to inefficient spy system, general practice of using wine, social intercourse
among nobles and intermarriage between nobles – excess of wealth in the hands of few
(brings pride and disloyalty) – 4 important ordinances
1. Confiscation of religious endowments and free grants of land. – Cancelled Inam (free
gift) and Religious endowment (Wakf) – in to Khalisa land
2. Re-organized spy system – army of informers created – spy on all happenings and
submit daily report to Sultan – in army as well – markets – provinces – not to delay
sending report for more than 24 hours –
3. Prohibited use of wine- set example by bringing all jars and casks of wine from palace
and emptied them – not successful – smuggling started – therefore, Sultan prohibition
restricted merely to public use and social gatherings.
4. Nobles should not have social gatherings and they should not intermarry without
permission – no dinners and parties by nobles without sanction of Sultan – Gambling
prohibited.

Economic Reforms:
Large no. of eco reforms- regulations were issued to fix the prices of food products, coth and
all kings of piece goods and maid-servants, concubines, male and female slaves, milch cattle,
beasts of burden, horses and various articles of general merchandise like bread, vegetables,
yakhni, needles etc. – duty of government to ensure supplies by means of command – grain
stored in govt granaries – grains transport grains from villages to Delhi – farmers can’t retain
surplus – retain not more than 40 Mann – secure regular flow of grains to Delhi – storage
meant for emergencies and times of scarcity and famine – special considerations to poor –
Merchants required to be registered –Sarai-Adl = new government market was established –
bring all grain and commodities to city market and sell at controlled prices – Communist type
of state- Robbed rich, compensated poor – increased salaries of low paid officials and fixed
prices of necessities of life very low -reduced prices of commodities of daily use to allow
soldiers maintain themselves on the salaries – systematic tariff policy maintained fluctuating
market
Currency: 2 types of coins – Tanka (silver coin 250 g) and Chittal (Copper coin, 48-50 Chittal
= 1 tanka).
3 types of markets:
1. Market for food grains – fixed process – merchants registered with commerce
ministry
2. Market for precious goods – gold, jewellery, oil, ghee, clothes.
3. Market of slaves, horses, cattle

New officers to control market –

1. Shanai-e-Mandi – Supervisor of market – keep eye on all sales
2. Barid – intelligence officer
3. Munhias – Sultan’s secret agent
 The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325):

 Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty
 Belonged to the Qurauna tribe; a mix of Mongol or Turkish fathers and non-Turkish
mothers.
 Had served as Alauddin Khilji’s muqta in Dipalpur for several years, successfully
defending the sultanate from Mongol attacks.
 Attempted to restore sultanate authority in the Deccan by sending 2 expiditions
against Warangal. The 1st ended in defeat but the 2nd ensured the surrender of the
kingdom.
 In 1324 A.D, he annexed eastern and southern Bengal.
 Constructed a new city named Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
 Adopted many reforms; returned Sardar lands annexed by Alauddin; punished those
responsible for the atrocities on Khiljis; reduced land tax to 1/10th; dug many canals to
facilitate agriculture; waived taxes during natural calamities; brought 1000’s of acres
of wasteland into cultivation; introduced the shift postal service,
 He was succeeded by his son Muhammad Bin Tughlaq after ruling for 5 years.

Mohammad Bin Tughluq (1325-1351):

Sources:
Main source of information about Mohd. Tughluq – Zia-Ud-Din Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz
Shahi
 Praises him for his achievements, condemns for cruel punishments.
 Details about taxation in Doab, Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad,
introduction of token currency, schemes of conquest.
 Later historians heavily relied on his accounts.
Next source – Ibn Batuta, the Moorish traveller’s Tufhat-un-Nuzzar fi Gharaib il-Amsar –
 Ibn Batuta has described the kind manner in which he was received by the Emperor
and the great respect shown to the foreigners. – “Mohammed is the man who, above
all others, is fond of making presents and shedding blood.”
Early Life:
Name – Fakhr-ud-din-Muhammad / Juna Khan. Son of Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq.
 Brought up as a soldier, helped his father overthrow Khusro Shah by starting an
agitation against him.
 Later helped father in administration.
 Became the king in 1325, after the death of his father.
  Very intelligent and precocious, had ingenious thoughts. Had an unusual originality
of mind.
 Most educated Delhi Sultan – had the best education available at the time. Was well
versed in Logic, Philosophy, Mathematics and knew Persian, Sanskrit, Arabic and
Turkish (Read/write).
 He had good knowledge of Medicine – started hospitals
 Very religious – Quran by-heart.
 He believed in the unity of India and believed in the making the whole of India as one
political and administrative unit.
 Believed in the secular approach to religion and wanted to solve matters related to
religion in a rational way.

Political and Religious Concepts of the Sultan:

Hated traditional and conservative approach – was always innovative.
Political:
 Believed in making the whole of India as political and administrative unit.
 Deccan experiment (capital in south) led to cultural transformation.
 He tried to fill the political vacuum in Central Asia at that time (constantly
changing scenarios in Middle Asia) and created an era “Of higher imperialism”.
 Believed in close economic, diplomatic and cultural contacts with Egypt, China and
Khurasan.
 Missions from China, Iraq, Iran, Syria etc. came to the Delhi Court.
Religious:
 Deeply religious – Quran by heart
 Believed in a secular approach to things. Rationalism
 Very particular about performance of rites of Islam – Prayer, Salah etc.
 At the same time, tolerant to other religions – Participated in activities.
 First Sultan to take part in Holi (Evidences suggest so)
 He wasn’t against Sufism (Mysticism) – wanted them to take part in the
administrative activities.
 Believed that all offices must be open to talent – appointed low-castes in high
positions. Appointed Hindus in some imp. Positions.

Domestic Policy:
Very careful and observant – orders the compilation of a register of revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom in the beginning. – Governors of provinces were required to
comply. Hence, system worked smoothly.
1. Taxation in the Doab:

 Increased rate of taxation in the Doab region (B/w Ganga and Yamuna)
  According to Barani, 10 or 20 times more tax was levied.
 Other taxes – Ghari (House Tax), Charahi (Pasture Tax).
 This tax was intended to be levied to increase military resources and organize
the administration on an efficient basis.
 People of Doab found it difficult to manage.
 This was further aggravated by famine, lack of rains, lack of food. Thousands
of people died.
 In spite of this, levy of taxes were continued in full vigour.
 Later, the Sultan realized his mistake – relief measures – Loans to agriculturists,
sinking of wells, uncultivated lands brought under cultivation by direct state
management and fin. Support.
 New department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi was started. Objective –
More land under cultivation – direct help to peasants. The govt. spent more
than 70 lakhs on this. But most of it got wasted.

2. Transfer of capital to Daulatabad (1327):

 Plans to shift capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. (to efficiently administrate

both South and North). Also safe from Mongol invasions.
 What Mohd. actually did was to set up Daulatabad as his second
administrative city of the empire.
 Facilities were provided for people to migrate. Road was constructed.
 Postal service, shady trees on either sides. (Convinience measures)
 But, the people hesitated to shift. Sultan annoyed – orders everybody to
proceed to Daulatabad. People ‘forced’ to leave.
 Ibn Batuta says Delhi was ‘deserted’ and was left to ruin.
 Many people perished on road.
 The Sultan, genius that he is, realizes his folly lately, and orders the return
march of people. (This is what you call crazy stuff :P )
 Few people who’d survived, also die.
 Delhi lost its former grandeur.
 Daulatabad – “Monument of misdirected energy”.
 But the Sultan had ordered only the UPPER CLASS TO MIGRATE.
(Ulema, courtiers etc.) Delhi was not evacuated in its entirety.
 Many prominent muslims were made to migrate to the south. (He wanted to
make Daulatabad a stronghold of muslims).

It can be concluded that the transfer of capital was a crazy, novel, and unsuccessful
experiment of Mohammad Tughlaq. But this contributed to the establishment of a muslim
stronghold in the Hindu dominated south, which nurtured independent muslim
kingdoms in the south. (Prof. Mohd. Habib).
So, even though its primary effects were disastrous, its remote effects were successful. A
remarkable success, actually. The boundaries b/w North and South – Broke down.
This led to the rise of the Bahamani Kingdom (The influx of musalmans to the South).

The currency experiment:

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq remodeled the entire coinage so as to ensure a better system of
valuing his coins.
A new gold coin was called a dinar and weighed 200 grains.
Also Muhammad Bin Tughlaq revived the Adali coin containing 140 grains of silver instead
of the 175 grains gold coin
This could be done as the treasury was full of silver after the successful conquests into the
Deccan.
Due to the increase in demand of silver for minting of the coins
Passed a decree in 1329 whereby all transactions could be carried out using the new copper
coins.
Examples of such changes can be seen in China where paper notes were already in use as
against coins.
Led to a problem where there was wide spread forging of these coins as stated by Barani.
Due to forging people started making coins and in turn traded with the treasury for gold
coins which led to people becoming rich but the state becoming poor .
Other reasons for adopting this system are :-
 The need of money to maintain the 370,000 army required for conquests.
 The other reason is the lavish gifts given by the sultan
 Another debatable cause is the Sultan’s character who was always inquisitorial due to
which he started minting copper coins.

Problems faced due to this change in the change in coinage are:-

 Stated that this change was a failure as the people could not realise the importance of
this change in their minds, copper was just copper and it could not have been a metal
which could be used as a currency.
 Failure of the sultan to ensure that the minting of coins was a state monopoly. This
was done by the Chinese emperor who had made safeguards to ensure that printing of
notes was a state monopoly.

Some historians say that the insolvency of the state lead to the failure of this policy but this
cannot be considered as a reason because MBT successfully removed all of the copper coins
in the market by compensating these coins with equivalent coins made of gold and silver
which would not be possible if the state was insolvent.
Problems caused by the public :-
  They started hoarding silver and made all their purchases in token coins which
reduced the amount of silver being circulated
 All land revenue payments were made in spurious token coins.
 Also many rebellious elements started buying weapons using these coins.

Consequences of the systems failure,

 Merchants refused to accept these coins
 Foreign traders stopped bringing their goods to India seeing the problem with the
domestic currency.

Seeing the problems with this currency, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq stopped circulation in 1330
which led to a huge loss for the treasury as they had to compensate the people for the copper
coins using either gold or silver coins.

The Liberal administration:

Why Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs’ policies were liberal:
 In matters of administration, he never accepted the dictates of the Ulemas .
 Apart from the four legal taxes of Khiraj, Zakat , Jazya and Kamsa, Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq imposed many more taxes.
 Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was not a religious bigot, due to which he showed greater
respect for the Hindu sentiments as compared to any of his predecessor.
 He tried to stop sati and left the independent Rajput states alone.

He was not liked by the clergy for the following reasons:

 Deprived the clerical party from the process of administration of justice. Made
himself the highest court of appeal and in the lower courts, ensured qualified people
sit for the purpose of administration of justice.
 Another reason he was not liked by the clergy was his impartiality towards even
Shaikhs, who were consider every sacred by the clergy. This was evident when he
punished many of them for crimes like embezzlement.

How he tried to gain back the clergy’s loyalty:

 After becoming unpopular requested the Khalifa to name him sultan of Delhi
 Started to print the name of the Khalifa instead of his own.
 When in turn the Khalifa sent an envoy to Delhi, it is said that Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq spared no expense on him. He was gifted the most expensive things and was
welcomed by anyone of importance at the city gates. It is said that Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq met the envoy and kissed his feet several times.

Despite all of his efforts, he never regained the loyalty or support of either the clergy or the
people.
Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388):
As Muhhamad Bin Tughlaq left no male heirs, his weak and irresolute cousin Firoz was
elected as successor by the nobles and Ulemas (muslim religious heads).
1. Failure of expeditions:
a. Led 2 campaigns to Ikdala in Bengal during 1353 & 1359.
b. Tasted early success on both campaigns; but made peace without affecting annexation of
region.
c. Largest campaign was to Thatta(Sindh) & Gujarat; suffering huge loss of army. He
decided to m arch on to Gujarat and return to Thatta later; but could only succeed due to
fortuities in assault of Thatta.
d. Was unsuccessful against other kingdoms too; marched against the ruler of Orissa,
uprooted the idol of Jagannath and desecrated the temple, but withdrew without being
able to change existing power.
e. Most successful campaign was against Nagarkot, whose ruler begged Firoz Tughlaq not
to destroy Jwalamukhi Teertha.
f. Due to failed expeditions, prestige of imperial authority was affected; but there were no
Mongol attacks during Firoz’s reign; power by now having passed from Mongols to
Turks.

2. Religious orientation:
a. Influence of Ulema in state affairs revived.
b. Reputed harsh treatment to Hindu subjects.
c. 1st muslim ruler to impose Jaziya (poll tax) on Brahmins who had formerly been
exempted.
d. Destroyed 3 new temples in Malwa, Salihpur and Gohana.
e. Exempted Hindu converts to Islam from Jaziya.
f. He levied only 4 types of taxes sanctioned by The Quran; Khiraj(land tax),
Zaqat(religious tax for muslims), Jaziya and Khams(1/5th of war booty). He added
irrigation tax for agriculturalists.
g. He became fanatical after visiting Salar Mazuri’s shrine in Bahraich during 1374-75.
Muslim women couldn’t venture outside their homes afterwards.
h. Religion in state policies disintegrated the sultanate. He distributed large territories as
iqtas to nobles, increased their salaries and made their titles inheritable, thus doing away
with supervision on their activities.
i. He paid most soldiers by giving land and making army posts inheritable. He allowed
aged and infirm soldiers to remain in army, thus reducing army efficiency.

3. Beneficiary measures:
a. Constructed 5 irrigation canals for harnessing waters of the Ganga and Yamuna, thus
being the 1st Muslim Ruler before Shershah to do public utility works. He also provided
Taqvi loans to cultivators.
b. Established a hospital in Delhi providing free medicine.
c. Reformed legal system, abolishing torture, simplifying legal procedure and discouraging
espionage.
d. Provided suitable occupation for the poor and unemployed by taking a census of the
needy.
e. Extended patronage to men of learning, thus establishing many schools and colleges.
f. He built several mosques, palaces, monasteries and inns. He founded new towns such as
Firozabad and Jaunpur. He laid out new gardens and rebuild old ones.

Firoz died in 1388 and was succeeded by a string of weak rulers between 1388 and 1414. The
chiefs and governors declared independence one by one. The invasion of Timur occurred
during the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq, one of his successors, thus hastening the end of the
sultanate in 1412 after the death of Mahmud Tughlaq.

Mohammad Bin Tughluq (1325-1351)

Sources
Main source of information about Mohd. Tughluq – Zia-Ud-Din Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz
Shahi
 Praises him for his achievements, condemns for cruel punishments.
 Details about taxation in Doab, Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad,
introduction of token currency, schemes of conquest.
 Later historians heavily relied on his accounts.
Next source – Ibn Batuta, the Moorish traveller’s Tufhat-un-Nuzzar fi Gharaib il-Amsar –
 Ibn Batuta has described the kind manner in which he was received by the Emperor
and the great respect shown to the foreigners. – “Mohammed is the man who, above
all others, is fond of making presents and shedding blood.”
Early Life
Name – Fakhr-ud-din-Muhammad / Juna Khan. Son of Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq.
 Brought up as a soldier, helped his father overthrow Khusro Shah by starting an
agitation against him.
 Later helped father in administration.
 Became the king in 1325, after the death of his father.
 Very intelligent and precocious, had ingenious thoughts. Had an unusual originality
of mind.
  Most educated Delhi Sultan – had the best education available at the time. Was well
versed in Logic, Philosophy, Mathematics and knew Persian, Sanskrit, Arabic and
Turkish (Read/write).
 He had good knowledge of Medicine – started hospitals
 Very religious – Quran by-heart.
 He believed in the unity of India and believed in the making the whole of India as one
political and administrative unit.
 Believed in the secular approach to religion and wanted to solve matters related to
religion in a rational way.

Political and Religious Concepts of the Sultan

Hated traditional and conservative approach – was always innovative.
Political
 Believed in making the whole of India as political and administrative unit.
 Deccan experiment (capital in south) led to cultural transformation.
 He tried to fill the political vacuum in Central Asia at that time (constantly
changing scenarios in Middle Asia) and created an era “Of higher imperialism”.
 Believed in close economic, diplomatic and cultural contacts with Egypt, China and
Khurasan.
 Missions from China, Iraq, Iran, Syria etc. came to the Delhi Court.
Religious
 Deeply religious – Quran by heart
 Believed in a secular approach to things. Rationalism
 Very particular about performance of rites of Islam – Prayer, Salah etc.
 At the same time, tolerant to other religions – Participated in activities.
 First Sultan to take part in Holi (Evidences suggest so)
 He wasn’t against Sufism (Mysticism) – wanted them to take part in the
administrative activities.
 Believed that all offices must be open to talent – appointed low-castes in high
positions. Appointed Hindus in some imp. Positions.

Domestic Policy
Very careful and observant – orders the compilation of a register of revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom in the beginning. – Governors of provinces were required to
comply. Hence, system worked smoothly.
1. TAXATION IN THE DOAB

 Increased rate of taxation in the Doab region (B/w Ganga and Yamuna)
 According to Barani, 10 or 20 times more tax was levied.
 Other taxes – Ghari (House Tax), Charahi (Pasture Tax).
 This tax was intended to be levied to increase military resources and organize
the administration on an efficient basis.
 People of Doab found it difficult to manage.
 This was further aggravated by famine, lack of rains, lack of food. Thousands
of people died.
 In spite of this, levy of taxes were continued in full vigour.
 Later, the Sultan realized his mistake – relief measures – Loans to agriculturists,
sinking of wells, uncultivated lands brought under cultivation by direct state
management and fin. Support.
 New department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi was started. Objective –
More land under cultivation – direct help to peasants. The govt. spent more
than 70 lakhs on this. But most of it got wasted.
2. TRANSFER OF CAPITAL TO DAULATABAD (1327)

 Plans to shift capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. (to efficiently administrate

both South and North). Also safe from Mongol invasions.
 What Mohd. actually did was to set up Daulatabad as his second
administrative city of the empire.
 Facilities were provided for people to migrate. Road was constructed.
 Postal service, shady trees on either sides. (Convinience measures)
 But, the people hesitated to shift. Sultan annoyed – orders everybody to
proceed to Daulatabad. People ‘forced’ to leave.
 Ibn Batuta says Delhi was ‘deserted’ and was left to ruin.
 Many people perished on road.
 The Sultan, genius that he is, realizes his folly lately, and orders the return
march of people. (This is what you call crazy stuff :P )
 Few people who’d survived, also die.
 Delhi lost its former grandeur.
 Daulatabad – “Monument of misdirected energy”.
 But the Sultan had ordered only the UPPER CLASS TO MIGRATE.
(Ulema, courtiers etc.) Delhi was not evacuated in its entirety.
 Many prominent muslims were made to migrate to the south. (He wanted to
make Daulatabad a stronghold of muslims).

It can be concluded that the transfer of capital was a crazy, novel, and unsuccessful
experiment of Mohammad Tughlaq. But this contributed to the establishment of a muslim
stronghold in the Hindu dominated south, which nurtured independent muslim
kingdoms in the south. (Prof. Mohd. Habib).

So, even though its primary effects were disastrous, its remote effects were successful. A
remarkable success, actually. The boundaries b/w North and South – Broke down.

This led to the rise of the Bahamani Kingdom (The influx of mussalmans to the South).
 The Mughal Empire

Establishment

Throughout the Sultanate period there was constant struggle between the various Turkish
groups and Afghans. The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate led to the emergence of various
regional powers. Therefore, when Babur invaded India in 1526 the central power of the
Sultanate had substantially weakened and there were a number of independent kingdoms. The
Delhi and adjoining regions were under Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Other Important kingdoms were
Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar, Mewar and Vijaynagar
empire in the South. Besides, a large number of smaller autonomous chiefs were also ruling
in different parts of the country.

Babur ascended the throne at Farghana, a small principality in Transoxiana, in 1494 at the age
of twelve after the death of his father. The situation in Central Asia was not stable and Babur
had to face a lot of resistance from the nobility itself. Although he was able to capture
Samarqand but very soon he had to retreat because of desertion of some of his nobles. He
also lost Farghana to the Uzbegs.

Thus, the early years of Babur’s rule in central Asia were tough. During this whole period he
had plans of moving towards Hindustan. And finally from 1517 onwards he made decisive
moves towards India. A few developments in India at that time also helped him to act on
plans of invading India.

The unstable political situation in India after Sikandar Lodi’s death convinced him of political
discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire. Meanwhile there was conflict between some
Afghan chiefs with Ibrahim Lodi. Prominent among them was Daulat Khan Lodi, the
Governor of a large part of Punjab. The Rajput king of Mewar Rana Sanga was also asserting
his authority against Ibrahim Lodi and was trying to increase his area of influence in north
India.

Both of them sent word to Babur to invade India. Invitations from Rana Sanga and
Daulat Khan Lodi might have encouraged Babur’s ambitions.

Babur was successful in capturing Bhira (1519–1520), Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524) in
Punjab. Finally, Ibrahim Lodi and Babur’s forces met at Panipat in 1526. Babur’s Soldiers
were less in number but the organization of his army was superior. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated
in the battle of Panipat. Babur had about 12,000 soldiers compared to 100,000 soldiers of
Ibrahim Lodi. He effectively applied the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare.

Ibrahim Lodi died in the battlefield. Babur was thus able to take control of Delhi and Agra
and got the rich treasure of Lodis. This money was distributed among Babur’s commanders
and soldiers.
Victory at Panipat provided Babur a firm ground to consolidate his conquests. But now he
was faced with a few problems:

1. His nobles and commanders were eager to return to Central Asia because they did not
like the climate of India. Culturally also, they felt very alienated.
2. Rajputs were rallying around under the leadership of Rana Sanga the king of Mewar
and wanted to expel the Mughal forces
3. The Afghans, though defeated at Panipat, were still a formidable force in eastern parts
of UP, Bihar and Bengal. They were re-grouping to reclaim their lost powers.

Rana Sanga of Mewar succeeded to muster support of a large number of Rajput chiefs.
Mahmud Lodi younger son of Sikander Lodi also joined Rana with their forces. Possibly,
Rana Sanga expected Babur to return to Kabul. Babur’s decision to stay back must have
given a big jolt to Rana Sanga’s ambitions.

Babur was also fully aware of the fact that it would be impossible for him to consolidate his
position in India unless he shattered Rana’s power. The forces of Babur and Rana Sanga met
at Khanwa, a place near Fatehpur Sikri. Rana Sanga was defeated in 1527 and once again the
superior military tactics of Babur succeeded. With the defeat of Rana the biggest challenge in
north India was shattered.

Babur faced little difficulty in overcoming Medini Rai. With his defeat, resistance across
Rajputana was completely shattered. But Babur had to tackle the Afghans. The Afghans had
surrendered Delhi, but they were still powerful in the east (Bihar and parts of Jaunpur). The
success against the Afghans and Rajputs at Panipat and Khanwa was very significant but the
resistance was still present. However, these victories were a step forward in the direction of
the establishment of Mughal empire.

Babur died in 1530. Still the rulers of Gujarat, Malwa and Bengal enjoyed substantial military
power and were not suppressed. It was left to Humayun to face these regional powers

Humayun’s Role

After the death of Babur in 1530, his son Humayun succeeded him. The situation under
Humayun was quite desperate. The main problems faced by Humayun were:

1. The newly conquered territories and administration was not consolidated.

2. Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of Mughal nobility.
3. The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles,
who had joined Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession.
4. He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the
one hand and Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.
5. As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers. The newly
established Mughal empire had two centres of power – Humayun was in control of
Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Afghanistan and Punjab
under him.

Sher Shah wished to establish himself as the undisputed Afghan leader. He invaded the
Bengal army and defeated them in the battle of Surajgarh. Sher Shah could extract quite a
wealth from Bengal which helped him to raise a bigger army. Now he started attacking
Mughal territories of Banaras and beyond. Humayun was quite suspicious of Sher Shah’s
ambitions but failed to estimate his capabilities. Meanwhile Sher Shah captured Gaur (1538)
the capital of Bengal. While Humayun was moving towards Bengal Sher Shah took control of
route to Agra making communication difficult for Humayun.

On the other hand, Hindal Mirza, brother of Humayun, who was supposed to provide supplies
for his army, declared his independence.When he reached Chausa (1539), he encamped on
the western side of the river Karmnasa. Sher Shah attacked Humayun at the bank of the river
and defeated him. Sher Shah declared himself as an independent king. Humayun could
escape but most of his army was destroyed. With difficulty he could reach Agra. His brother
Kamran moved out of Agra towards Lahore leaving Humayun with small force. Sher Shah
now moved towards Agra. Humayun also came forward with his army and the armies of the
two clashed at Kannauj. Humayun was defeated badly in the battle of Kannauj (1540).

Sher Shah Suri introduced many administrative reforms. He divided his empire into 47
sarkars which were further divided into parganas, and for the central administration, he
followed the sultanate pattern.

Sher Shah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah. Islam Shah had to face a number of
conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan nobles. He died in 1553. The Afghan
empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an opportunity and moved towards India.
He again captured his lost kingdom by 1555 and ended the second Afghan Empire.

In 1555 Humayun conquered Agra and Delhi and established himself as the emperor of India.
Before he could consolidate his position he died after falling from the stairs of the library at
(Dinepanah Library) Sher Mandal (in Delhi) in 1556.

Hegemony of the Mughal State

Hegemony is derived from the Greek Word hegemonia meaning leadership.

Thus it can be understood in terms of political dominance of Mughals over the Indian sub-
continent which was lasted for almost 200 years.

Further hegemony also denotes to the policy of great Mughal Empire/ power in seeking
predominance over Indian Political and Geographical limits.

Empire rested on four pillars:-

1. The Rajput alliance or understanding

2. The policy of toleration
3. The Balance of power
 4. The Personality of the emperor

Akbar was fully aware of the importance of Rajput kingdoms and wanted them as allies in his
ambition of establishing a large empire. He tried to win over the Rajputs wherever possible
and inducted them into Mughal service. He also entered into matrimonial alliances with the
Rajput rulers like Bharmal. The Rajput kingdoms like Merta and Jodhpur were also occupied
without much resistance.

However, Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar posed most serious challenge to the Mughal
emperor and did not submit before Akbar. After a prolonged struggle and siege of the fort of
Chittor, Akbar succeeded in defeating the Mewar forces. A large number of Rajput soldiers
got killed in the war. However, it could not be fully subdued and some resistance from
Mewar side continued for a long time. Marwar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer also submitted to
Akbar.

By 1570 Akbar had captured almost the whole of Rajasthan. The most important achievement
of Akbar was that in spite of the subjugation of the whole of Rajasthan there was no hostility
between the Rajputs and the Mughals.

Balance of Power

1. External balance
Shared Kabul, Kandahar and Badakshan with Safavid Dynasty of Persia

2. Internal Balance
Never accepted by Mughals as more than a temporary state of affairs

3. Deccan Policy

Akbar believed in the indivisibility of the Indian Territory. After 1590, Akbar gave shape to a
Deccan policy to bring these states under Mughal control. During this period the Deccan
states were facing internal tensions and regular conflicts. In 1591, Akbar sent offers to the
Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal sovereignty, but there was not much success.
Now Akbar decided on a policy of aggression.

Along with the expansion of territory Akbar initiated the policy of absorbing the chieftains
into Mughal nobility. His policy paid rich dividends to the empire. The Mughal emperor
succeeded in getting the support of chieftains and their armies for new conquests. As part of
Mughal nobility, their help was also available for administering a large empire. In addition, a
friendly relationship with them ensured peace for the empire.

The chieftains also benefited from this policy. Now they could retain their territories and
administer them as they wished. In addition, they received jagir and mansab. Often they got
territories in jagir bigger than their kingdoms. It also provided them security from enemies
and rebellions. Many Rajput mansabdars were assigned their own territories as Watan Jagir,
which was hereditary and non-transferable.

Religious Policy
1. Akbar removed taxes on hindus
2. Akbar invited scores of religious scholars, including hindus, jews and Christians,
to debate with him personally
3. Akbar’s wives were also of different religions
4. He introduced his own faith, din-i-ilahi
I. Din-i-Ilahi was an eclectic mix of the other religions Akbar had studied during
those late-night theological debates.
II. He borrowed what he saw as the best components of each religion and blended
them into the combination that became Din-I-Ilahi.
III. The new faith, however, never caught on among the Hindus and Muslims
outside of his court, but despite this failure, Akbar continued to support religious
tolerance among his people.

Personality of Emporers

1) Akbar (1556-1605)

1) “A powerful and brave character in his own right, tales of his superhuman strength
and cunning warrior's mind preceded Akbar wherever he went”.

2) Beyond his ability as an effective conqueror, Akbar was a keen administrator who
developed a centralized federal government

3) His religious policy and Rajput policies deserves the special attention, to consolidate
Mughal rule in India

4) He provided the atmosphere of the security which led to the developments in the field
of Architecture and Mughal school of painting

5) Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazal in the
books Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign
include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi.

6) Akbar was an artisan, warrior, artist, armourer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor,

general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs
during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian.
7) Akbar was not tall but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various
acts of courage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra
when Akbar was 19 years of age. Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was
confronted by a tigress who, along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across
his path. When the tigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the
animal with his sword in a solitary blow.

8) Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having a
 commanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "like
Alexander of Macedonia, was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political
consequences".

9) He rarely indulged in cruelty and is said to have been affectionate towards his
relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who was a repented rebel. But on rare
occasions, he dealt cruelly with offenders, such as his maternal uncle Muazzam and
his foster-brother Adham Khan, who was twice defenestrated (throwing out of the
window) for drawing Akbar's wrath.

10) He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. Ain-e-Akbari mentions that
during his travels and also while at home, Akbar drank water from the Ganges river,
which he called ‘the water of immortality’. Special people were stationed at Sorun
and later Haridwar to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he was stationed.

11) According to Jahangir's memoirs, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat,
which he stopped eating in his later years.

12) Akbar also once visited Vrindavan, the birthplace of Lord Krishna in the year 1570,
and gave permission for four temples to be built by the Gaudiya Vaisnavas.

2) Jehangir: The Paragon of Stability (1605-1627)

1) Though druken and cruel, proved to have the ability to control the empire
2) Captured Mewar and Ahamadnagar
3) Portrait painting reached to climax
4) Rajasthani painting and Pahari Painting School developed during this time.

3) Shah Jehan: The Master Builder (1627-1658)

1) Man of great executive ability and had refined artistic sense specially for architecture
2) His policy to annex daccan was quite successful
3) Shahjahan spent 8 years of confinement in Agra fort till his death

4) Aurangzeb: The Intolerant (1658-1707)

1) Religious bigot
2) Aurangzeb spent much of his time making enemies with the Hindus of northern India
3) Even though succeeded not because of his cruelty but because of his efficiency and
skills to rule
4) Although he greatly expanded Mughal boundaries, Aurangzeb presided over a
troubled empire. He faced rebellions throughout his reign, and religious tensions
generated conflicts between Hindus and Muslims.
5) Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim, and he broke with Akbar's policy of religious
toleration. He demolished several famous Hindu temples and replaced them with
mosques. He also imposed a tax on Hindus in an effort to encourage conversion to
Islam.
6) His promotion of Islam appealed strongly to the Mughals themselves and other Indian
Muslims as well, but it provoked deep hostility among Hindus and enabled local
leaders to organize movements to resist or even rebel against Mughal authority.

DECLINE
Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire reached its greatest territorial limits. Ironically, the
decline of the Mughal empire also began un- der Aurangzeb. There was a break up of the
association with regional forces like the Rajputs and the Marathas.

The main outside force contributing to the destruction of the Mughal Empire was the Hindu
Maratha Empire. Chatrapati Shivaji declared "Hindu Swarajya" (Independence for Hindus)
and raised an army that could outfight the larger Mughal armies. Santaji Ghorpade and
Dhanaji Jadhav, one by one, eliminated most of the Mughal generals. Mountstart Elphinstone
call this period a demolishing period for "Mussalmans" with many of them losing spirit to
fight against the Maratha army.

Aurangzeb lead Mughals in the war of 27 years with Marathas in which Mughal suffered
defeat with heavy losses. In 1706, just a few months before Aurangzeb's death, his son Prince
Bakht was routed by Maratha General Dhanaji in South Gujarat.
Defeats of the imperial army brought disgrace to the throne, and its helplessness was apparent
after Aurangzeb's death. After Aurangzeb's death, Shivaji's grandson Shahu was released by
the Mughals, which brought some peace between the Marathas and Mughals. However, the
Marathas continued to expand their Empire.
Peshwa Vishwanath Balaji Rao ravaged Mughal Deccan territory and forced the Mughal
emperor to make "Chatrapati Shahu" the viceroy of Deccan. It was, however,Vishwanath's
son Baji Rao I who is credited with overthrowing Mughal control from Deccan to the Punjab
and from Bengal to Sindh; Sir Jadunath Sarka calls him the "Second Shivaji".
None of the Muslim generals were able to stop him, and by 1735, he had annexed Rajasthan
and Bundelkhand. In 1737, he invaded and plundered Delhi itself. Under Amir Khan Umrao
Al Udat, he sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao,
however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army
fled.
In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army,
Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end
to the Mughal Empire. The final blow came from Nadir Shah in 1739.
For the next century the Mughal emperors had authority only over Delhi. In 1857, Emperor
Bahadur Shah II—a mystic who led a renaissance in poetry—supported the Indian Rebellion
of 1857. He was overthrown by the British, his sons killed, and the last remnant of the
Mughal empire was absorbed into the British Raj.

Question Answers

1)Why did Babur invade India?

Babur invaded India because he was facing tough situations in Central Asia. The unstable
 political situation in India also played a role.

2)What was Babur’s strategy at the Battle of Panipat?

Babur effectively applied the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare.

3)What problems did Babur face after the Battle of Panipat?

Problems faced by Babur:

i) His nobles and commanders were eager to return to central Asia.

ii) The Rajputs were rallying around under the leadership of Rana Sanga.

4)Who were the two rulers from Rajputana defeated by Babur?

Rana Sanga and Medini Rai

5)Why did Humayun fail to defeat Sher Shah?

Humayun failed to defeat Sher Shah because his brother Hindal Mirza, who was supposed
to provide supplies for his army, declared his independence.

6)How did Sher Khan emerge as the leader of Afghans?

Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander. After defeating Humayun
he emerged as the leader of the Afghans.

7)List the territories which were brought by Sher Shah under his rule.
(a) Malwa; (b) Rajputana (c) Sindh (d) Punjab (e) Bengal

8)List two important achievements of Sher Shah.

i) He streamlined local administration at Sarkar and Pargana level.

ii) He built Grand Trunk Road.

9)Why Akbar removed Bairam Khan?

Akbar removed Bairam Khan because he had assumed full control and was behaving
independently.

10) Which were the main political powers in India at the time of Akbar’s accession?
Rajputs, Afghans, Ahmednagar, Kabul and Qandhar

11) Which of the Rajput rulers posed challenge to Akbar and did not submit?
Maharana Pratap of Mewar

12) Name the lady ruler who fought with the Mughals? Which was the territory ruled
by her?
Chand Bibi; Ahmednagar

13) Who was the ruler from Deccan who defeated the Mughal forces under Jahangir?
Malik Amber

14) The Mughals signed treaty with which of the two states of Deccan in 1636?
 Bijapur and Golconda

15) Which Mughal commander brought the Ahom kingdom under Mughal Control?
Mir Jumla

16) With which of the Deccan powers Aurangzeb remained engaged for a long time?
The Marathas

17) On what terms Shahjahan established peace with Bijapur and Golconda?
Bijapur and Golconda accepted Mughal Suzerinty& agreed to pay annual tributes

18) What was Aurangzeb’s policy towards Deccan?

Aurangzeb followed on aggressive policy & remained involved in conflict

19) Where was Shivaji Coronated? What was the title that he took?
Raigarh; Chhatrapati

20) Which of the Mughal rulers lost huge amount of money in north-west frontier
conflicts?
Shah Jahan