Macro Skills Module

Introduction to Linguistics
Introduction
We often think communication is limited to what we say or hear, but that's not
the case. Language is expressed in four macro skills of communication: reading,
speaking, writing and listening. These are utilized by essentially all languages. As we
grow, we develop language skills by first listening and then speaking, followed by
reading and writing. When learning a new language, the best way to do so is by
engaging in a balance of each of these areas, as they are all interconnected. As with any
skill, the more you practice or exercise, the stronger and you become. The same is true
with improving communication skills.
CHAPTER I: TEACHING THE LISTENING SKILLS
Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of this lesson, you should

have:
synthesized the definitions of listening by the different authorities
in the field;
explained the listening process;
cited learning principles related to the listening process;
explained the kinds of listening;
presented related studies/researches on listening; and
demonstrated understanding of the different methods and
strategies in teaching listening.
STARTING ACCURATELY
Listening is an art, as skill, a discipline,
and like other skills, it needs self-control.
You must understand what is involved in
listening and develop the necessary
techniques to be silent and to listen. You
must ignore your own needs and
concentrate attention on the person
speaking.
Hearing and listening are often confused,
they are not the same. We always think
that if we can hear automatically, we can
listen also automatically. This is simply not true. To be a good listener, you must also
understand and interpret sound in a meaningful way. A good deal of thinking goes with
effective listening. This lesson presents all the salient ideas and concepts related to
listening. In addition, it covers the principles and theories on the listening skills and
likewise presents strategies or techniques in teaching listening to the students.
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STIMULATING LEARNING
Welcome to chapter 1 in this module!
Before we will explore the principles and theories involved in the listening skill, let us
have first test your listening skill. In this activity, I would like to find out or assess your
listening ability. Kindly put a check in response to your evaluation as regards to your
ability to listen well.
Most of Often Some Rarely Almost
the time times never
1 2 3 4 5
1. When listening to a speaker, I make eye contact.
2. I nod my head when in agreement with what a speaker is
saying.
3. If I’m not sure whether I’ve grasped a speaker’s point correctly,
I summarize my understanding of what he/she said, to confirm
that I’ve got it right.
4. I fidget (play with hair, fingers, etc.) while listening to someone
else express his/her thoughts or ideas.
5. If as speaker doesn’t engage my interest, my mind wanders. I
daydream while listening to someone else express his/her
thoughts or ideas.
6. I shift in my chair or tap my feet when I listen to other people
speaking.
7. I give my full attention if someone is talking to me.
8. When the background noise interferes with my ability to listen,
I can block it out.
9. I drum my fingers on a surface when I listen to others speak.
10. If I am bored or uninterested in what a speaker has to say, I

look to the ground or at my feet.
11. I make disapproving faces when I don’t approve of what
others are telling me.
12. I bite my nails or pen while I listen to someone speaking to
me.
13. While a speaker is talking, I find myself thinking about what
I’m going to say next.
14. If a speaker mispronounces a word, I immediately correct
him/her.
15. People complain that I don’t look like I’m listening when they
talk to me.
16. I ask questions to encourage a speaker to elaborate on his or
her point.
17. I immediately think of ways to divert or end conversations that
don’t interest me.
18. I act impatient when someone ‘beats around the bushes’
rather than getting straight to the point.
18. I get bored if I’m not the one leading a conversation.
19. I wait for the speaker to finish his/her point before I make a
mental judgment call on what was said.
20. I interrupt when I have something to add to the conversation.
INCULCATING CONCEPTS
What does it really mean to listen?
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 Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the

communication process.
 Listening is key to all effective communication. Without the ability to listen
effectively, messages are easily misunderstood. As a result, communication
breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or
irritated.
 Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the
communication process.
 Listening is key to all effective communication, without the ability to listen
effectively messages are easily misunderstood.
 Listening is one of the most important skills you can have.
 An active process of getting information, ideas.
 “Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and
responding to spoken.
 Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive human relationships.
Listening is Not the Same as Hearing

 Hearing refers to the sounds that enter your ears.
 It is a physical process that, provided you do not have any hearing problems,
happens automatically.
 Listening, however, requires more than that: it requires focus and concentrated
effort, both mental and sometimes physical as well.
 Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use
of language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other
words, it means being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your
ability to listen effectively depends on the degree to which you perceive and
understand these messages.
 Listening is not a passive process. In fact, the listener can, and should, be at least
as engaged in the process as the speaker. The phrase ‘active listening’ is used to
describe this process of being fully involved.
Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps:

1. HEARING: It refers to listening which is enough to catch what the speaker is
saying.
2. UNDERSTANDING: It is the part of listening when you take what you have
heard and understand in in your way.
3. JUDGING: It is the time for assessing the speaker’s message.
LISTENING PROCESS
As you read earlier, there are many factors that can interfere with listening, so you need
to be able to manage a number of mental tasks at the same time in order to be a successful
listener. Author Joseph DeVito has divided the listening process into five stages: receiving,
understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding.
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STEPS OF THE LISTENING PROCESS

A. Receiving Level
 Is the intentional focus on
hearing a speaker’s message.
 This stage is represented by the
ear because it is the primary tool
involved with this stage of the
listening process.
B. Understanding Level
 In the understanding stage, we
attempt to learn the meaning of
the message, which is not always
easy. The Listening Process (DeVito, 2000).
 Deciding what the message means
to you
C. Remembering Level
 Remembering begins with listening; if you can’t remember something that was said,
you might not have been listening effectively.
 However, even when you are listening attentively, some messages are more difficult
than others to understand and remember. Highly complex messages that are filled
with detail call for highly developed listening skills.
D. Assessing Level
 The fourth stage in the listening process is evaluating.
 Evaluations of the same message can vary widely from one listener to another.
 The stages two, three, and four are represented by the brain because it is the
primary tool involved with these stages of the listening process.
E. Responding Level
 Responding—sometimes referred to as feedback—is the fifth and final stage of the
listening process.
 Your reaction to the message. It can be emotional and intellectual. For example, you
are giving positive feedback to your instructor if at the end of class you stay behind
to finish a sentence in your notes or approach the instructor to ask for clarification.
 The opposite kind of feedback is given by students who gather their belongings and
rush out the door as soon as class is over.
 This stage is represented by the lips because we often give feedback in the form of
verbal feedback; however, you can just as easily respond nonverbally.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING SKILLS
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To effect successful interaction and to share equal responsibility in achieving effective
communication, you as the receiver of the message must realize how important listening is. You
must understand that listening plays a very important role to effect purposeful interaction.
The importance of learning how to listen are the following:

 Offers an opportunity to broaden one’s knowledge
 The subject matter becomes clear and interesting when listened to;
 No book can convey the real spirit of a given subject but the inflection of the
accent of the human voice.
 Fact Check
We spend a lot of time listening! Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged
in some sort of communication. Of this, research shows that an average of 45% is spent
listening compared to 30% speaking, 16% reading and 9% writing. (Adler, R. et al. 2001).
That is, by any standards, a lot of time listening. It is worthwhile, therefore, taking a bit
of extra time to ensure that you listen effectively.
Based on the research of:

Adler, R., Rosenfeld, L. and
Proctor, R. (2001)
Interplay: the
process of
interpersonal
communicating
(8th Ed.), Fort
Worth, TX:
Harcourt.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING (Fessenden, P., et al.)

1. It should be done selectively
 Since listening is definitely more than ‘hearing,’ one should select and
concentrate on relevant sounds, not any of the noises that distract
2. It should be done purposefully
 Despite all kinds of noises, one should listen for something. Selective and
conscious listening has a specific purpose.
3. It should be done attentively
 Listening selectively and purposefully becomes active if the listener is
affected by the words he hears and reacts accordingly to their meaning in
his own distinctive way.
HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER

The following techniques will help you become an active and effective listener:
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 Stop Talking
The first step to becoming a good listener is to stop talking. Let others explain their
views. Learn to concentrate on what the speaker is saying, not on what your next
comment would be.
 Control your Surroundings
Whenever possible, remove competing sounds. Choose a quiet place and time for
listening.
 Establish a receptive mind-set
Expect to learn something from listening. Strive for a positive and receptive frame of
mind.
 Keep an open mind
We all sift and filter information through our own biases and values. For improved
listening, discipline yourself to listen objectively. Be fair to the speaker.
 Listen for main points
Concentration is enhanced and satisfaction is heightened when you looked for and
recognized the speaker’s central themes.
 Capitalize on lag time
Make use of the quickness of your mind by reviewing the speaker’s points.
Anticipate what’s coming next. Evaluate evidence the speaker has presented.
 Listen between the lines
Focus both on what is spoken and what is unspoken. Listen for feelings as well as for
facts.
 Judge ideas, not appearances
Concentrate on the content of the message , not on the delivery. Avoid being
distracted by the speaker’s looks, voice, or mannerisms
 Hold your fire
Force yourself to listen to the speaker’s entire argument or message before you
jump to false conclusions.
 Take selective notes
For some situations, thoughtful note taking maybe necessary to record important
facts that must be recalled later.
 Provide feedback
Let the speaker knows that you are listening. Nod your head and maintain eye
contact. Ask relevant questions at appropriate time.
KINDS OF LISTENING
1. Attentive Listening
 Attention is focused on the spoken words for a better grasp of the message.
2. Appreciative Listening
 We listen to music, speeches and story to lighten up our feelings.
 Fansworth (1996) suggests that appreciative listener’s level of appreciation depends
on the following:
 Tonal configuration of the piece
 Listener’s personality
 Listener’s mood prior to the listening experience
 Listener’s proper attitude held about appreciative listening
3. Critical Listening
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 Address our attention directly to what the speaker is saying. By knowing what is
said, we can evaluate and form opinions. It involves these components:
 Awareness of a set of interrelated questions
 Ability to ask answer critical questions at appropriate times
 Desire to actively use the critical questions
4. Emphatic listening
 When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand
how others are feeling.
 This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the nuances of
emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they
are feeling.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE LISTENING PROCESS
HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER
1. Approach each dialogue with the goal to learn something.

 Think of the person as someone who can teach you.
2. Stop talking and focus closely on the speaker.
 Suppress the urge to think about what you’re going to say next or to multitask.
3. Open and guide the conversation.
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 Open and guide the conversation with broad, open-ended questions such as “what
other strategic alternatives did you consider” or "how do you envision..." Avoid
close-ended questions that can be answered with just a “yes” or “no.”
4. Drill down to the details.
 Drill down to the details by asking directive, specific questions that focus the
conversation, such as "Tell me more about..." "How did you come to this conclusion?" or
"How would this work?"
5. Summarize what you hear and ask questions to check your understanding.
 Questions such as"If I’m understanding you..." or "Tell me if this is what you’re
saying...."
6. Encourage with positive feedback.
 If you can see that a speaker has some trouble expressing a point or lacks
confidence, encourage him or her with a smile, a nod or a positive question to show
your interest.
7. Listen for total meaning.
 Understand that in addition to what is being said, the real message may be non-
verbal or emotional. Checking body language is one way to seek true understanding.
8. Pay attention to your responses.
 Remember that the way you respond to a question also is part of the dialogue. Keep
an open mind and show respect for the other person’s point of view even if you
disagree with it.
KEY ELEMENTS OF ACTIVE LISTENING
The key elements of active listening listed below will help you listen to the other person
and increase the likelihood that the other person knows you are listening to them.
1. Pay attention
 Ensure you face the speaker
 Give the speaker your undivided attention and acknowledge their message
 Don’t look at your watch, phone, other people or activities in or beyond the room
 Refrain from side conversations (even if they are whispered).
2. Show that you are listening
 Be aware of your body language—crossed arms can make you seem closed or
negative
 Encourage the speaker to continue by ‘short’ verbal comments
 Ensure your posture and demeanour are open and inviting
 Offer some facial expressions, such as a nod or a smile.
3. Provide feedback
 Ask related and relevant questions
 Reflect on what has been said by paraphrasing
 Seek clarification
 Summarize the speaker’s comments.
4. Respond appropriately
 Assert your opinion(s) respectfully
 Avoid attacking the speaker verbally or otherwise putting them down
 Avoid interrupting the speaker unnecessarily
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 Respond openly and honestly, with an appropriate tone of voice

 Treat the other person as you would want to be treated.
5. Defer judgment
 Avoid making assumptions
 Be empathic and nonjudgmental
 Consider the communication from the perspective of the speaker
 Let the presentation run its course
 Listen to the entire message before interjecting with your own comments.

COMPARISON BETWEEN EFFECTIVE AND INEFFECTIVE LISTENING
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Dr. Rhonda Dubec, "Characteristics of Effective Listening"(https://teachingcommons.standord.edu)
COMMON BAD HABITS IN LISTENING
Bad listening is common, but is seldom really intended. The way that it effectively works
is that we fall into the thoughtless repeating patterns of habits. Here are some of the bad habits
as suggested by several authors. It is scary how many of these may be recognized in oneself...
Nichols and Stevens (1957) offer the following list as poor listening habits.
 Calling the subject uninteresting
 Criticizing the speaker &/or delivery
 Getting over-stimulated
 Listening only for facts (bottom line)
 Not taking notes or outlining everything
 Faking attention
 Tolerating or creating distractions
 Tuning out difficult material
 Letting emotional words block the message
 Wasting the time difference between speed of speech and speed of thought
Robertson (1994) describes the following list as the ten most common bad listening habits.
 Lack of interest in the subject
 Focus on the person, not on the content
 Interrupting
 Focus on the detail, missing the big picture
 Force-fitting their ideas into your mental models
 Body language that signals disinterest
 Creating or allowing distractions
 Ignoring what you do not understand
 Letting emotions block the subject
 Daydreaming
Barker and Watson (2000) suggest the following as irritating listening habits:
 Interrupting the speaker.
 Not looking at the speaker.
 Rushing the speaker and making him feel that he's wasting the listener's time.
 Showing interest in something other than the conversation.
 Getting ahead of the speaker and finishing her thoughts.
 Not responding to the speaker's requests.
 Saying, "Yes, but . . .," as if the listener has made up his mind.
 Topping the speaker's story with "That reminds me. . ." or "That's nothing, let me tell
you about. . ."
 Forgetting what was talked about previously.
 Asking too many questions about details.
 Fact Check: Key issues
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It is interesting to note the overlaps and differences in the above lists. Key underlying
aspects about these include:
 Lack of respect for the speaker
 Stuck in own head; trapped by own thoughts
 Hearing only what is superficially said; missing the real meaning
 General ignorance about social politeness
WHY, WHEN AND HOW PEOPLE LISTEN
Depending on the communicative event, there are five reasons why people listen. It is a
speech event as well as one’s purposes for listening that determines how one listens to what is
said.
1. To be able to engage in social rituals.
2. To get information
3. To be able to respond to ‘controls’.
4. To respond to feelings.
5. To enjoy.
NONVERBAL LISTENING
Giving our full attention to others relies to a considerable extent on our use of non-
verbal communication (also known as body language). In fact, some studies have suggested that
body language is more influential when communicating than the actual words we use:
 55% of what we communicate is through our body language
 37% of what we communicate is through our use of voice
 8% of what we communicate is through the content or ideas of words we use
SOLER TECHNIQUE
SOLER (Egan, 1986) is a technique often used by healthcare professionals although it’s
applicable in any profession. The SOLER method helps others to feel heard and valued, while
ensuring that their messages are fully understood by the listener. By following the SOLER
guidelines, you’ll find that your listening skills improve and become much more effective.
Square
Face the speaker squarely resisting the urge to lean
back or to the side. If you’re sitting across from each
other at a table or desk, clear all papers and other
distractions before you begin so that there are no
psychological or physical barriers between you.
Open
Maintain an open and accepting posture by keeping
your legs uncrossed and your arms unfolded. Resist
the urge to play with pens or mobile phones and put
all distracting objects away before you begin the
conversation.
Leaning
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Lean towards the speaker slightly without invading their personal space; this indicates
to them that you’re involved and interested. Remember that leaning back can convey
the opposite message so try and watch your body language.
Eye contact
Maintain good eye contact with the speaker and resist the natural urge to look around
the room or away. Be aware however that sustained direct eye contact can be
intimidating for some people and may be seen as aggressive. When listening, slight
nodding can be useful to show the other person that you’re paying attention to what’s
being said.
Relaxed
Be yourself and treat the other person as you would like to be treated. Turn off your
phone, and don’t fidget, look at emails or check the time. This form of non-verbal
communication can really influence our tone of voice. For example, if we’re distracted
by the clock, our tone will likely sound tense and anxious.
COMBINING SOLER & VERBAL FEEDBACK

When we’re actively listening, we’re paying obvious attention to what the other person
is saying and how they’re saying it. The following guidelines will help you to develop your active
listening skills but it’s also worth remembering that it’s a skill like any other and the more you
practice, the more comfortable you’ll feel.
 Give the speaker your full attention

Remind yourself of the SOLER techniques and ensure that you remove any possible
distractions such as your mobile or any paperwork. Make sure that you’re comfortable
and the room isn’t too hot or cold – concentration is much more difficult when we’re
focused on external stimuli. If you’re in a rush, suggest delaying the discussion until
you’re able to give the other person your full and uninterrupted attention.
 Offer the speaker regular encouragement

Listening actively allows us to help the speaker to feel more comfortable if they’re
uncertain or anxious but it’s important that you’re careful not to interrupt them.
Supporting someone to find their own words in their own time sometimes requires us to
sit with the silence and give them the space to think through what they need to say. And
gentle nodding or smiling when it’s appropriate can also help the speaker to feel at ease
and unrushed.
 Reflect to check your understanding

Reflecting helps you to demonstrate that you’ve heard what the speaker has said. A
reflective statement is one that briefly focuses on the speaker’s message rather than
their feelings about it. Using your own words rather than the speaker’s such as
paraphrasing helps you to check your own understanding while letting them know that
you’ve been actively listening. An example of reflection might be “You’re having
childcare difficulties and would like a few days off to sort things out”, or “You’d like a
pay rise because you feel that you’ve been putting in more effort than others on the
team”. There is no judgment involved in reflecting, nor are you responding to the
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speaker’s request or needs. You’re simply checking your understanding of what they’re
saying so that you can work with them towards a solution.
 Summarizing
Summarizing when the speaker is finished requires the listener to pull together the
speaker’s main ideas and feelings to demonstrate that they have understood the whole
conversation. Summarizing is useful when a lot of information has been covered and it
also helps the speaker to hear a playback of what they’ve been saying. For example, if
the speaker has told you of a number of issues they’re having you might say “It seems
that you’re very unhappy at the moment. Your home life sounds very stressful and
you’re really tired. You’ve also let me know that you’re feeling quite low and don’t know
where to begin because everything feels overwhelming”. You’ve put the speaker’s
thoughts into a concise summary which allows them to add anything they feel is needed
to reach a solution.
APPLYING KNOWLEDGE
Activity 1.1
Perform the following tasks related to the topics
which have been discussed earlier.
Part 1: Essay
Write at least five speech events or situations which call for attentive listening. What particular
items should you pay attention to in those situations? Write them alongside the situations.
Situations Item to Pay Attention To
Part II: Essay

Cite instances in real life which call for evaluative listening. What do we have to evaluate in
those instance?
Situations Requiring Evaluative Listening Things to Evaluate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Part III: Fill in the blanks

Listen carefully as the song, ‘You’ve Got a Friend’ by Carole King/James Taylor is being played.
Supply the missing words.
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When you're down and (1)________

And you need a helping hand
And nothing, whoa, nothing is going right
Close your eyes and (2)______of me
And soon I will be there
To (3)_____ up even your (4)______ nights
You just call out my name

And you know wherever I am
I'll come running oh yeah baby
To see you again
(5)______, (6)_____, (7)______, or (8)_____
All you got to do is call
And I'll be there, yeah, yeah yeah
You've got a friend
If the sky above you

Should turn (9)_____ and full of clouds
And that old (10)_____ wind
Should begin to blow
Keep your head together
And call my name out loud now
Soon I be (11)_____
Upon your door
You just call out my name

And you know where ever I am
I'll come (12)______ oh yes I will
To see you again
Winter, spring, summer, or fall yeah

All you got to do is call
And I'll be there, yeah yeah yeah
Hey, ain't it good to know
That you've got a friend?
People can be so (13)_____
They'll hurt you
And (14)_____ you
Well, they'll take your (15)_____
If you let them
Oh yeah, but don't you let them.
I think you are now ready to answer this assessment in Activity 1.2
EVALUATING UNDERSTANDING
Activity 1.2
Let us see if you will be able to answer the following items
correctly based on the 48lesson discussed.
Test I: Essay
1. Discuss the barriers to effective listening and give an example for each. (20 pts)
2. What is nonverbal communication? Give several examples.
Test II: Silent Messages

Direction: Analyze the kinds of silent messages you send your instructors and your classmates.
How do you send these messages? Group them into categories. What do these messages mean?
Be prepared to discuss them in our online forum.
A. For Instructor
Category Kind of Message Sent
B. For classmates
Category Kind of Message Sent
Test III: A - Body Language

Direction: What attitudes do the following body movements suggest to you?
Whistling, wringing hands
Bowed posture, twiddling thumbs
Steepled hands, sprawling sitting
position
Rubbing hand through hair
Open hands, unbuttoned coat
Wringing hands, tugging ears
B – Self Listening
Direction: Analyze your own listening habits. What are your strengths and weaknesses?
Write down your improvement plan.
Strengths Weaknesses
Improvement Plan:
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STRATEGIES IN TEACHING LISTENING
Students spend more time listening than doing anything else at school yet often we
don't spend much time teaching students how to be good listeners. Listening with
understanding is vital because it provides input for the learner. If learners are conscious of the
processes underlying what makes a good listener then learning will be more effective. Key
strategies that can be taught in the listening classroom include selective listening, listening for
different purposes, predicting, visualizing, and inferencing. These strategies should not be
separated from the content teaching but woven into the ongoing fabric of the lesson.
Some possible Teacher Inquiry questions:

 To what degree does what the students draw, reveal their depth of topic knowledge as
opposed to their ability to listen and understand in English?
 What other strategies can I use to build listening capability and how can I integrate
them into my teaching and planning cycle as required?
 Do my English language learners have a deeper level of topic understanding than their
spoken English contributions to class discussions reveal?
 How does what they draw reveal gaps in my students’ knowledge and what does this
mean for my future teaching?
The following are some strategies in teaching listening to students:

1. Dramatized Listening
Purpose: To revise the vocabulary, by giving students a key word to listen out for. Each
time they hear 'their' word, students must perform a certain action which helps to
demonstrate the meaning of the word.
Procedure:
 Divide the students into groups of two to three students.
 Demonstrate the actions to do every time they hear their key word(s).
 Give students the time to practice their words – one word per two to three
students (depending on class size).
 As you read the text, students must react instantly to their keywords by doing
the actions.
 The last student to respond is 'out'.
Note: an extension of this activity is to give the students a sentence to say as they do
their actions.
For example:
Convection currents could say: "We make the magma move around." The dramatized
listening activity can be repeated several times, and students can be given different
keywords, so that the vocabulary and the process are well rehearsed.
Students are given the text to read. They highlight the words from the listening,
and tick them if they know what they mean or put a cross above them if they do not
know the meaning. Students must learn the words for homework.
Example: Volcanoes
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Text and Actions
The Earth's crust, its hard top layer, is made of several pieces, called tectonic
plates. The plates float on top of the mantle. They are always moving, because of
convection currents. Where the plates collide or rub together they cause earthquakes
and fold the crust into mountains. Where they move apart or slip under one another,
melted rock or magma forms. The mantle rises to the surface to form volcanoes.
Movements to go with listening to the text about Tectonic Plates.

 crust
(laced fingers)
 tectonic plates
(hands move over and under each other)
 float
(wobbly hands)
 convection currents
(move hands clockwise and anti-clockwise)
 move apart
(move hands apart)
 goes under
(one hand stretched flat goes under the other also stretched out flat)
 molten rock rises
(laced fingers to wiggly fingers rising)
 collide
(bring hands together in a clap)
 rub together
(rub hands together)
 earthquakes
(hands and forearms locked and shaking)
 fold the crust into
(knuckles together, then roll the mountain fingers upwards into a mountain)
 a volcano erupts
(hands up and outwards)
Note: A sample video of this strategy could be accessed in this url:
2. Listening dictation
In listening dictation, students are given a partially completed graph or other
visual. Teachers read out the missing statements in short sentence-length chunks and
repeat each sentence twice. Speak at a normal pace, but pause after each sentence to
give students time to process the sentence meaning and add to the graph.
Some other forms of dictation include:
A. Shared dictation
Shared dictation helps students to practice speaking clearly. Teachers can use
this strategy to revise recently learned vocabulary, structures and genre, or to focus
student attention on something important such as an overview of the lesson.
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The language of the dictated text needs to be familiar to the students. Each
student has half of the text. The students sit back to back, or facing each other with
their papers out of each other's sight. They read out their phrases in turn, starting with
'A' who reads out the first group of words to 'B'. 'B' then writes down what s/he has
heard. Then 'B' says the next phrase to 'A' and so on. Students can spell out words only
after they have tried to get the message across three times.
Shared Dictation - Flowering Plants

Written by Sherene Isaac
Text A
Flowering Plants
Flowering plants ____________________________________. There are many

different colours, ____________________________.
Parts of a flower
The outer green parts are called ____________. _______________________ when it

is a bud. The brightly coloured parts ___________________________ . The male
parts are called ______________. ___________________________________ a long
filament and an anther. The anther makes ______________________.
___________________ the sperm (male sex cell).
_____________________________the pistil.
The pistil is made up of a _________________, _______________

________________. The ovary contains the
_____________________________________________________.
B. Listen Up
Listen-up is an activity for developing fluency in recognizing word/sound

correspondences and to identify main ideas in a text. It can also be used to recycle
vocabulary or to help students to notice certain types of words.
Procedure:
 The teacher prepares a list of words (about 10 at most) from a short text, about
200-250 words maximum.
 Students copy down the list in a column.
 The teacher reads the text aloud, a little more slowly than normal reading
speed, and students tick each word every time they hear it.
 At the end of the reading, count up the number of ticks for each word and this
will help to identify the main ideas in the text.
Variation 1:
 Students number their list of words in the order that they hear them being read.
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 The teacher could focus on one type of word e.g. cohesive devices, which would
then help students to notice and use cohesive devices in their own texts.
Note: A sample video of this strategy could be accessed in this url: <iframe title="vimeo-
player" src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/260151256" width="640" height="480"
frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
3. Picture Dictation
The teacher describes a picture, or sequence of pictures, to students who draw what
they hear. The aim is for close listening, the drawing should be quick and simple.
Normally the exercise takes about 20–30 minutes, depending on the length of the dictation.
Prepare a text that is appropriate to the level of the learners, is written in simple visual terms.
Procedure:
 Tell the students the number of visuals they will be drawing, or the shape of the
picture if there is only one.
 Read each step aloud to the class twice, allowing time for the drawing.
 Where there is a series of visuals, the students work in pairs to retell the sequence.
 The students check their visual against the original.
Variations:
 Have one or two confident students drawing their pictures on the board so that
the other students can copy when they are unsure (if they judge they are
correct).
 Picture dictations can be done in pairs, one students reading and one drawing.
4. Picture matching
This listening strategy develops students’ listening skills and builds their understanding
of key concepts and vocabulary.
Rationale:
 The teacher creates a series of clear diagrams or pictures that illustrate the
central concepts of the unit of work or the main events in a text.
 The teacher also writes one sentence that describes each diagram simply, mixes
them up and numbers each sentence.
 Provide a copy of the diagrams/pictures to each student.
 The teacher reads each sentence out aloud twice.
 On the first reading the students just listen.
 On the second reading they listen and write the number of the sentence next to
the diagram it describes.
 The students can then check their work with a partner.
How to Use Picture Matching

 Create a series of clear diagrams that illustrate central concepts of the unit of
work and give a copy of the diagrams to each student.
 Write one sentence that describes each diagram simply.
 Mix the sentences up and number them.
 As each sentence is read out the students write the number of the sentence
next to the diagram it describes.
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 Each sentence is read out twice.
Benefits of Picture Matching

 The students develop their listening skills.
 The students build on their understanding of mathematical concepts and
mathematical language.
Example of Picture Matching

Sentences:
 Corresponding angles are equal.
 Vertically opposite angles are equal.
 The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
 Each angle in an equilateral triangle is equal.
 Alternate angles on parallel lines are equal.
 Co-interior angles on parallel lines are supplementary.
Extension activity:
Picture matching can be extended into a skills flow activity. The students retell
the story orally, using the pictures as prompts. They can then write the story and
compare their version with the original. (For younger students the diagrams can be cut
up and glued into their workbook in the correct sequence and they write alongside.) In
this way a skills flow is used. The students listen, speak, then write and lastly they
compare and notice the language differences.
Related activity:
Listening to Pictures
 A similar activity where students each have a copy of the same picture.
 The teacher reads statements about the picture written to include the
target language/vocabulary.
 The students listen and do the action required of them - eg. writing the
correct answer, choosing whether the statement is true or false, write a
number next to the item described, draw the route taken, etc.
5. Viewing Guides
Viewing guides are usually a worksheet which students complete while watching a DVD,
computer clip, video, film, or television programme.
 The tasks usually involve answering questions, finding missing information, facts or
ideas, or completing a diagram, graph, or visual.
 It may also be an information transfer activity.
 Some key ideas or academic vocabulary may be pre-taught.
 The guides may also be differentiated for students working at different levels or for
those who are new learners of English.
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 Listening to films, TV and videos is often very difficult for second language speakers as
the topic is often unfamiliar and involves a one way conversation.
 The learners are in a position of not being able to ask for clarification or to slow down
the speed of the text.
Teaching and learning sequence planning examples:
‘You be the judge’

Language learning outcomes include the following:
 Students will learn and use film terminology;
 revise and use correct syntax;
 learn and use correct paragraph structure - using topic sentence, explanation
and example;
 use an appropriate structure for a film review
Guidelines for use:
Students write and develop a film review suitable for publication in a school newspaper.
The review must be on a film studied in class.
Learning task 1
a. Activating prior knowledge/Brainstorm.
 The teacher should put the title, "What is a film review?"
 Then the questions: Who? Where? What? When? Why? How? on the board.
 Put students into groups of no more than four.
 In groups, students discuss any prior knowledge of film reviews and record
answers to questions on a paper.
 Feedback answers recorded on white board.
 Ask students to each think about a film they have really enjoyed and give one
reason why they really enjoyed it.
 The teacher's job is to draw the elements of film from students, particularly:
Acting, Setting, Music, Special Effects, Editing, Camera Shots, Plot, Theme and
Costumes. The teacher may need to work hard to 'get' these answers from
students.
 Write the title of the film on the board and the element of film identified, as a
way of students seeing and using these words again.
 Give students this crossword puzzle activity to finish at home. These will
reinforce vocabulary and meanings. For weaker students this task could be
adapted into a barrier exercise.
b. Talking about a film

 Ask students to think back to the film they chose earlier.
 What was the storyline?
 What were three elements that were enjoyable or well done to make the film
successful?
 How was this achieved? Give out the speaking handout. They should not write
on this sheet yet, but read through it to familiarise themselves with what is
expected. Students will need 10 to 15 minutes to think about these things and
possibly jot ideas down on paper.
 Put students in pairs.
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 Ask students to talk about the film and the three things they enjoyed about it to
their partner for four minutes. Students then swap roles. (Listening and
speaking)
 Change partners. Students now talk about film and what they enjoyed about it
for three minutes. Swap roles.
 Change partners.
 Finally, students talk about movie for two minutes. Swap roles.
Students should now be more confident to write about the film, in preparation
to speak semi-formally in class. Give students class time and/or home time to complete
the worksheet in preparation for the next activity.
Learning Task 2
a. Oral responses and listening
 Listen to all student reviews.
The idea is to try to get students to Listen For The Elements and to hear why
they were particularly good or successful.
You will need to listen carefully to all the film reviews your classmates are going
to make. Under each heading of Acting, Setting, Music, Camera shots, Editing,
Special Effects, Theme and Costume you need to write 3 important things people
said about this particular element of film. At the end of the sentence you should
write the title of the film and underline it. Look at the example given for Music.
You will be expected to hand in this sheet at the end of the period for marking.
 Acting
 Setting
 Music
Eg. "The music was told me something really frightening was going to
happen."
 Scream.
 Camera shots
 Editing
 Special Effects
 Theme
 Costume
 Students need to record details of elements of film. Under each heading of

Acting, Setting, Music, Camera shots, Special Effects, Editing, Theme and
Costume, students should have written 3 sentences or quotes that have been
made by their classmate about that particular element.
 The title of the film should be underlined at the end of each sentence.
 This may take 1 to 2 periods depending on the size of the class. The teacher
should collect the completed student listening handouts, to make sure they
have listened for the elements of film and then give back to students.
b. Genre
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 Write up the titles of the films people spoke about in the previous lesson. Ask
students to try and classify them under the headings of humour or comedy,
horror, thriller, drama or fantasy.
 At the end of this exercise give students Genre crossword.
 The Concept map is a way of helping students to see what a film reviewer does,
his/her audience and to enforce some of the things they may write about
(elements of film and words they use to describe films).
 Give out Vocabulary Activity to take home and study in preparation for the next
lesson.
Word Clusters
Cut each rectangle individually. Work in pairs to arrange the words in to groups.
Glue these onto a paper. Then give each group a heading, from the list below.
When you have finished, you may be asked to explain and justify your
groupings.
Background Director Place Atmosphere

Synopsis Character Auditory Theme
Actors Tracking shot Colour Sound
Plot People Panning shot Producer
Drums Story Cinematography Make-up
Moral Important ideas History Camera shot
Flashbacks Clock ticking Setting Close-ups
Stunts Birds eye view Summary Role
Emotion Stage design Acted Actress
Costumes Low angle Red filter Editor
Symbolism Hand held camera Zoom-in Symbols
Music Lighting Message Fast music
Beat Flashbacks Extreme close-ups High tech
Volume Sound effects High angle shot Split screen shot
c. Vocabulary cluster
 Students work in pairs to group the words under six or seven different headings.
 They glue their groups of words onto a paper.
 There is no definite right or wrong group, as long as students can justify their
choice to you.
d. Cinematography - language of film

Before looking at elements of film, spend some time on cinematography. This is a
useful handout for students to recognize the different types of shots used in film
and the effect of these. It is suggested that it would be good to give students the
handout and provide a focus for individual reading. This could be some simple
questions, e.g.
 Skim the text - what do you think the text is about?
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 Read the text carefully. What were two things you found interesting or learnt
that you didn't know before?
 After reading the text, ask the question. Was the text about the things you had
predicted?
e. Elements of film
One way to get students thinking about elements of film is to show them 'small
snippets' of film and to ask questions. It is particularly valuable to show a film that
has two versions made. Compare the first version with the re-make. How are they
different in setting, costume, music, camera work or special effects?
For example:
 Compare an earlier film of Titanic to the re-make Titanic, or compare an earlier
Romeo and Juliet with the re-make.
 Show Jaws without the music then with music. Is it scary? Is it real? Discuss the
importance of the music in making the 'piece of plastic' seem life threatening and
believable.
 Show the 'race scene' in Cool Runnings - look specifically at sound and camera
movement.
 Show the start of Braveheart - the scenery, the background, the close up shots and
the panning.
6. Listening round/Round-robin
A Listening round or Round-Robin is a technique to ensure that all students have a voice
and that students who might otherwise monopolise a conversation do not limit anyone
else's opportunities to participate.
In a Listening round, students share their ideas in a group. Each participant has a turn to
offer her or his answer. Nobody should interrupt the person who has the floor.
Agreement, disagreement or surprise can only be communicated kinaesthetically.
Nobody can pass. If a participant's answer is similar to or the same as prior ones, the
person has to start by acknowledging peers who had similar ideas.
A Listening round provides opportunities for noticing and hearing new language for
English language learners. It gives opportunities for forced language output for all
students.
Note: A sample video of this strategy could be accessed in this url, <iframe title="vimeo-
48
CHAPTER II: ASSESSING THE LISTENING SKILLS

have:
synthesized the definitions of assessment by the different
authorities in the field;
explained the assessment process;
demonstrated understanding of the salient principles and concepts
of assessment in language teaching;
identified the different48assessment tools used in teaching listening
skills.
STARTING ACCURATELY
Making assessment an integral part of daily language instruction is a challenge. It
requires planning specific ways to use assignments and discussions to discover what students do
and do not understand. It also requires teachers to be prepared to deal with students'
responses. Merely spotting when students are incorrect is relatively easy compared with
understanding the reasons behind their errors.
The insights we gain by making assessment a regular part of instruction enable us to
meet the needs of the students who are eager for more challenges and to provide intervention
for those who are struggling (Burns 2005).
Welcome to chapter 2 in this module!
The term assessment is derived
from the Latin ‘assidere’ which
means ‘to sit beside’ (Wiggins,
1993).
48
 process of gathering evidence of students’ performance over a period of time to

determine learning and mastery of skills.

Assessment is integral to the teaching–learning process, facilitating student learning and

improving instruction, and can take a variety of forms. Classroom assessment is generally
divided into three types: assessment for learning, assessment of learning and assessment as
learning.
Part I: Assessment Basics
A. Assessment for Learning (Formative Assessment)

The philosophy behind assessment for learning is that assessment and teaching should
be integrated into a whole. The power of such an assessment doesn't come from intricate
technology or from using a specific assessment instrument. It comes from recognizing how
much learning is taking place in the common tasks of the school day – and how much insight
into student learning teachers can mine from this material (McNamee and Chen 2005).
Assessment for learning is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students
on a day-to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be
successful. This assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need
to make adjustments to their learning.
After teaching a lesson, we need to determine whether the lesson was accessible to all
students while still challenging to the more capable; what the students learned and still need to
know; how we can improve the lesson to make it more effective; and, if necessary, what other
lesson we might offer as a better alternative. This continual evaluation of instructional choices is
at the heart of improving our teaching practice (Burns, 2005).
B. Assessment of Learning (Summative Assessment)

Assessment of learning is the snapshot in time that lets the teacher, students and their
parents know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It provides
information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting information, it often
has little effect on learning.
Comparing Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning
Assessment for Learning Assessment of Learning
(Formative Assessment) (Summative Assessment)
Checks learning to determine what to do next Checks what has been learned to date.
and then provides suggestions of what to do—
teaching and learning are indistinguishable
from assessment.
Is designed to assist educators and students Is designed for the information of those not
in improving learning. directly involved in daily learning and teaching
(school administration, parents, school board,
48
Alberta Education, post-secondary institutions)

in addition to educators and students.
Is used continually by providing descriptive Is presented in a periodic report.

feedback.
Usually uses detailed, specific and descriptive Usually compiles data into a single number,
feedback—in a formal or informal report. score or mark as part of a formal report.
Is not reported as part of an achievement Is reported as part of an achievement grade.

grade.
Usually focuses on improvement, compared Usually compares the student's learning either
with the student's “previous best” (self- with other students' learning (norm-
referenced, making learning more personal). referenced, making learning highly
competitive) or the standard for a grade level
(criterion-referenced, making learning more
collaborative and individually focused).
Involves the student. Does not always involve the student.
Adapted from Ruth Sutton, unpublished document, 2001, in Alberta Assessment Consortium,
Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning (Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium,
2003).
C. Assessment as Learning
Assessment as learning develops and supports students' metacognitive skills. This form
of assessment is crucial in helping students become lifelong learners. As students engage in peer
and self-assessment, they learn to make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge and
use it for new learning. Students develop a sense of ownership and efficacy when they use
teacher, peer and self-assessment feedback to make adjustments, improvements and changes
to what they understand.
Purpose of Classroom Assessment

One of the first things to consider when planning for assessment is its purpose. Who will
use the results? For what will they use them?
Assessment is used to:

 inform and guide teaching and learning
A good classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of student learning that
informs teachers' instructional decisions. It provides teachers with information about what
students know and can do. To plan effective instruction, teachers also need to know what
the student misunderstands and where the misconceptions lie. In addition to helping
teachers formulate the next teaching steps, a good classroom assessment plan provides a
48
road map for students. Students should, at all times, have access to the assessment so they
can use it to inform and guide their learning.
 help students set learning goals
Students need frequent opportunities to reflect on where their learning is at and
what needs to be done to achieve their learning goals. When students are actively involved
in assessing their own next learning steps and creating goals to accomplish them, they make
major advances in directing their learning and what they understand about themselves as
learners.
 assign report card grades
Grades provide parents, employers, other schools, governments, post-secondary
institutions and others with summary information about student learning.
 motivate students
Research (Davies 2004; Stiggins et al. 2004) has shown that students will be
motivated and confident learners when they experience progress and achievement, rather
than the failure and defeat associated with being compared to more successful peers.
The key is to understand the relationship between assessment and student motivation.
In the past, we built assessment systems to help us dole out rewards and punishment. And while
that can work sometimes, it causes a lot of students to see themselves as failures. If that goes
on long enough, they lose confidence and stop trying. When students are involved in the
assessment process, though, they can come to see themselves as competent learners (
Sparks, 1999).
The Assessment Process

Effective classroom assessment in mathematics:
 addresses specific outcomes in the program of studies
 shares intended outcomes and assessment criteria with students prior to the
assessment activity
 assesses before, during and after instruction
 employs a variety of assessment strategies to provide evidence of student learning
 provides frequent and descriptive feedback to students
 ensures students can describe their progress and achievement and articulate what
comes next in their learning
 informs teachers and provides insight that can be used to modify instruction.
The assessment process starts with planning based on the program of studies learning
outcomes and involves assessing, evaluating and communicating student learning, as shown in
the following diagram.
48
Involving Students in the Assessment Process

One of the best ways to help students understand what will be assessed is to establish
the assessment criteria with them. Working with students to develop rubrics and other
assessment tools is a powerful way to help students build an understanding of what a good
product or performance looks like. It helps students develop a clear picture of where they are
going, where they are now and how they can close the gap. This does not mean that each
student creates his or her own assessment criteria. The teachers have a strong role to play in
guiding students to identify the criteria and features of understandings they want their students
to develop.
A second way to involve students in a meaningful way in the construction of

assessments is to work with them as a class to identify what good work looks like. What is the
difference between strong and weak work? What performance criteria do they think are
important? Does everyone understand what to do to attain the expected outcomes? This type
of student involvement takes time and teachers may need to encourage students to contribute
in meaningful ways.
Assessment Strategies and Tools

As students work with mathematical tasks, they should be able to:
 explain, interpret and justify what they know in their own ways, not just present what
others have said about the topic
 make and explore connections that are not immediately obvious
48
 speak to their peers about the personal strategies they have used to arrive at their
solutions
 provide evidence of their learning based on explicit criteria
 create new ways to express ideas, insights and feelings; e.g., making models or
representations as they devise various ways to solve a problem, justifying their
solutions, creating simulations, working with what they understand in new situations or
contexts
 take action when they recognize that their understanding of issues, problems and ideas
could be improved.
Teachers can use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to assess student
performance. Some of these strategies and tools include:
a. Anecdotal Notes
Anecdotal notes are used to record specific observations of individual student
behaviours, skills and attitudes as they relate to the outcomes in the program of studies.
Such notes provide cumulative information on student learning and direction for further
instruction. Anecdotal notes are often written as the result of ongoing observations during
the lessons but may also be written in response to a product or performance the student
has completed. They are brief, objective and focused on specific outcomes. Notes taken
during or immediately following an activity are generally the most accurate. Anecdotal notes
for a particular student can be periodically shared with that student or be shared at the
student’s request. They can also be shared with students and parents at parent–teacher–
student conferences.
The purpose of anecdotal notes is to:

 provide information regarding a student's development over a period of time
 provide ongoing records about individual instructional needs
 capture observations of significant behaviours that might otherwise be lost
 provide ongoing documentation of learning that may be shared with students, parents
and teachers.
Tips for Establishing and Maintaining Anecdotal Notes

 Keep a binder with a separate page for each student. Record observations using a
clipboard and sticky notes. Write the date and the student’s name on each sticky note.
Following the note taking, place individual sticky notes on the page reserved for that
student in the binder.
 Keep a binder with dividers for each student and blank pages to jot down notes. The
pages may be divided into three columns: Date, Observation and Action Plan.
 Keep a class list in the front of the binder and check off each student's name as
anecdotal notes are added to their section of the binder. This provides a quick reference
of the students you have observed and how frequently you have observed them.
 Keep notes brief and focused (usually no more than a few sentences or phrases).
 Note the context and any comments or questions for follow-up.
 Keep comments objective. Make specific comments about student strengths, especially
after several observations have been recorded and a pattern has been observed.
48
 Record as the observations are being made, or as soon after as possible, so recollections
will be accurate.
 Record comments regularly, if possible.
 Record at different times and during different activities to develop a balanced profile of
student mathematice learning.
 Review records frequently to ensure that notes are being made on each student
regularly and summarize information related to trends in students' learning.
 Share anecdotal notes with students and parents at conferences.
b. Observation Checklists
Observing students as they solve problems, model skills to others, think aloud during a
sequence of activities or interact with peers in different learning situations provides insight into
student learning and growth. The teacher finds out under what conditions success is most likely,
what individual students do when they encounter difficulty, how interaction with others affects
their learning and concentration, and what students need to learn next. Observations may be
informal or highly structured, and incidental or scheduled over different periods of time in
different learning contexts.
Observation checklists allow teachers to record information quickly about how students
perform in relation to specific outcomes from the program of studies. Observation checklists,
written in a yes/no format can be used to assist in observing student performance relative to
specific criteria. They may be directed toward observations of an individual or group. These
tools can also include spaces for brief comments, which provide additional information not
captured in the checklist.
Before you use an observation checklist, ensure students understand what information
will be gathered and how it will be used. Ensure checklists are dated to provide a record of
observations over a period of time.
Tips for Using Observation Checklists

 Determine specific outcomes to observe and assess.
 Decide what to look for. Write down criteria or evidence that indicates the student is
demonstrating the outcome.
 Ensure students know and understand what the criteria are.
 Target your observation by selecting four to five students per class and one or two
specific outcomes to observe.
 Develop a data gathering system, such as a clipboard for anecdotal notes, a checklist or
rubric, or a video or audio recorder.
 Collect observations over a number of classes during a reporting period and look for
patterns of performance.
 Date all observations.
 Share observations with students, both individually and in a group. Make the
observations specific and describe how this demonstrates or promotes thinking and
learning. For example; "Eric, you contributed several ideas to your group's Top Ten list.
You really helped your group finish their task within the time limit."
 Use the information gathered from observation to enhance or modify future instruction.
c. Conversations
Learning conversations are particularly effective in helping students make connections.
There are a number of ways to keep track of learning conversations. For example:
48
Record the learning conversations by using a digital recording device. Either the teacher
or students can download the recording and use audio editing software to identify the
most salient parts of the conversation and add them to their portfolios.
Record the learning conversations by video. Either the teacher or students can create
the video recording and use video editing software to identify the most salient parts of
the conversation and add them to their portfolios.
Record their emerging understandings, working theories, solutions and reflections
through a classroom Web site; e.g., chatroom, blogs, wiki. Students can then continue
their conversations outside of school, build on each other's ideas, and have a rich record
of how their knowledge was built and how deep understanding emerged through open
conversation.
d. Portfolios
A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work samples, student self-
assessments and goal statements that reflect student progress. Students generally
choose the work samples to place in the portfolio, but the teacher may also recommend
that specific work samples be included. Portfolios are powerful tools that allow students
to see their academic progress from grade to grade.
The physical structure of a portfolio refers to the actual arrangement of the

work samples, which can be organized according to chronology, subject area, style or
goal area. The conceptual structure refers to the teacher's goals for student learning.
For example, the teacher may have students complete a self-assessment on a work
sample and then set a goal for future learning. The work sample self-assessment and
the goal sheet may be added to the portfolio.
Work samples from all curricular areas can be selected and placed in a portfolio.
These can include stories, tests and reflections about work samples.
Effective portfolios:
 are updated regularly to keep them as current and complete as possible

 help students examine their progress
 help students develop a positive self-concept as learners
 are shared with parents or guardians
 are a planned, organized collection of student-selected work
 tell detailed stories about a variety of student outcomes that would otherwise
be difficult to document
 include self-assessments that describe the student as both a learner and an
individual
 serve as a guide for future learning by illustrating a student's present level of
achievement
 include a selection of items that are representative of curriculum outcomes, and
what the student knows and can do
 include the criteria against which the student work was evaluated
 support the assessment, evaluation and communication of student learning
 document learning in a variety of ways—process, product, growth and
achievement
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 include a variety of works—audio recordings, video recordings, photographs,
graphic organizers, first drafts, journals and assignments that feature work from
all of the multiple intelligences.
e. Question and Answer

Questioning serves as assessment when it is related to outcomes. Teachers use
questioning (usually oral) to discover what students know and can do. Strategies for
effective question and answer assessment include:
 Apply a wait time or 'no hands-up rule' to provide students with time to think
after a question before they are called upon randomly to respond.
 Ask a variety of questions, including open-ended questions and those that
require more than a right or wrong answer.
 Use Bloom's Taxonomy when developing questions to promote higher-order
thinking.
 Teachers can record the results of question and answers in anecdotal notes or
include them as part of their planning to improve student learning.
f. Checklists, Rating scales and Rubrics.

Checklists, rating scales and rubrics are tools that state specific criteria and allow
teachers and students to gather information and to make judgments about what
students know and can do in relation to the outcomes. They offer systematic ways of
collecting data about specific behaviours, knowledge and skills.
The quality of information acquired through the use of checklists, rating scales and
rubrics is highly dependent on the quality of the descriptors chosen for assessment.
Their benefit is also dependent on students’ direct involvement in the assessment and
understanding of the feedback provided.
The purpose of checklists, rating scales and rubrics is to:
 provide tools for systematic recording of observations

 provide tools for self-assessment
 provide samples of criteria for students prior to collecting and evaluating data
on their work
 record the development of specific skills, strategies, attitudes and behaviours
necessary for demonstrating learning
 clarify students' instructional needs by presenting a record of current
accomplishments.
Checklists usually offer a yes/no format in relation to student demonstration of

specific criteria. This is similar to a light switch; the light is either on or off. They may be
used to record observations of an individual, a group or a whole class.
Rating Scales allow teachers to indicate the degree or frequency of the
behaviours, skills and strategies displayed by the learner. To continue the light switch
analogy, a rating scale is like a dimmer switch that provides for a range of performance
levels. Rating scales state the criteria and provide three or four response selections to
describe the quality or frequency of student work.
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Teachers can use rating scales to record observations and students can use
them as self-assessment tools. Teaching students to use descriptive words, such as
always, usually, sometimes and never helps them pinpoint specific strengths and needs.
Rating scales also give students information for setting goals and improving
performance. In a rating scale, the descriptive word is more important than the related
number. The more precise and descriptive the words for each scale point, the more
reliable the tool.
Effective rating scales use descriptors with clearly understood measures, such as
frequency. Scales that rely on subjective descriptors of quality, such as fair, good or
excellent, are less effective because the single adjective does not contain enough
information on what criteria are indicated at each of these points on the scale.
Rubrics use a set of criteria to evaluate a student's performance. They consist of
a fixed measurement scale and detailed description of the characteristics for each level
of performance. These descriptions focus on the quality of the product or performance
and not the quantity; e.g., not number of paragraphs, examples to support an idea,
spelling errors. Rubrics are commonly used to evaluate student performance with the
intention of including the result in a grade for reporting purposes. Rubrics can increase
the consistency and reliability of scoring.
Rubrics use a set of specific criteria to evaluate student performance. They may
be used to assess individuals or groups and, as with rating scales, may be compared over
time.
Developing Rubrics and Scoring Criteria

Rubrics are increasingly recognized as a way to both effectively assess student
learning and communicate expectations directly, clearly and concisely to students. The
inclusion of rubrics in a teaching resource provides opportunities to consider what
demonstrations of learning look like, and to describe stages in the development and
growth of knowledge, understandings and skills. To be most effective, rubrics should
allow students to see the progression of mastery in the development of understandings
and skills.
Rubrics should be constructed with input from students whenever possible. A

good start is to define what quality work looks like based on the learning outcomes.
Exemplars of achievement need to be used to demonstrate to students what an
excellent or acceptable performance is. This provides a collection of quality work for
students to use as reference points. Once the standard is established, it is easy to define
what exemplary levels and less-than-satisfactory levels of performance look like. The
best rubrics have three to five descriptive levels to allow for discrimination in the
evaluation of the product or task. Rubrics may be used for summative purposes to
gauge marks by assigning a score to each of the various levels.
When developing a rubric, consider the following:

 What are the specific outcomes in the task?
 Do the students have some experience with this or a similar task?
 What does an excellent performance look like? What are the qualities that distinguish
an excellent response from other levels?
 What do other responses along the performance quality continuum look like?
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 Is each description qualitatively different from the others? Are there an equal number of
descriptors at each level of quality? Are the differences clear and understandable to
students and others?
Begin by developing criteria to describe the Acceptable level. Then use Bloom's taxonomy to
identify differentiating criteria as you move up the scale. The criteria should not go beyond the
original performance task, but reflect higher order thinking skills that students could
demonstrate within the parameters of the initial task.
When developing the scoring criteria and quality levels of a rubric, consider the following
guidelines.
Level 4 is the Standard of excellence level.

 Descriptions should indicate that all aspects of work exceed grade level expectations
and show exemplary performance or understanding. This is a "Wow!"
Level 3 is the Approaching standard of excellence level.
 Descriptions should indicate some aspects of work that exceed grade level
expectations and demonstrate solid performance or understanding. This is a "Yes!"
Level 2 is the Meets acceptable standard.
 This level should indicate minimal competencies acceptable to meet grade level
expectations. Performance and understanding are emerging or developing but there
are some errors and mastery is not thorough. This is a "On the right track, but …".
Level 1 Does not yet meet acceptable standard.
 This level indicates what is not adequate for grade level expectations and indicates
that the student has serious errors, omissions or misconceptions. This is a "No, but
…". The teacher needs to make decisions about appropriate intervention to help the
student improve.
Tips for Developing Checklists, Rating Scales and Rubrics

 Use checklists, rating scales and rubrics in relation to outcomes and standards.
 Use simple formats that can be understood by students and that will communicate
information about student learning to parents.
 Ensure that the characteristics and descriptors listed are clear, specific and
observable.
 Encourage students to assist with constructing appropriate criteria. For example,
what are the descriptors that demonstrate levels of performance in problem
solving?
 Ensure that checklists, rating scales and rubrics are dated to track progress over
time.
 Leave space to record anecdotal notes or comments.
 Use generic templates that become familiar to students and to which various
descriptors can be added quickly, depending on the outcome(s) being assessed.
 Provide guidance to students to use and create their own checklists, rating scales
and rubrics for self-assessment purposes and as guidelines for goal setting.
Added value
Increase the assessment value of a checklist or rating scale by adding two or three
additional steps that give students an opportunity to identify skills they would like to improve or
the skill they feel is most important. For example:
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 put a star beside the skill you think is the most important for encouraging others
 circle the skill you would most like to improve
 underline the skill that is the most challenging for you.
Part II: Language Listening Assessment Ideas

Done the wrong way, assessments can destroy students’ self-esteem. They’ll start to
doubt their language proficiency and become reluctant to participate in class exercises.
But done right, assessments can be one of the most effective ways to build up your students’
confidence and motivation.
Listening assessments are great for determining students’ comprehension or their
ability to communicate. What’s more, the way your students perform on their listening
assessments can help you look at how to improve lesson plans and address the needs your
learners more closely.
 Assessing the Listening of Beginners

Activity: Total Physical Response (TPR)
Listening activities can be especially difficult for beginners who’ve yet to get a
complete grasp of the English language. For this reason, the TPR method is a
great way to test their listening, as it doesn’t require students to produce any
language. Here’s how you can do it.
Pre-activity:
 The teacher will show pictures of verbs which have been taught in class. Both
teacher and students will go through the motions for each verb.
Activity:
 The teacher will call out each verb.
 Students will be asked to mimic each verb called out.
 This time, the teacher won’t participate in the activity.
Post-activity:
 The teacher will remove all visuals and only call out each action.
 Students will then mimic each action the mentions.
 As this is happening, the teacher should take note to make sure students mimic
each verb correctly.
What’s more, this activity can be turned into a game. Simply call out verbs for students
to mimic. Every student that does the wrong action is out until there is a winner.
 Assessing the Listening of Elementary-level Students

Activity: Blending Boards
This activity consists of building boards with pictures which tell a story or have a
logical sequence. This is a great activity for evaluating the concrete vocabulary
elementary-level learners know, such as the rooms in a house, parts of the
body, food or any other vocabulary which can be represented visually.
Pre-activity:
 The teacher will show a board with nine images.
 Students will then identify the objects seen in each picture.
 These images should be centered around the topics covered in class.
Activity:
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 The teacher will provide the students with a sheet containing the same images
introduced in the pre-activity.
 Students will hear individual words, sentences or short conversations and
indicate the picture that corresponds to the audio being played.
Post-activity:
 Students can write a sentence or short paragraph about one of the pictures
seen on the board.
At the end of class, have your learners read their sentences and have their classmates
identify which images they’re talking about.
 Assessing the Listening of Pre-intermediate Students

 Activity: Cloze exercises
This assessment can range from fill-in-the-blank exercises to more complex
information-gathering activities. Preferably, conversations at regular speed
should be utilized. If you’re looking for conversations online, YouTube is a great
place to start. Once you’ve found a conversation you want to use, it’s time to set
up the exercise.
Pre-activity:
 Students will look over an information sheet and discuss the details required for
filling a job application.
 It’s important to make sure that students are clear on what information
students need to know in order to complete this sheet.
Activity:
 Students will listen to a conversation and fill in the personal information
provided by the speakers using the information sheet given to them.
 Then, the learners will work together in pairs to check if their information is
correct.
 The audio will be played again to confirm information.
Post-Activity:
 Have students fill in their own job application, using personal information rather
than details from the video.
If you have time after the assessment, have your students role play a job interview in
pairs using the answers from their information sheets.
 Assessing the Listening of Intermediate Students

Activity: Minimal pairs
Minimal pairs are great for isolating troublesome sounds, especially when
focusing on listening comprehension and accent reduction. If you’d like to learn more
about minimal pairs, this article provides plenty of examples you can use in your
assessment. Once you’ve got a list of minimal pairs you want to introduce, begin the
activity.
Pre-activity:
 Students will look over two sentences containing the target sound.
 They will identify similar-sounding words (for example, bear and beer), by
underlining them, or a TPR-like activity such as raising their hands every time
they hear the correct sound.
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Activity:
 Students will listen, either to an audio or a reading by the teacher, and identify
each minimal pair by writing on a sheet of paper.
 Then they’ll practice producing that target sound. Students will “judge” each
other to make sure they’re getting the right sound.
Post-activity:
 Students will produce a dialog using all of the target vocabulary within the
context of the topic being discussed.
At the end of the lesson, go over the answers with your students and look at which
sounds they had the most trouble identifying. This will help you when preparing the
class for future listening exercises.
 Assessing the Listening of Upper-intermediate Students

Activity: Paraphrasing
Upper-intermediate students need to learn how to paraphrase what they’ve
been listening to, and here’s how you can challenge them to do so.
Pre-activity:
 Students will discuss an image displayed on the board.
 This could be a single photograph of a situation, a sequence or even a short
video accompanied by audio.
 Students will speculate what they think this image is about.
Activity:
 Students will listen to a short audio clip that corresponds to the pre-activity, and
then, in pairs, repeat what they heard in their own words.
 Afterwards, students should work in pairs and discuss what they listened to,
comparing and contrasting their answers.
Post-activity:
 The teacher can then display a transcript of the audio in order for students to
compare their understanding.
 They can then compare their impressions on the activity.
 Finally, once the assessment is over, hold an in-class discussion where everyone
gives feedback on the listening clip.
 Assessing the Listening of Advanced Students

Activity: Debates
Being able to express opinions is required on the speaking portion of most
major English tests, especially for advanced learners. This is a higher-order skill that can
enhance students’ critical thinking capabilities. In addition, debates are fun activities
where students can express their ideas and opinions on a number of topics and issues.
So, why not use this as part of your listening assessment?
Pre-activity:
 The teacher will present a topic, and discussion should be encouraged in order
to activate background knowledge.
 This can be done through a short reading, quick video or even a slide
presentation with pictures of vocabulary words that students should know for
your main activity.
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Activity:
 Students will watch a short speech or presentation on the subject presented in
the previous activity (I love this TED Talks video because it’s short, sweet and
informative).
 Students are required to take notes that support their arguments.
Wow! Isn’t it great?
You have arrived at the finish line! How do you feel now that you finished Lesson 3?
Of course, GREAT!
Have you been working hard? Why don’t you take a

break? Get a sandwich or some cookies to eat while
watching TV or surfing in social media and then return to
this module afterwards.
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CHAPTER III: THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING SKILLS

Speaking is one of the most important skills of all the four language skills because
individuals who learn a language are referred to as the speakers of that language (Ur, 1996).
The main aim of English language teaching is to give learners the ability to use English language
effectively and correctly in communication (Davies & Pearse, 2000).
However, it seems that language learners are not able to communicate fluently and
accurately because they do not have enough knowledge in this field.
But before we will discuss these tools, let’s have rundown first of our learning outcomes for
this lesson.
Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of this lesson, you should have:

synthesized the definitions of speaking by the different authorities in the
field;
explained the speaking process;
cited learning principles related to the speaking process;
explained the methods of presentation;
presented related studies/researches on speaking; and
demonstrated understanding of the different methods and strategies in
teaching speaking.
STARTING ACCURATELY
When we talk about speaking, we do not mean just saying the words through mouth. It
means conveying the message through the words of mouth. This skill is often ignored in some
teachers’ classes. Learners do not have enough opportunity either in their classes or outside to
speak English. Unfortunately, speaking is not an important part of teachers’ exams. Learners
need a lot of practice to learn to speak. Learners can improve their speaking skill through
listening and repeating. Teachers can give their learners some structures and ask them to
repeat. This can remove their learners’ shyness. Teachers can use short questions and short
dialogues in the classrooms to develop their students’ speaking skill (Bashir, Azeem, & Dogar,
2011).
We are all aware of the prevalence of

memes in social media at present. These
memes basically express issues that affect our
everyday life using parody or satire which aim to
entertain and make us think of its message.
The meme on this page conveys an issue that relates
to the issues on language proficiency among us
Filipinos.
Do you agree with the message expressed on this

meme about our English skills? Why and why not?
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What Speaking Is
There are a lot of definitions of the word “speaking” that have been suggested
by the researchers in language learning. Below are some definitions from several authorities:
 speaking is to say words orally, to communicate as by talking, to make a request, and to
make a speech (Nunan, 1995).
 the process of making and sharing meaning by using verbal and non-verbal symbols in
different contexts (Chaney, 1998).
 an interactive process of making meaning that includes producing, receiving, and
processing information (Brown (1994) and Burns and Joyce (1997).
 production of auditory signals to
produce different verbal responses in
listeners. It is regarded as combining
sounds systematically to form meaningful
sentences (Bygate,1987).
 a two–way process including a true
communication of opinions, information,
or emotions (Eckard and Kearny (1981),
Florez (1999), Howarth (2001), and Abd
El Fattah Torky (2006).
“Say what you mean and mean what you say.” Saying what you mean is precisely what
communication is all about. Anytime you speak, make a gesture or merely grunt, you are
“saying” you have some ideas in your mind that you wish to transfer to another person.
Words, body movements, facial expressions and voice tones are all symbols you should
select in your attempts to transmit the meaning in your mind and to the mind of the
speaker.
Importance of Spoken Language

 Meaning – if others can understand what you want to say
 Fluency – if you can continue speaking without long silences, “um’ “err’ “eh’
hesitations
 Simplicity – if you keep your sentences simple and you will able to keep talking and
explaining what you want
What a Good Speaker Does

Van Duzer (1997) posits that a speaker’s skills and speech habits have an impact on the
success of any exchange. Speakers must be able to anticipate and then produce the expected
patterns of specific discourse situations. They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-
taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting (Burns & Joyce, 1997).
Other skills and knowledge that instruction might address the following:
 Producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of
the language;
 Using grammar structures accurately;
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 Assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or

shared points or reference, status and power relations of participants, interest
levels, or differences in perspectives;
 Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience,
the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs;
 Applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key
words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehensions;
 Using gestures or body language; and paying attention to the success of the
interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of
speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener
comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994).
Four Speaking Skills

 Fluency
It is about how comfortable and confident you are in speaking English. If you can speak
for an extended period of time, that is an indicator of strong fluency. It is also about
showing a clear connection between each point that you are trying to make. This skill
means that the listener can follow what you are saying and does not get lost.
 Vocabulary.
If you don’t have the words to say what you want to say, then you cannot say it. Being a
good speaker means constantly
growing you’re vocabulary. The more
interesting words you know, the
stronger your speaking skills. The best
way to grow your vocabulary is to read
in English and make a note of any new
words that you encounter in a
vocabulary notebook.
 Grammar
The dreaded G word! Grammar does
matter and the fewer mistakes you make, the better your speaking skill will be.
However, do not worry about making mistakes either! A good speaker does not have to
use perfect grammar. Certainly, though, it is a good idea to make sure that you have
mastered the major tenses.
 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is a complex area, with a lot of sub skills that can be practiced. The basic
rule of thumb is that an average speaker can speak and be understood. A skilled speaker
can use the sub skills of pronunciation to emphasize and make the communicative effect
of their speech more impactful. The sub skills of pronunciation include: word and
sentence stress, intonation, rhythm and the use of the individual sounds of a language.
A good way to practice your pronunciation is to copy! Simply listen to how someone
with good pronunciation speaks, and try to imitate them as closely as possible.
Use of Voice
A good voice has three important characteristics.
 It is reasonably pleasant (Quality)
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 It is easily understood (Intelligibility)
 It expresses difference in meaning (Variety)
 Quality – refers to the overall impression a voice makes on others.
 Intelligibility – refers to understandability of speech, has several factors:
 Articulation – refers to the precision and clarity with which sounds of
speech are uttered. It is synonymous to enunciation. Good articulation is
chiefly the job of the jaw, tongue and lips.
 Pronunciation - refers to the traditional or customary utterance of words.
Standards pronunciation differ, making it difficult at times to know what is
acceptable. Common faults of pronunciation are to misplace the accent
(saying de-vice instead of de-vice, to omit sounds (guh/mnt for
government), to add sounds (athalete for athlete), and to sound silent
letters (mortgage or often).
 Vocalized Pause - the name we give to syllables “a” “uhm”, “um” and “ahh”
often at the beginning of the sentence. While a few vocalized pauses are
natural and do not distract, too many impede the communication process.
 Overuse of stock expressions – it include expressions such as “ok”, “like”,
“you know” should be avoided. These expressions serve no positive
communicative function and only convey a lack of originality by the speaker.
 Variety – it is considered as the spice of speaking. Listeners tire rapidly
when listening to a speaker who doesn’t vary delivery style or a speaker
who has a monotonous voice.
 Most people speak at a rate of 100 to 180 words a minute when
presenting a talk.
 Volume is important to the speaker.
 Force is needed at times to emphasize and dramatize ideas.
 Pitch is the highness and lowness of the voice.
 Emphasis obviously stems from all forms of vocal variety, and any
change in rate, force, or pitch will influence the emphasis.
 Speech Aims – speech has three basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, or
to entertain.
 Informative Speech – a narration concerning a specific topic but
does not involve a sustained effort to teach.
 Persuasive Speech – designed to move an audience to belief or
action on some topic, product and other matter.
 Entertaining Speech – give enjoyment to the audience, author often
relies on humor and vivid language as a primary means of
entertaining the listeners.
Qualities of Voice
These are the distinctive qualities of an effective speaker:
 Tone – produced by the resonating cavities of your body and the way you use them.
These cavities include the chest, pharynx, etc. etc. amplify your voice, but if you use
them wrongly they will give your voice an unattractive tone.
 Pitch – it is determined by the length and thickness of your vocal cords. As these cords
are stretched, they vibrate with higher frequency, and your voice sound shriller. As they
contract, they vibrate with lower frequency, and your voice goes deeper.
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 Volume or Loudness – An effective voice must be as loud as the speaking situation

requires. A beginner sometimes underestimates the volume of his voice. It is only when
you are actually speaking that you know the exact requirements of volume.
 Clarity – It is determined by the speech organs in your mouth-your tongue, lips, palate ,
teeth and jaw. For clear speech, these organs should neither be tense or lazy. You learn
to relax or to exercise these speech organs as they are refined, they in turn will become
more accurately expressive.
Posture and Power of Voice
Good Posture – is the natural alignment of the body. When sitting, draw a straight line
from ear to the shoulder to the hipbone, and if standing, from the hip down to the knees. Thers
should be no tension at the back of the neck or at the back of the shoulders, elbow, wrist, pelvis,
knees or ankles. The spine takes a natural curve at the neck and at the back, but in each case the
curve is light.
Methods of Presentation
Speakers can use one of the four common methods for presentation:
 Speaking from memory
 Reading from manuscript
 Speaking impromptu with no specific preparation
 Speaking extemporaneously
Articulation – refers to the movement of the speech organs utilized in producing particular
speech sound especially consonant sounds using articulators such as the tongue, lips and glottis.
Articulation turns voice into speech and what turns voice to speech is the action of the
speech organs of the head. These are:
 Tongue – both the tip and the back of the tongue are used to produce different
sounds
 Lips
 Soft palate – this is movable; it lies at the back of the root of the mouth
 Hard palate – this is immovable; it lies in front of the soft palate at the top of
the mouth.
 Dental Ridge – it lies behind the upper teeth
 Jaw
SPEECH SOUNDS
The English alphabet has 26 letters that are used individually in various combinations to
represent between 42 and 44 different speech sounds! A range of 42 and 44 is used because
experts don't agree on the exact number of phonemes found in the English language. Factors
such as dialect or accent, the amount of emphasis that we put on syllables as we speak and
other influences affect the total number of phonemes that we produce. Speech sounds are also
called phonemes.
Phoneme
 the smallest part of spoken language that makes a difference in meaning.
Remember that a phoneme is not the same as a letter! Phonemes are speech
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sounds. Letters are used to represent sounds. This will be especially important
when we begin counting the phonemes in words.
For example, the word book has four letters, but three phonemes: /b/-/oo/-/k/.
 Phonemes (speech sounds) are represented in writing by placing the
letter(s) used to represent the sound between slashes — so, for example:
the sound that you say at the beginning of the word pot is represented
by /p/.
Letters vs. Phonemes

Dr. Louisa Moats explains to a kindergarten teacher why it is critical to
differentiate between the letters and sounds within a word when teaching
children to read and write. (https://youtu.be/J608Dbhs6J8)
VOWELS
There are three sorts of vowels: pure vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs
 Pure vowels
 Sounds that travel from the near back of the mouth: /00/ (hoot), /aw/
(hawk), /0/ (hot)
 The sounds travel from the middle of the mouth: /er/ (heard), /a/
(ahead), /u/ (hut), /aa/ (hard)
 The sounds travel from the front of the mouth: /ee/ (heed), /i/ (hid), /a/
(had)
 Diphthongs
 These are vowels that glide which means the tongue and the lips shift
position as they form the vowel, and create two sounds that glide together.
 Formed by the lips: /o/ (hoe), /ay/ (hay), /I/ (high), /air/ (hair), /eer/ (here)
 Triphthongs
 These are two common triphthongs, or thee-part glides in English: /ir/ (hire)
and /owr/ (hour)
Short Vowels
IPA Symbol Word examples
e Went, intend, send, letter.
æ Cat, hand, nap, flat, have.
ʌ Fun, love, money, one, London, come.
ʊ Put, look, should, cook, book, look.
ɒ Rob, top, watch, squat, sausage.
ə Alive, again, mother.
Long Vowels

i: Need, beat, team.
ɜ: Nurse, heard, third, turn.
ɔ: Talk, law, bored, yawn, jaw.
u: Few, boot, lose, gloomy, fruit, chew.
ɑ: Fast, car, hard, bath.
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Diphthong Vowels

ɪə Near, ear, clear, tear, beer, fear
eə Hair, there, care, stairs, pear
eɪ Face, space, rain , case, eight
ɔɪ Joy, employ, toy, coil, oyster.
aɪ My, sight, pride, kind, flight
əʊ No, don’t, stones, alone, hole
aʊ Mouth, house, brown, cow, out
Consonants Sounds: Fricatives

f Full, Friday, fish, knife.
v Vest, village, view, cave.
θ Thought, think, Bath.
ð There, those, brothers, others.
z Zoo, crazy, lazy, zigzag, nose.
ʃ Shirt, rush, shop, cash.
ʒ Television, delusion, casual
h High, help, hello.
Consonants Sounds: Plosives

p Pin, cap, purpose, pause.
b Bag, bubble, build, robe.
t Time, train, tow, late.
d Door, day, drive, down, feed.
k Cash, quick, cricket, sock.
g Girl, green, grass, flag.
Consonants Sounds: Affricates

ʈʃ Choose, cheese, church, watch.
dʒ Joy, juggle, juice, stage.
Consonants Sounds: Nasals

m Room, mother, mad, more
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n Now, nobody, knew, turn.

ŋ King, thing, song, swimming.
Consonants Sounds: Approximants

r Road, roses, river, ring, ride.
j Yellow, usual, tune, yesterday, yard.
w Wall, walk, wine, world.
l and ɫ Law, lots, leap, long, pill, cold, chill, melt.
Sounds of Speech: In Practice

There are many activities that you can do with your students to help them increase their
knowledge of speech sounds and their relationship to letters.
Activity 1: Good Vibrations

Practice differentiating voiced and unvoiced speech sounds with your students. Have
them put their hand on their throat to feel the difference between phonemes that make the
vocal cords vibrate (voiced) and those that don't (unvoiced).
Voiced Phonemes
/b/ /v/ /l/ /z/ /m/ /TH/ /j/
/n/ /w/ /d/ /y/ /r/ /g/
Unvoiced Phonemes
/p/ /sh/ /f/ /wh/ /ch/ /th/ /s/ /k/ /h/
Activity 2: Human Phonemes

Make a list of simple rhyming words and a second column of words with a
different medial (middle) sound. Some examples are shown below.
bat bit
hat hit
sat sit
pat pit
Choose students to represent the sounds in the words you've chosen. You'll need one student
for each sound. In our example, we would need seven students to represent the /b/, /h/, /s/,
/p/, /a/, /t/, and /i/ sounds.
Give each of the students a card with the letter(s) that represent their sound. They should hold
the card facing the class.
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If you have younger students, you should help them by standing behind the group of phonemes
and touching the correct phoneme to step forward as you blend them into words.
If you have older students, as you say the word, the 'phonemes' should assemble themselves in
the correct order.
Sounds of Speech: Post-Test
How many phonemes are in the word RAKE?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
How many phonemes are in the word SHAKE?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
How many speech sounds are there in the English language?
a. between 26 and 28
b. between 30and 32
c. between 42 and 44
d. none of the above
There are ________ phonemes in the word rank.
a. two
b. four
c. one
d. three
Which word contains three phonemes?
a. day
b. sight
c. walk
d. cart
Digraphs such as "sh" make ___________ sound(s).
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. none of the above
Students with auditory problems may have difficulty:
a. hearing sounds in words
b. saying sounds in words
c. learning to read
d. all of the above
Phonemes are:
a. the largest unit of spoken language
b. the smallest unit of spoken language
c. the largest unit of written language
d. the smallest unit of written language
The word ___________ contains 3 phonemes.
a. pit
b. see
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c. pay
d. all of the above
Which letter combination(s) represent a single sound?
a. TH
b. IGH
c. SH
d. all of the above
https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101-course/modules/sounds-
speech/sounds-speech-post-test
I. Fluency Test
Direction: Give the opposite word that starts with letter C to the given word.
1. Rebel ________________ 6. Raw _________________
2. Vague _______________ 7. Orator _______________
3. Expensive ____________ 8. Separate _____________
4. Tragedy ______________ 9. Abstract ______________
5. End _________________ 10. Open _______________
II. Accentuation and Pronunciation
Direction: Read the word orally and put the primary accent on top of the vowel sound of the
syllable that carries the stress.
1. Infamous 6. Admirable 11. Comfortable
2. Comparable 7. Interesting 12. Laboratory
3. Preferable 8. Orator 13. Ceremony
4. February 9. Cemetery 14. Restaurant
5. Deficit 10. Colleague 15. Cashier
III. We Say or We Don’t Say
Direction: Choose which expression is correct. Circle the letter of your choice.
I have four pieces of baggage I have four bag gages

Put away the bedding Put away the beddings
We have a beautiful jewelry for sale. We have beautiful jewelries for sale.
Her costume jewelry is lovely. Her fancy jewelry is lovely.
Elifred passed by our house. Elifred passed our house.
Won’t you spend the night with us? Won’t you sleep with us?
My birthday is on the tenth. My birthday is in the tenth.
I sat at the table and ate. I sat on the table and ate.
I drink from a glass. I sat on the table and ate.
He’s taking law. He’s taking up law.
TEACHING STRATEGIES IN SPEAKING SKILLS
4,3,2
 4/3/2 is a useful technique for developing oral fluency. Learners give the same talk to
three different learners with decreasing time to do it.
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 The learners work in pairs.

 Learner A talks to Learner B and has a time limit of four minutes to do this. B just listens
and does not interrupt or question.
 When the four minutes are up, the teacher says, "Change partners".
 Learner A then moves to a new Learner B.
 The teacher says "Begin" and Learner A gives exactly the same talk to the new partner
but this time has only three minutes.
 When the three minutes are up, the teacher says "Stop. Change partners." With a new
partner, Learner A now has two minutes to talk.
 During the three deliveries of the same story, the B learners do not talk and each listens
to three different people.
 When the A learners have given their talk three times, the B learners can now go
through the same sequence, this time as speakers.
These features of 4/3/2 develop spoken fluency:

 The activity involves known vocabulary, grammar, and discourse.
 The learners have a high chance of performing successfully at a higher than normal
speed.
 There are repeated opportunities to do the same thing.
The first time that learners use this technique they will need to recount something that
happened to them. This is because the chronological order of the events will make it easier to
recall and repeat because the time sequence provides a clear structure for the talk. Fluency
development tasks need to involve language items that are already familiar to the learners,
need to involve largely familiar content, and need to include some kind of encouragement to
perform faster than usual.
APPLYING KNOWLEDGE
Activity 2.1
Reconstruct the conversation that follows. Provide the necessary
details on the blanks.
Goodluck!
Case Situation:
Mr. Marlo Cabanero, the newly elected president of the Student Government of the University of
Antique-Hamtic Campus was assigned by Mr. Arvin Subillaga, the adviser of the student-
administrative network, to secure an appointment from the office of the Dean of Student Affairs.
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The agenda called for the date to be slated with the dean is the formal introduction and oath-
taking ceremonies of the Student Government’s new set of officers.
Office of the Dean of Student Affairs

Mr. Cabanero: Excuse me!
Secretary: Yes, __________________________________________________________
Mr. Cabanero: _______________________ My name is _________________________
I’m the ________________________________________________________________
Secretary: I’m ______________________________ Can I help you?
Mr. Cabanero: ________________________, I’m, assigned by ____________________
The adviser of the Student Government to _________ from ______________________
Secretary: ___________. He’s having a _________ with ___________ the head of the English
department.
Mr. Cabanero: Ah I see. Hmn…______________________________________________
Will it be alright if I stay here for a while? Perhaps.
Secretary: Alright. Please have a seat and _____________________________________.
After fifteen minutes, the ________ between __________________________________.

The dean of Student Affairs and _________, the head of the English department has come to an
end. So, the secretary enters the Dean’s room at a snap gap, she told Mr. Cabanero that the
dean is willing to talk with the Student Government’s proxy.
Mr. Cabanero: __________________________, Sir.

Dean: _________________________________
Mr. Cabanero: I’m Marlo Cabanero, the new president of the Student Government.
Dean: __________ for winning the election. Well, how do
I think you are now ready to answer this assessment. Try SAQ 4.1.
SAQ 4.1
Write a reflection paper from your experiences in this activity based
on the guide questions:
a. What have you realized after getting information about how the
millenials/GenZ learn better?
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b. As a pre-service teacher someday, what actions will you take as you

prepare yourself to handle these types of learners?
c. How will you handle your lessons in order that you will make learners
become more engaged and effectively take accountability of their own
learning?
Well, isn’t it great? You have arrived at the finish line in this lesson!
KUDOS !!!
CHEERS FOR A JOB WELL DONE!
LESSON 5: DIGITAL LITERACY SKILLS IN THE 21ST CENTURY
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The 21st Century has redefined digital literacy. It has broadened its perspective to
include other aspects of the 21st context. The millennial students are generally tech-
savvy, and digital natives. They practically know how to go about a tablet, an ipad,
smartphones or laptops, better than anyone else. This suggest their digital skills.
Nevertheless, are all students digital literates?
This lesson will focus on digital skills and digital literacy as a response to the 21 st
century developments. Let us have first a run through of the learning outcomes set for
this lesson.

have:
Identified and described the elements of digital literacies; and
Conducted self-evaluation on level of digital literacy skill.
STARTING ACCURATELY
Thinking on how to use the digital tools, accessing information, and exhibiting
ways of working in a globally competitive contexts, together with skills in the 21 st
Century refer to the digital literacies. These literacies include: Cyber Literacy or Digital
Literacy; Media Literacy; Arts and Creativity Literacy; Financial Literacy; and
Multicultural Literacy or Global Understanding.
Do you feel confident when you search for information in the internet?
Do you easily locate relevant resources?
Do you think you are capable of optimizing the use of the online tools such
as facebook or google when studying or doing school work?
How do you manage your digital identity?
In five minutes, write a short paragraph describing your best experience when
you surf the internet for a particular activity. This best experience should describe how
information that you culled from the net helped you. Start writing now!
Digital literacies are the individual’s capabilities to be able to effectively and
responsibly function and perform in a digital society. The term itself was
coined by Paul Gilster in 1997 and it came from the discussion of the concepts on:
 Visual literacy when images and non-verbal symbols try to capture the
knowledge;
 Technological literacy requiring one to be able to use technology in
addressing the need;
 Computer literacy, which in the 1980’s started to become a household
item manipulated to achieve one’s target; and
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 Information literacy which refers to the finding, evaluating, using and

sharing information.
The Digital Literacies

Media Literacy
It is an ability to critically read information or content and utilize multimedia in
creatively producing communications.
Information Literacy
It refers to how we locate information from the web and interpreting while
evaluating its validity in order that it can be shared.
ICT Literacy
It refers to knowing how to select and use digital devices, applications or services
to accomplish tasks requiring the use of the internet.
Communications and Collaboration
Refers to one’s capabilities in being able to participate in the digital networks in
the teaching and learning context.
Identity Management
It refers to being able to understand how to ensure safety and security in
managing online identity and foster a positive digital reputation.
Learning Skills
It refers to ways of knowing how to study and learn in a technology enriched
environment; this is knowing how to utilize technology in addressing the need to
learn efficiently.
Digital Scholarship
It refers to being able to link and participate in professional and research
practices.
FOUR C’s OF THE 21ST CENTURY SKILLS
A 21st century education is about giving students the skills they need to succeed
in this new world, and helping them grow the confidence to practice those skills. With
so much information readily available to them, 21st century skills focus more on making
sense of that information, sharing and using it in smart ways.
The coalition P21 (Partnership for 21st Century Learning) has identified four
‘Skills for Today’:
 Creativity
 Critical thinking
 Communication
 Collaboration
These four themes are not to be understood as units or even subjects, but as
themes that should be overlaid across all curriculum mapping and strategic planning.
They should be part of every lesson in the same way as literacy and numeracy.
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Creativity
It is about thinking through
information in new ways,
making new connections
and coming up with
innovative solutions to
problems.
Critical thinking
It is about analyzing
information and critiquing
claims.
Communication
It refers to understanding
things well enough to share
them clearly with other people.
Collaboration
It is about teamwork and the collective genius of a group that is more than the sum of
its parts.
There are other skills that are important, which fall within these four areas:
 Entrepreneurship can be considered a skill of its own.
 Inquiry and problem solving are key
 Emotional intelligence (EQ) is one of the most important keys to successful work
and relationships.
The bottom line?

Education needs to be all about empowering students with transferable skills that
will hold up to a rapidly changing world, not prescribed content that has been chosen
for its past relevance.
Characteristics of the 21st Century Learners

The characteristics of 21st century learners are discussed in four categories:
The Technological Learner

The 21st century learners are referred to as the “screen generation” because they
are so much more visually oriented than any generation before them. Because of the
over use of technology, the following negative characteristics of the 21st century learner
have been identified.
The 21st century learners are:

 attention deficit because they are not accustomed to interruptions
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 don’t use their imagination, seldom read books and have smaller
vocabularies.
 They also use short communication styles, possess ineffective reading
skills and have poor spelling abilities.
However, positive characteristics have also been identified for the learners of the
21st century, namely:
 better coordination and motor skills and more accessible internet use.
 use wiki’s, blogs, mind maps on Bubble Us and can make movies on
“Microsoft Movie Maker”.
 have a lot more foreknowledge than any other generation before them
as a result of access to the internet.
 are able to apply theoretical knowledge in society because they learn by
“doing”.
 have a metacognitive awareness, where learners are taught to think
about how they learn.
The Less-Technological Learner

Although there are learners that become more technologically literate
every day. Although technological advances for the education system have been
made, it is easy to think that all schools enjoys these advantages According to
the National Education Infrastructure Management System (2015).
The question is this: How will these learners participate in the larger
world operations if they do not have access to technology?
The answer is easy: the characteristics of the 21st century learner are not
only based on technological progress, but also communication skills. These
learners’ innovation skills, however, can be improved because these learners do
not repeat other people’s ideas, but instead use their own common sense and
introduce new interesting perspectives to the world.
The All-Knowing Learner

The 21st century learner knows “everything”! It is said that the 21 st
century learner has on the following three types of knowledge:
 Declarative knowledge (knowledge about themselves and other learners)
 Procedural knowledge (knowledge of strategies)
 Conditional knowledge (knowledge about which strategy to use)
These are important characteristics of 21st century learners because the

learners can use this knowledge outside of the classroom context. Self-discipline in
study is another important trait that these learners possess. These learners expect
interaction and are highly sociable.
The Literate Learner

Learners of the 21st century possess communication skills, are adaptable
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and innovative and can easily solve complex problems. They are comfortable
working with technology in order to broaden their knowledge. The 21st century
learner also has civic literacy (are informed about government organizations), global
awareness, financial literacy, healthy literacy, environmental literacy, visual
literacy, cooperative association, critical thinking and problem solving skills and
show creativity and innovation. These learners possess more qualities of leadership
and accountability, have media skills and have technological literacy.
Digital Literacy Skills vs Digital Literacy

What was once called typing class is now known as technology class. Gone are
the days where computer class was spent creating word processing documents in MS
DOS format. The networked world in which students exist demands an education that
prepares students to produce and consume information in a variety of formats most
particularly in digital format.
Eight (8) digital literacy skills are identified by Lynch (2017) in order to become
digitally literate.
Coding
It is a universal language and one that is useful whether a technical career is
pursued or not. For example, having a basic understanding of HTML, CSS, and
the like creates a shared understanding and a sense of knowing what can and
cannot be done with web pages.
Collaboration
In the online environment requires deliberation. Students should be taught basic
project management and group work essentials to navigate between multiple
platforms. Utilizing tools such Google Docs allows a student to begin
experimenting with effective online collaboration.
Cloud Software
It is an essential part of document management. The cloud is used to store
everything from photos to research projects to term papers and music. While
students are likely used to saving their pictures, they may not have the necessary
processes in place to save their academic work in a way that is discoverable and
accessible.
Word Processing Software
It is often used in conjunction with collaboration and cloud software. Google has
a suite of products, but there are other options as well. Microsoft Online
increasingly integrates with different storage and management solutions such as
Drop Box. Each of these platforms works a little differently, and students should
have the opportunity to engage with several of them.
Screencasting
It makes it easy for the novice video creator to make simple yet effective videos.
This is a useful skill for explaining a topic as well as articulating what you are
thinking. Ideal tools for teaching students how to screencast include Screencast-
o-Matic and Camtasia. Through screencasting, a student can learn more about
making accessible content.
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Personal Archiving
It takes into consideration that we leave a massive digital footprint. Without a
plan in place to archive this information, it can quickly turn into a web of
unfindable and not useful information. Students should be taught concepts such
as metadata, tagging, keywords, and categories succinctly and directly to help
them start thinking about how they are represented online.
Information Evaluation
It has always been necessary. However, with the ease at which all people can
create content and build knowledge, this skill becomes essential. Staying abreast
of developments in information literacy and software engineering will paint a
holistic picture of online information trends.
Social Media Savvy
It is important because social media serves different purposes depending on the
user, the technology, and the identified need. Students need to be given
instruction and an opportunity to practice using various social media. For
example, students should realize that Twitter is particularly useful for staying
current on the latest news in the field while Flipgrid is great at building a sense of
community.
Despite the commonly held conception that students are digital

natives, research has repeatedly shown that this is not the case. Focusing on the 8 skills
described above will guide us to increased digital fluency where we can act ethically,
responsibly, and productively.
Dynamic Websites
In contrast with static websites, dynamic websites can change their
appearance and behavior based on the users’ actions.
For example, let’s take a look at google.com. Google search is a dynamic website,
which means that its URL changes depending on the users’ location, credentials and
search parameters. It also recognizes different forms of user input like keywords, voice
command, and image upload.
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Notice that the address is not in HTML format and it changes depending on
what you searched for.
Social Media
Video lesson: https://youtu.be/YjJeZQWOfw4
One of the biggest elements of Web 2.0, “social media” is a term used to
define applications and websites that people use to make online social
interactions. These social interactions include sharing information, sending
messages and exchanging ideas.
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Social media relies on users to contribute web contents. For example, Instagram
lets their users upload, manage and promote their own pictures. Facebook allows users
to build their own profiles, share files, and form online communities. These websites do
not develop and publish their own web content. Instead, they merely provide a platform
for their users to do so.
Wiki
Wiki Derived from the Hawaiian work wikiwiki, which means “quick” or “super
fast”, a wiki is a website that allows visitors to add or edit its contents. Each wiki page is
about a single topic that is presented in a manner similar to an encyclopedia or an
educational article. Users with the proper permissions can edit these pages. To ensure
quality, administrators can check these wikis and determine if the information
contributed by the users is correct and unbiased. Wikis have become popular because of
their simplicity and the huge amount of information that they contain. As you may
already know, Wikipedia is the world’s largest and most popular wiki website. The
English Wikipedia alone has more than 5 million articles. Globally, there are more than
40 million Wikipedia articles written in 293 languages. (source:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Size_comparisons).
Web 3.0
Some people are already referring to the current generation of the Internet
as Web 3.0.
Web 3.0’s main characteristics include, but are not limited to:
Real-time
Events and information are made available to users as they happen.
Ubiquitous
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Users are always connected to the Internet.

Machine learning
Computers and mobile devices can create data and make decisions based on
the user’s previous actions.
These characteristics may sound familiar because we already use them today.
For example, Facebook recently released a live stream feature that allows users to
broadcast live events. Youtube can now suggest videos that you might like, based on the
videos that you previously watched.
Video lesson: https://youtu.be/oZQd1c3YVuI
Web Applications
Web applications are internet-based programs that are accessed through
web browsers. Web applications represent the next step in the evolution of the
Internet. Unlike earlier websites with mostly read-only features and very little user
interaction, modern websites offer many different kinds of services to clients.
This opened new opportunities in entertainment, business and learning. Most of
the websites that we use today are web applications. They allow us to do more than just
reading text in a screen. Youtube, for example is a web application that is used to
upload and watch videos. Ebay and other online shopping websites are virtual
marketplaces where people can buy and sell items. Social media and Wikis, which will
be further discussed in this chapter, are also web applications.
Web Apps vs Native Apps

Native applications are programs that are directly installed in a computer or
mobile device. Unlike web apps that are accessed through web browsers, native apps
can be run independently in the computer or device that they are installed in.
Here are some examples of popular native apps and their web app counterparts:
Type of App Native App Web App

Email Microsoft Outlook Gmail
Text editor Microsoft Word Google Sheets
Photo editor Adobe Photoshop Pixlr
Music streaming Spotify (Mac, PC, or mobile) Spotify Web Player
Social media Facebook (mobile app) Facebook (browser-based)
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the name given to Internet-based networks that are used
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to store, manage, and share resources and information. To better understand this
concept, first we need to learn some new terms:
Server, client, and service
A server is a computer that does tasks for other computers. A task that is done
by a server is called a service. The computer that accesses the services that are provided
by a server is called a client.
For example, in a Local Area Network (LAN), a print server tells a printer to print
documents that are sent by client computers. The clients don’t have direct access to the
printer. Instead, they connect to the server, which then tells the printer to print the
documents.
The cloud
First of all, “the cloud” is not an actual cloud. The cloud is a network of servers
that provide different services. For example, one server may be tasked to collect
information from other servers that are tasked to store them. All these servers work
together to provide one unified service to the client
Video lesson: https://youtu.be/ae_DKNwK_ms
Benefits of Cloud Computing

Reduced Cost
Subscribing to cloud-based services is a lot cheaper than traditional options such
as building your own programs, buying your own hardware, and hiring more people.
Flexibility
Cloud-based services can be upgraded or downgraded to suit the clients’ need.
Subscribers can upgrade their subscriptions to gain access to bigger data storage, more
powerful tools, and exclusive features. On the other hand, subscribers on a tight budget
can downgrade their subscriptions to reduce their expenses but still get the necessary
services.
Mobility
Because cloud-based services rely on the Internet, clients can access them using
computers and mobile devices in different locations. For example, an employee can save
his work in the cloud and access it at home or on vacation.
Better Collaboration
The cloud enables people in different location to work on the same project. A
multi-national team can communicate and share information and resources with one
another using cloud based services.
Updated Software
Providers of cloud-based services compete with each other in delivering the
best services to clients. Because of this, cloud-based apps are constantly improved and
these improvements are immediately made available to the clients.
Groupware
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Collaborative software or groupware are programs or sets of programs

that people use to achieve a common goal. These tools allow people to share
information and communicate with each other even if they are in different
locations. In the ICT community, it is now a common practice for people in
different countries to work together on a single project.
Types of Groupware
Synchronous groupware
These are groupware or collaborative tools that allow the sharing of
information in real-time. This means that the recipient can instantly see the
information that was sent or shared. Synchronous groupware includes, but
are not limited to:
 Online chat
This is a technology that enables two or more people to send and receive
short messages instantly. Messages sent by all parties are displayed in a chat
room or chat box and can be viewed by all members.
 VoIP
It is safe to say that VoIP is simply an Internet-powered telephone
service. Short for “voice over Internet protocol”, this technology allows people to
make voice calls through the Internet.
 Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing is the collection several ICT technologies that allow 2
or more people to communicate through real-time audio and video. The most
popular example is Skype.
Asynchronous groupware
Information shared using asynchronous groupware are not instantly
displayed to other members of the group. Most of the time, participants are free
to choose when they want to view the shared information. Asynchronous
groupware includes, but are not limited to:
 Email
As discussed in a previous chapter, emails are sent and stored in the
recipient’s inbox. The recipient can then read the email when he logs in.
 Online forums
Also known as message boards, forums are online services where people can
post messages for others to read and reply to. Forums are virtually identical to
comment sections in social networking sites.
 Wiki
By now, you must know what a wiki is. Wikis qualify as asynchronous
collaboration tools because they can be edited by members of an online
community.
 Shared calendar
A shared calendar is simply an online calendar with many users. Shared
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calendars are used by groups to coordinate time and schedule activities.
What to remember:
Some apps and services have both synchronous and asynchronous features.
Skype, for example focuses primarily on video conferencing but also has a feature
where users can record and send voice messages.
Blended Learning
The term blended learning is generally applied to the practice of using both
online and in-person learning experiences when teaching students.
In a blended-learning course, for example, students might attend a class taught
by a teacher in a traditional classroom setting, while also independently completing
online components of the course outside of the classroom.
Also called hybrid learning and mixed-mode learning, blended-learning
experiences may vary widely in design and execution from school to school
(https://www.edglossary.org/blended-learning/).
Kinds of Blended Learning

As we face the threats of the pandemic, we look for ways to give students a
personalized learning experience without expanding our budgets, blended learning can
be an effective option. This approach to schooling combines face-to-face instruction
with online learning and has yielded strong results since officially being researched as an
education strategy.
In addition to considering the age of the students, the reasons for choosing a
blended model generally dictate which of the six models they choose to implement
Face-to-Face Driver Model

Of all the blended learning models, face-to-face driver is the closest to a typical
school structure. With this approach, the introduction of online instruction is
decided on a case-by-case basis, meaning only certain students in a given class will
participate in any form of blended learning. The face-to-face driver approach allows
students who are struggling or working above their grade level to progress at their
own pace using technology in the classroom.
Rotation Model
In this form of blended learning, students rotate between different stations on a
fixed schedule – either working online or spending face-to-face time with the
teacher. The rotational model is more widely used in elementary schools.
Flex Model
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Schools who are supporting a

large number of non-traditional or
at-risk students often choose the flex
model of blended learning. With this
approach, material is primarily
delivered online. Although teachers
are in the room to provide on-site
support as needed, learning is
primarily self-guided, as students
independently learn and practice
new concepts in a digital
environment.
Online Lab Model
As schools face increasingly
tighter resource constraints, the
online lab model of blended learning
is a viable option for helping students
complete courses, including those
not offered at the specific school site.
In this scenario, students learn
entirely online but travel to a
dedicated computer lab to complete
their coursework. Adults supervise
the lab, but they are not trained
teachers. This not only allows schools
to offer courses for which they have
no teacher or not enough teachers,
but also allows students to work at a
pace and in a subject area that suits
them without affecting the learning
environment of other students.
Self-Blend Model
Popular in high schools, the self-
blend model of blended learning
gives students the opportunity to
take classes beyond what is already
offered at their school. While these
individuals will attend a traditional
school environment, they also opt to
supplement their learning through
online courses offered remotely. In
order for this method of blended
learning to be successful, students
must be highly self-motivated.
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Online Driver Model

At the opposite end of the spectrum from face-to-face driver we have online
driver, which is a form of blended learning in which students work remotely and
material is primarily delivered via an online platform. Although face-to-face check-
ins are optional, students can usually chat with teachers online if they have
questions. This model of blended learning is ideal for students who need more
flexibility and independence in their daily schedules. This approach is becoming
increasingly popular – each year, the number of students participating in online
driver programs increase by about 15 percent.
APPLYING KNOWLEDGE
Activity 6.1
Read and understand the cases presented below. Discuss how you
will respond to the situation or dilemma and give your best advice
you could give and explain. Write your answers in a yellow pad
paper.
Tasks:
Situation 1:
Meeting somebody online and was asked her phone number and address. She
confides in you and you noticed that she seems to have been hooked in chatting
with this “online friend.” You know that there is a possibility that she will be
invited for a personal meeting.
What advice would you give to her? Why?
Situation 2:
Your best friend and you do not seem to like a group of classmates. You were
asked to take pictures of them in school activity and since you have the file, your
best friend chided you to distort their picture and post it on the internet. What
should you do?
I think you are now ready to answer this assessment. Try SAQ 6.1.
SAQ 6.1
Examine your social networking profile. In which sites are you
active? Put a check mark in the appropriate box. Write your
answer in a yellow pad paper. Good luck kasUbAys!
48
Task: Social Media Checklist
Social Not at all Rarely Sometimes Most of the time

Networking Site
Facebook
Twitter
Linked
Google
Youtube
Instagram
Tumbler
1. In what way could you think you can use these social media platform as an
educational tool later on if you will be teaching?
2. Describe clearly in a descriptive essay how you can appropriately utilize these in
your lesson.
Kudos for a great job!
You have arrived at the finish line!
Treat yourself with a relaxing walk or sleep after you

answered these tasks. You deserve it!
Or show your best moves in a tiktok video!
Keep safe everybody and see you all soon!!

God bless you all!
Sir Barcebal
DeVito, J. A. (2000). The elements of public speaking (7th ed.). New York, NY: Longman.
https://www.uj.edu.sa/Files/1001210/Subjects/Chapter%205%20Listening%20Skills
%20%20.pdf
48
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/active-listening-activities
https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/esl-listening-assessment/
References
Alberta Assessment Consortium. Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning. 2nd ed.
Edmonton, AB: Alberta Assessment Consortium, 2005.
. Refocus: Looking at Assessment for Learning. Edmonton, AB: Alberta

Assessment Consortium, 2003.
Burns, Marilyn. "Looking at how students reason." Educational Leadership 63, 3 (2005), pp.
26–31.
48
Davies, Anne. Finding Proof of Learning in a One-to-One Computing Classroom. Courtenay,
BC: Connections Publishing, 2004.
McNamee, Gillian D. and Jie-Qi Chen. "Dissolving the line between assessment and teaching."
Educational Leadership 63, 3 (2005), pp. 72–77.
Sparks, Dennis. "Assessment without victims: An interview with Rick Stiggins." Journal of Staff
Development 20, 2 (1999). http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/jsd/stiggins202.cfm
(Accessed July 13, 2007).
Stiggins, Richard J. et al. Classroom Assessment for Student Learning: Doing It Right—Using
It Well.Portland, OR: Assessment Training Institute, 2004.
Alberta Assessment Consortium (AAC)
The Alberta Assessment Consortium (AAC) develops assessment resources that are available
to teachers.
Visit the AAC Web site at http://www.aac.ab.ca to find:
current information about classroom assessment and evaluation

professional resources available for download or purchase
professional development opportunities
sample performance tasks and rubrics.
https://english.binus.ac.id/2018/10/11/the-four-speaking-skills/

https://esolonline.tki.org.nz/ESOL-Online/Planning-for-my-students-needs/Resources-
for-planning/Teaching-and-learning-sequences/Archived-resources-Unit-
standards/Marine-mammals-Writing-information-texts
48

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Introduction to Linguistics

CHAPTER I: TEACHING THE LISTENING SKILLS

Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of this lesson, you should

10. If I am bored or uninterested in what a speaker has to say, I

 Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the

Listening is Not the Same as Hearing

Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps:

STEPS OF THE LISTENING PROCESS

SIGNIFICANCE OF LISTENING SKILLS

The importance of learning how to listen are the following:

Based on the research of:

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING (Fessenden, P., et al.)

HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER

FACTORS AFFECTING THE LISTENING PROCESS

HOW TO BECOME AN ACTIVE LISTENER

1. Approach each dialogue with the goal to learn something.

KEY ELEMENTS OF ACTIVE LISTENING

 Respond openly and honestly, with an appropriate tone of voice

COMMON BAD HABITS IN LISTENING

 Fact Check: Key issues

WHY, WHEN AND HOW PEOPLE LISTEN

COMBINING SOLER & VERBAL FEEDBACK

 Give the speaker your full attention

 Offer the speaker regular encouragement

 Reflect to check your understanding

Situations Item to Pay Attention To

Part II: Essay

Part III: Fill in the blanks

When you're down and (1)________

You just call out my name

If the sky above you

You just call out my name

Winter, spring, summer, or fall yeah

Test II: Silent Messages

Test III: A - Body Language

STRATEGIES IN TEACHING LISTENING

Some possible Teacher Inquiry questions:

The following are some strategies in teaching listening to students:

Movements to go with listening to the text about Tectonic Plates.

Note: A sample video of this strategy could be accessed in this url:

Some other forms of dictation include:

Shared Dictation - Flowering Plants

Flowering plants ____________________________________. There are many

The outer green parts are called ____________. _______________________ when it

The pistil is made up of a _________________, _______________

Listen-up is an activity for developing fluency in recognizing word/sound

How to Use Picture Matching

 Each sentence is read out twice.

Benefits of Picture Matching

Example of Picture Matching

Teaching and learning sequence planning examples:

‘You be the judge’

b. Talking about a film

 Students need to record details of elements of film. Under each heading of

Background Director Place Atmosphere

d. Cinematography - language of film

 Skim the text - what do you think the text is about?

CHAPTER II: ASSESSING THE LISTENING SKILLS

The outer green parts are called . ___________ when it

The pistil is made up of a ___, _