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Local Food in Tourism: An Investigation of the New Zealand South

Island's Bed and Breakfast Sector's Use and Perception of Local
Food

Article  in  Tourism Review International · April 2006

DOI: 10.3727/154427206776330571

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Tourism Review International, Vol. 9, pp. 00–00 1544-2721/06 $20.00 + .00
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LOCAL FOOD IN TOURISM: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE

NEW ZEALAND SOUTH ISLAND’S BED AND
BREAKFAST SECTOR’S USE AND PERCEPTION OF LOCAL FOOD

MARGUNN NUMMEDAL and C. MICHAEL HALL

Department of Tourism, University of Otago, New Zealand

Abstract: This study’s aim was to investigate the New Zealand South Island’s bed and breakfast
(B&B) sector’s use and perception of local food produce. In 2003 a survey was mailed to every South
Island B&B listed in The New Zealand Bed & Breakfast Book. Of the total sample of 570 B&Bs, 247
completed the questionnaire, providing a response rate of 43%. The results indicated that the B&B
sector show a great overall interest in local foods. Not only did the majority of respondents indicate
that they use a lot of local produce in their cooking, but they also indicated that they would very much
like to increase usage. Respondents also found it important to support local food producers. However,
availability and reliability affect the sourcing of local produce. Respondents also undervalued their
own role as promoters of local food towards visitors. The study concludes that there is a need to
“educate” members of local food networks, including the B&B sector, about the positive benefits of
food and tourism relationships to all sectors, with respect to increased visitor interest and satisfaction
as well as the development of longer-term promotional and purchase relationships as part of the
consumer value chain.

Key words: Local food; Bed and breakfast; Food tourism; Culinary tourism; Networks;
New Zealand

Introduction food in tourism has great potential to generate in-

come for both producers and providers of food. Fur-
Food is a vital part of the tourism product. No thermore, food preparation and service contribute
matter if they want to or not, or where and when substantially to tourism employment because of it
they are traveling, people have to eat. It should there- is often relatively labor intensive (Selwood, 2003).
fore be no surprise that “more of the tourist dollar is Tourism-related food production is therefore po-
spent on food and beverage than any other service” tentially a significant mechanism for economic de-
(Mill & Morrison, 1998, p. 190). This suggests that velopment. However, with respect to the potential

Address correspondence to Professor C. Michael Hall, Department of Tourism, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New
Zealand. Tel: +64-3-479-8520, Fax: +64-3-479-9034; E-mail: cmhall@business.otago.ac.nz

1
2 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

contribution of food to regional development a criti- Tourism New Zealand (2001) regard B&Bs as
cal issue is whether food production and prepara- being particularly attractive to FITs (free indepen-
tion that visitors consume occurs locally or not. As dent travelers), who constitute a key target market
Bèlisle (1983) noted over 20 years ago, “As food for the New Zealand tourism industry (Hall &
accounts for approximately one-third of tourist ex- Rusher, 2004). Such “interactive travelers” suppos-
penditure, the proportion of food imports for tourist edly have a desire for more “authentic” experiences
consumption can affect significantly the economic including not only contact with “local” people and
and social impact of tourism” (p. 498). Neverthe- the use of small-scale, “boutique” accommodation
less, the potential benefits of food and tourism rela- where they can supposedly have more personal ex-
tionships for regional development are not just iso- periences, but also local food. Tucker and Keen
lated to consumption. In certain types of special (2002) found that the most important reasons guests
interest tourism food actually becomes a central gave for staying in B&Bs were “to have a relation-
motivation for travel (Hall & Mitchell, 2001). In- ship with local people,” “to have the opportunity to
deed, Telfer and Hashimoto (2003) note how food talk with them,” “to get to know the lifestyle of New
in tourism has developed from being a necessity to Zealanders,” and “to learn about their culture.” These
become an additional “tourist experience” that may motivational factors indicate that the B&B guest, by
enhance the overall evaluation of the travel experi- inviting the host to share their local knowledge with
ence. The maximization of economic linkages be- them, is actively seeking increased knowledge about
tween local producers and providers and tourists is distinct local and regional characteristics and cul-
therefore of great importance in the promotion of ture. Therefore, it is potentially very important that
local and regional food and food production and local food producers and B&Bs cooperate in order
therefore maximizing the potential contribution of to create a more attractive product that is focused
tourism to regional development (Hall, 2004; Telfer towards visitors. Local food producers may gain
& Wall, 1996). increased profit as a result of B&B businesses’ use
This study investigates the relationship between and promotion of their products, and the B&B op-
local food produce and a specific accommodation erator might enhance their accommodation product
sector, the bed and breakfast (B&B) industry, within by offering their guests samples of local food, and
the geographical context of the South Island of New thereby give the guest a sensory local experience.
Zealand. Intersectoral relations in food and tour- However, although some research has examined link-
ism have been relatively little studied (e.g., Smith ages between the accommodation sector and local
& Hall, 2003; Telfer & Wall, 1996). New Zealand food (e.g., Reynolds, 1993; Telfer & Wall, 1996),
is regarded as a good location in which to under- there is little empirical examination of the extent to
take such a study because food is a significant part which B&Bs actually utilize local foods. This study
of New Zealand’s international tourism promotion therefore investigates the New Zealand South
while the New Zealand B&B sector has also wit- Island’s bed and breakfast industry’s use and per-
nessed enormous growth since the late 1990s (Hall ception of local food produce.
& Rusher, 2004). In addition, rural New Zealand
locations have consistently sought to diversify their Literature Review
economic base and add value to agricultural pro-
Food Tourism
duction in order to increase returns in an increas-
ingly competitive business environment. For ex- The Enteleca Research and Consultancy report
ample, several policy documents have promoted the (2000) on tourists’ attitudes towards regional and
potential economic development benefits of the local food in the UK states that there is no single
relationship between the accommodation and food universally agreed or adopted definition of local food
sectors in New Zealand, with the South Island be- and drink. Consumers make little distinction between
ing far more dependent on agriculture as an eco- “local produce” and “local specialties” (Hall,
nomic activity than the more urbanized North Is- Sharples, & Smith, 2003), a situation that is further
land (Hall, 2004; Hall, Longo, Mitchell, & Johnson, confused by the increasing global availability of “re-
2000; Smith & Hall, 2003). gional” products (Enteleca Research Consultancy,
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 3

2000). Enteleca adopted the definition of local food eating establishments, and other involved stakehold-
as “food and drink that is produced or grown in the ers actively promote and visualize local food pro-
local area or local specialty food that has a local duce. Unfortunately, at this stage a comparable study
identity” and that includes “fresh ‘farm gate’ sales, to that of Enteleca in the UK is not available in New
regionally branded and locally produced products, Zealand, although there is evidence of producer and
and local specialty products, cheeses, meat, pies, etc., restaurant interest in providing local foods for tour-
that are in some way distinctive to the area or unique” ists (Smith & Hall, 2003).
(p. 11). In other words, this definition indicates that Interest in local food by tourists may serve to pro-
local food is not only about locally grown produce mote local agricultural practices and foodways (Hall,
but should also include food that requires raw mate- Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003). Such connections be-
rial from outside the area, but that is processed lo- tween tourism and food production have been re-
cally and thereby given a local or regional identity. garded as a mechanism to support sustainable agri-
Significantly, a similar approach is used in many cultural practices. This idea is also reflected in Butler
farmers’ markets throughout the world (Hall, and Hall (1998), who emphasized the importance
Mitchell & Sharples, 2003). This approach towards of maintaining rural communities where people are
defining local food will be used throughout this ar- engaged in traditional or related rural activities, such
ticle. as family farm based agriculture. “Sustainable tour-
The growing interest and demand from tourists ism is therefore as much about sustaining rural cul-
for local fare is very much rooted in the changing ture and identity as it is the physical environment”
patterns of tourism, particularly the growth of “spe- (Butler & Hall, 1998, p. 255). In other words, sus-
cial interest” (Hall & Mitchell, 2001) and “new” tainable rural tourism is tourism that is developed
tourism (Poon, 1993). According to Poon (1993), and managed in a way that supports local commu-
new tourists are searching more for real and authen- nities and local agriculture, for example, through
tic cultural and natural experiences. As food has been promotion and use of locally grown food by tourist
recognized as an important part of local culture and providers such as tour operators, hotels, restaurants,
identity (Richards, 2002), trying out local food spe- and B&Bs (Hall, Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003). This
cialties may serve to enrich the overall experience is further emphasized by Telfer (1996), who argues
of tourists seeking to learn more about a different that one of the important elements of sustainable
and authentic culture. Indeed, Reynolds (1995) ar- tourism development are the links within local com-
gues that food may perhaps be “one of the last areas munities, and links between tourism and agriculture.
of authenticity that is affordable on a regular basis “If the tourism sector relies on local agriculture prod-
by the tourist” (p. 49). ucts there will be an increased multiplier effect and
According to Enteleca Research and Consultancy the local agricultural sector and food supply network
(2000, p. 3), 72% of people visiting four study re- will be stimulated” (Telfer, 1996, p. X). Similarly,
gions in the UK took an interest in local foods dur- Torres (2001) also recognizes the significance of
ing their visit. The vast majority of these people in- small-scale and family farm-based agricultural pro-
dicated that they were not actively seeking it out, duction for tourism as a means for improving the
but were happy to try it when they came across it. rural community, concluding that “enhancing tour-
The same survey also asked people that already had ism and local agriculture links represent an impor-
eaten out about values associated with local food tant mechanism for stimulating local production and
and drink, specifically the extent to which the use of improving distribution of tourism benefits to
local food and drink contributed to enjoyment of a rural . . . populations” (Torres, 2001, p. X).
meal. The results indicated an “extremely wide- If local foodstuffs gain greater importance as a
spread perception that the use of local food and drink part of the overall tourist experience there should
is essential to securing the attributes of quality and then be greater opportunities for local farmers to
taste” (p. 31). However, as the Enteleca survey expand and diversify their product. Not only will a
showed, many visitors have to be exposed to local greater demand for local foodstuff from tourists be
foods in order to take interest in them, and therefore beneficial for the producer of the raw material, it
it will be of great importance that food producers, will also enhance the local economy in general as
4 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

consumers from outside the local areas have the net serve to stimulate local awareness and interest, and
effect of generating direct demand for tourism pro- assist not only in diversification, and maintenance
viders and a “flow on” to other businesses including of plant and animal variety, but may also encourage
food providers and their suppliers (Eastham, 2003). community pride and reinforcement of local iden-
This will in turn increase income of local residents, tity and culture” (Hall, 2002, p. 48).
attract and/or retain businesses in the area, and
thereby help create or maintain employment The New Zealand B&B Industry
(Eastham, 2003; Hall, Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003).
The combination of food and tourism may allow There has been, and still is, a notable lack of re-
for innovative thinking within food production, and search on the New Zealand B&B industry’s role in
created opportunities for the diversification of rural the overall tourism product (Hall & Rusher, 2004).
economies (Hall, 2002). In addition, the relation- However, more recently there have been studies
ship of food with tourism has been utilized to more undertaken on the entrepreneurial characteristics of
powerful brand national and regional foods as well the New Zealand bed and breakfast sector (Hall &
as supply tourists directly in the anticipation that this Rusher, 2004; Rusher & Hall, 2002), and on the role
may lead to further demand when the tourists return of small home-hosted accommodation businesses in
to their respective countries (Hall & Mitchell, 2002). regional tourism development and the host—guest
At the local level, Hall and Mitchell further note that experience (Tucker & Keen, 2002).
crucial to this task is the development of local food According to Rusher and Hall (2002) the typical
networks. B&B businesses in New Zealand are small, offering
Networking refers to a wide range of cooperative two or three bedrooms. Furthermore, Rusher and
behavior between otherwise competing organiza- Hall identified the typical B&B business to be a
tions and between organizations linked through eco- lifestyle business where one of the B&B operators’
nomic and social relationships and transactions (Hall, goals when beginning the business was to “meet in-
Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003). According to Hall and teresting people.” However, as Rusher and Hall em-
Mitchell (2002), networking “allows for the pool- phasized, while lifestyle is important, profit is also
ing of resources between small enterprises” (p. 204), significant, with one of the key differences between
and possible strategies for promoting sustainable lifestyle and other entrepreneurs is that they are try-
food systems at a local level might be by, for ex- ing to increase yield without increasing the size of
ample, the development of local farmers market and the business. In a similar fashion to the B&B hosts’
“buy local” campaigns. The development of farm- wish to meet other people, previous studies have
ers’ markets may be of particularly significance for shown that B&B guests chose this form for accom-
the relationship between local food and tourism as modation, among other motivating factors, to get to
such markets gather several producers at one par- know the lifestyle of New Zealanders and to learn
ticular place, and thereby make their products more about their culture (Tucker & Keen, 2002).
visible and available for both tourist providers and The host–guest relationship has been recognized
tourists themselves, as well as consumers in gen- as much closer and more intense within the B&B
eral. Furthermore, farmers’ market, farm, or cellar sector than the interaction between host and guest
door sales secure more direct profit to the producers provided by larger forms of tourist accommodation
as such systems avoid the wholesaler–retailer com- (Tucker & Keen, 2002). In their study of the role of
ponents of the classic industrial food supply chain small home-hosted accommodation businesses in
(Hall & Mitchell, 2002). regional tourism development and experience,
It should also be noted that the production and Tucker and Keen noted that many hosts saw them-
promotion of local food in tourism is not solely about selves as “being representatives of the New Zealand
increasing the economic and financial benefits. Tour- people, and they felt particularly suited to the job if
ist interest in and demand for locally produced food they held some particular aspect of local knowledge,
and local food specialties can enhance individual and such as history or wildlife, or a ‘local’ skill such as
community pride as well as be beneficial for home-preserve making” (Tucker & Keen, 2002, p.
biodiversity. “Outsider interest in local produce may X). Furthermore, they found that many hosts ex-
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 5

tended their host role to encompass guiding of guests about 1500 listings of B&Bs in the online version
around the area, and promotion of the local region. of the same book in late 2003 (The New Zealand
At the same time guests expressed that they actively Bed and Breakfast Book, 2003).
seek this sort of “local knowledge” from their hosts A questionnaire was developed that provided
and that this, as well as the ability of hosts to “per- questions on demographic and business character-
sonally” recommend a good local restaurant, often istics, the respondent’s use of and relationship to
was a part of their reason for staying in B&B ac- local food and local food produce, and questions
commodation (Tucker & Keen, 2002). This indicates regarding food practices and attitude towards use of
that there is a great opportunity for local restaurants local food. Some questions on business characteris-
or local food producers to promote their products. tics were adapted from Rusher and Hall’s (2002)
Indeed, the close relationship that occurs between study into the New Zealand accommodation sector,
host and guests gives the host a significant level of and many of the questions directly on use and per-
control over their guests’ further behaviors and ex- ception of local food were either adopted or adapted
periences in the wider area. According to Tucker and from Smith and Hall’s (2003) study on food and wine
Keen, many B&B guests reported that they felt more tourism in New Zealand. The questionnaire was ac-
or less obliged to do what the host recommended companied by a cover letter that explained the pur-
because the advice were given through the expres- pose of the survey. All other ethical procedures were
sion of hospitality, hence it would be inappropriate complied with.
to ignore the recommendations. However, in order A total of 570 questionnaires were mailed out with
to be able to promote and sell local produce, there freepost return envelopes in the beginning of Octo-
has to be a certain supply of local foodstuffs, an is- ber 2003. Respondents were given 21 days to return
sue taken up in the current study. the completed questionnaire if they were to be eli-
gible for a prize drawing. The majority of the com-
Methodology pleted questionnaires were returned within a week
from date of which they were sent, and a few were
In order to collect primary data on the interrela- returned after the due date. These last questionnaires
tionships between B&Bs and local food, a survey were still included in the analysis; 253 questionnaires
was conducted of operators in the South Island of were returned. Six questionnaires were returned
New Zealand in late 2003. Eligible businesses were blank with the respondents’ comment that these busi-
selected for participation in the survey and put into nesses were no longer operating as a B&B, thereby
a purpose-built address database. The database was providing a total of 247 completed questionnaires.
compiled from The New Zealand Bed & Breakfast This makes an overall useable response rate of 43%.
Book (2001). This book is an independent guide-
book covering a wide range of different B&B-type Results and Discussion
accommodation in the entire country. Every South
Respondent and Business Profile
Island B&B listed in the book was included in the
database. This resulted in a database consisting of When asked about how many years they had been
570 B&B businesses. Additionally, it can be noted offering accommodation, 44.3% answered that they
that it is very difficult achieving a representative had been running their business between 5 and 10
sample of B&Bs as they usually do not formally years, and 30.3% of respondents had been offering
register themselves with the Companies Office, un- accommodation less than 5 years. These results re-
like other business types, and also because New flect the massive growth in the New Zealand B&B
Zealand’s national international and domestic visi- sector in the last decade (Hall & Rusher, 2004). Re-
tor monitoring survey does not record use of bed spondents’ businesses had an average 2.8 single beds
and breakfast operations, although substantial recent and 2.4 double beds, which is a slightly smaller size
growth has occurred (Hall & Rusher, 2004; Rusher than the average recorded by Rusher and Hall (2002).
& Hall, 2002). The number of B&Bs listed in The Just over 80% of respondents were females with the
New Zealand Bed and Breakfast Book grew from majority (78.4%) being over 50 years of age. Forty-
300 in 1987, and approximately 1100 for 1996, to one percent of respondents had a tertiary qualifica-
6 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

tion while a further 16.2% had a postgraduate quali- even by farm hosts may also indicate little aware-
fication. These figures are well over the national ness of the potential for adding value to the visitor
averages. More than half of respondents (56%) had experience through local foods.
undertaken some sort of course in relation to their
business, with “Kiwihost,” a service quality course, The New Zealand B&B Industry’s Use of
being the most popular. Again these findings are Local Food
similar to the work of Hall and Rusher (2004). In
Nearly all respondents (99.6%) offered breakfast,
addition, 30.7% of respondents had undertaken a
with the vast majority including it in the price of
cooking course of some description, although only
accommodation (Table 2); 61.6% of the B&Bs also
seven respondents stated that they had participated
offered dinner. The inclusion of dinner in accom-
in courses such as food handling and food safety.
modation packages is significant because making
dinner usually requires more provisions than the
Partnership in Business Related Network
provision of breakfast. The most frequent dinner
Just over half of respondents [132 (53.4%)] indi- option were “three course set menu” (33% of re-
cated that they were a part of a network related to sponses), “on request” (28%), and “single course
accommodation, food, and/or wine in their region, set menu” (17.8%). The fairly high proportion of
with 119 of the respondents stating which networks respondents who offered “three course” menus in-
they were a part of (Table 1). The majority of the dicated that the respective hosts put substantial ef-
respondents networked with other B&B operators fort into providing food for their guests.
or accommodation businesses. Food and wine net- Respondents were asked to describe their style of
works were mentioned by only 10 (8%) of the re- cooking and were given categories almost identical
spondents, illustrating the lack of intersectoral rela- to those used in Smith and Hall’s (2003) study of
tions between food and produce suppliers and New Zealand restaurants’ use of local foods. The
accommodation providers. majority of B&B operators describe their main style
A larger proportion (70%) of respondents were of cooking as “Traditional New Zealand Cuisine”
members of business associations or organizations. (56.6%). The second most used style of cooking was
Of the 156 respondents stating which association “Contemporary New Zealand Cuisine,” which was
they were a member of, 66 were members of the utilized by 43.8% of the B&B hosts. Worth noting
New Zealand Farm and Home Host Association is the similarity between this result and the results
(NZAFHH), and 52 were associated with other B&B from Hall and Smith’s (2003) study, where nearly
or accommodation businesses. The NZAFHH con- the same percentage (41.1%) of restaurants identi-
nection is potentially significant given the desire to fied “contemporary New Zealand cuisine” as their
leverage the food and tourism relationship as a main cuisine type. Furthermore, 19% of B&B re-
mechanism for economic development in rural ar- spondents also offered vegetarian food, followed by
eas. However, the lack of use of local food networks

Table 2
Table 1 Type of Meals Offered and Included in Price of Accommo-
dation
Partnership in Network
Type of Meal Included in
Type of Network Number % of Cases Offered (N = 245) Price (N = 232)
B&Bs or other accommodation 70 59% Number % of Cases Number % of Cases
Promotion and marketing 21 18%
Destination companies, tourism 19 16% Breakfast 244 99.6% 229 98.7%
networks, visitor information Lunch 61 24.9% 2 0.9%
Food and wine 10 8% Dinner 151 61.6% 16 6.9%
B&B books 6 5% Other 18 7.3% 8 3.4%

Multiple response question. Number and percent of cases add up to Multiple response question. Number and percent of cases add up to
more than 100 (N = 119). more than 100.
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 7

“continental cuisine” (14.6%) and “seafood” ing. This can also be seen in relation to the amount
(10.2%). This variety in cooking styles was followed of money the B&B providers spent weekly on pur-
by several others like “Mediterranean cuisine,” “Pa- chasing food for guests, with 46.6% of respondents
cific Rim cuisine,” and “Asian cuisine.” It is possi- spending between NZ$50 and NZ$100 per week
bly surprising that small businesses such as B&Bs (Fig. 2). This figure can be considered to be a fairly
demonstrate such a variety in their style of cooking, low amount if all food and produce have to be pur-
but at the same time it also confirms the notion that chased, although for many rural economies such
New Zealand cuisine is influenced by cuisine styles expenditure may still have important multiplier ef-
from all over the world, characterized as a mix of fects through local communities. In addition, it
“Fusion,” “Pacific Rim,” or “Cross-Cultural” cuisine should be noted that the home-grown product was
(Hall & Mitchell, 2002). regarded by the majority of B&Bs as an integral part
of the accommodation product that adds value to
Use of Locally Provided Produce in Cooking visitors.
An issue that has emerged in research on use of
Nearly all respondents (95.1%) used locally pro- local produce by tourism businesses is the extent to
vided/grown produce in their cooking. More than which such products can be sourced (Smith & Hall,
half (66.4%) of the respondents indicated that their 2003). When asked about how difficult or easy it is
percentage of local produce used in cooking was to source local products, respondents were asked to
between 50 and 100%, where the category with the state their level of ease/difficulty on a 5-point scale.
highest percentage (91–100%) had the highest fre- The results showed that the majority of respondents
quency of respondents (Fig. 1). This is a significant (65.8 %) indicated that there were reasonable levels
result indicating that the South Island B&Bs are sub- of local produce available (Table 3).
stantial users of local produce. However, this result However, the B&Bs’ ability to source local pro-
does not reveal whether the respondents are pur- duce depends very much on what region they be-
posely using local products or if it is a natural con- long to. For example, in contrast to all other regions
sequence appearing from the B&B sector’s fairly the West Coast, B&B operators indicated that they
high share of own food production, with 81.8% of find it more difficult to source local produce within
respondents stating that they cultivate or produce their region (see Table 4). This finding, however,
food or drink products themselves. might perhaps be as expected because horticultural
The most common home-grown or home-made statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture and For-
products were vegetables (70.1%), preserves estry (2003) show that the West Coast has less fresh
(69.2%), bread products (59.2%), and fruit (50.7%); food production compared to other regions such as
26.4% of respondents also produced meat products. Marlborough, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago. Nev-
The fact that so many of the B&B providers culti- ertheless, these results are generally more positive
vated or produced own food may to some extent in terms of local food use than those of Smith and
explain the high use of local produce in their cook- Hall’s (2003) study of restaurants. For example,

More than $ 700 1

Percentage of locally provided

$ 651 - 700 1
91% - 100% 18 $ 601 - 650 1
produce in cooking

81% - 90% 16 $ 501 - 550 1

71% - 80% 11 $ 451 - 500 2
61% - 70% 8 $ 401 - 450 2
51% - 60% 12 $ 351 - 400 1
41%- 50% 10 $ 301 - 350 10
31% - 40% 4 $ 251 - 300 10
21% - 30% 5 $ 201 - 250 20
11% -20% 8 $ 151 - 200 21
$ 101 - 150 48
Less than 10% 6 $ 50 - 100 103
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Percent of responses (N=226)
Number of cases N=221

Figure 1. Percentage of locally provided produce in cooking. Figure 2. Weekly spending on purchasing food for guests.
8 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

Table 3 particularly the supply of fresh produce, naturally

Difficulty/Ease of Sourcing Local Products follow seasons. Furthermore, the B&B industry has
5-Point Scale N %
also indicated that their businesses are highly sea-
sonal (Rusher & Hall, 2002; Tucker & Keen, 2002).
Very easy 93 39.7% Nevertheless, even here opportunities may exist for
2 61 26.1%
3 43 18.4%
the development of new seasonal produce as well as
4 25 10.7% better education as to the opportunities to exist with
Very difficult 12 5.1% winter produce that may be available.
Total 234 100%

Attitude Towards Local Food and

Local Food Producers
when comparing the results of this study to that of In order to gauge the level of operator interest in
Smith and Hall (2003), where as many as 38.8% of local produce, respondents were asked to indicate
the Marlborough restaurants found it difficult to to what extent they would like to increase usage of
source local products, it appears that local food dis- local food. There was substantial support for local
tribution systems in the region have improved. This produce from respondents with 64.6% indicating that
could be explained, at least in part, by the establish- they would like to increase usage of locally produced
ment of a farmers market in Marlborough in late food (Table 6). However, when asked whether it was
2001, thereby making the ability to source local pro- currently possible to increase usage of local prod-
duce easier, while also giving visibility to produc- ucts under current arrangements, only 14.7% stated
ers whom consumers, including B&B operators, may that this was very possible, with 34% indicating that
have otherwise been unaware of (Hall & Mitchell, there was little possibility or not at all possible to
2002). increase usage of local produce within current ar-
Respondents were also asked if there were any rangements (Table 6).
seasonal differences affecting the amount of local The results suggests that the majority of the South
produce they used and purchased. Respondents were Island B&Bs were willing to increase usage of local
asked to state their level of both use and purchase produce, but were somehow prevented from doing
within each season on a 5-point scale. The results this. The finding is very similar to the findings from
(Table 5) showed that both use and purchase of lo- Smith and Hall’s (2003) restaurant survey, which
cal produce varied significantly between seasons. presented a substantial gap between what the res-
Respondents indicated low use and purchase during taurants would like to do and what they actually were
winter, and then both use and purchase increased able to do within current arrangements. Smith and
during spring, reaching a peak during summer. This Hall (2003) suggest possible reasons for this to be
was an expected finding as local food supply, and such factors as lack of access, poor supply networks,

Table 4
Ability to Source Local Products by Region

Very Easy 2 3 4 Very Difficult

Region n % n % n % n % n % Total N Total %

Marlborough 13 54% 6 25% 3 13% 1 4% 1 4% 24 100

Nelson 24 51% 13 28% 7 15% 3 6% — — 47 100
West Coast 4 18% 5 23% 2 9% 8 36% 3 14% 22 100
Rural Canterbury 11 26% 10 24% 11 26% 6 14% 4 9% 42 100
Christchurch 14 67% 6 28% 1 5% — — — — 21 100
Rural Otago 16 36% 12 27% 13 30% 3 7% — — 44 100
Dunedin 3 30% 3 30% 1 10% 2 20% 1 10% 10 100
Southland 8 33% 6 25% 5 21% 2 8% 3 13% 24 100
Total 93 40% 61 26% 43 18% 25 11% 12 5% 234 100
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 9

Table 5
Seasonal Differences Affecting Use and Purchase of Local Food

Mode Use Mean Mode Purchase

Season Na Rating Rating SD Na Rating Mean Rating SD

Winter 159 5 3.69 1.268 155 5 3.73 1.296

Spring 166 3 2.83 1.255 154 3 3.03 1.193
Summer 174 1 1.53 0.878 165 1 1.96 1.199
Autumn 168 1 2.17 1.136 157 3 2.61 1.202

1 = high use; 5 = low use.

a
Varies because respondents have not answered to all statements.

central distributors being unwilling to supply cer- satisfied. As noted above, in some cases this may
tain produce, unreliable local growers, and/or issues require B&Bs becoming aware of what is already
of seasonality. It is reasonable to believe that some produced in their region.
of these reasons can be used to explain the results of “Buy local” campaigns have been presented as a
the present study as well. For example, 63% of the component in strategies for promoting sustainable
West Coast respondents to this study stated that they food systems at a local level (Hall & Mitchell, 2002).
would “very much” like to increase use of local pro- When asked about their attitude towards “buy local
duce, while only 13% of the same population indi- campaigns,” the B&B operators showed a high level
cated that this was possible with current arrange- of support for buy local campaigns to promote use
ments. However, regardless of what prevents the of locally grown produce, with 40.2% agreeing it
respective B&B businesses from increasing usage was very important (Table 7). In addition, the ma-
of local produce, they showed an overall positive jority of respondents clearly indicated that they be-
attitude towards usage of local food, illustrating that lieved that it was important that their business sup-
they were interested in local food and that they found ported local products (Table 8).
it important to use local food produce. Overall only The results illustrate that South Island B&B busi-
11% of all respondents indicated no willingness to nesses very much recognize the importance of or-
increase usage of local produce. Therefore, it is ap- ganized promotion and marketing campaigns in or-
parent that emphasis needs to be shifted to finding der to promote local foods, and that the B&B hosts
ways by which the demand for local food can be recognize the value of supporting local food pro-
ducers. Such results are very similar to those of Smith
and Hall’s (2003) restaurant survey, hence strength-
Table 6 ening the indication that the industry is aware of is-
Willingness to, and Possibilities of, Increasing Usage of
Local Produce

Willingness to Possibility to Increase Table 7

Increase Usage of Usage With Current Importance of Supporting Local Producers and Buy Local
Local Fooda Arrangementsb Campaigns
Scale N % N % Buy Local Support Local
Campaigns Producers
1 93 42.3% 32 14.7%
2 49 22.3% 53 24.3% Scale N % N %
3 39 17.7% 59 27.1%
4 16 7.3% 47 21.6% Very important 97 40.2% 116 48.3%
5 23 10.5% 27 12.4% 2 59 24.5% 64 26.7%
Total 220 100% 218 100% 3 58 24.1% 42 17.5%
4 20 8.3% 10 4.2%
a
Scale where 1 = very much and 5 = not at all. Not at all important 7 2.9% 8 3.3%
b
Scale where 1 = very possible and 5 = not at all possible. Total 241 100% 240 100%
10 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

Table 8 Table 10
Level of Agreement With Statement: “It Is Important for Perception of Own Role as Promoter of Local Food Towards
my Business to Support Local Products and Producers” Domestic and International Visitors

Scale N % Domestic Visitors International Visitors

Scale N % N %
Strongly agree 84 35.9%
2 71 30.3% Strongly agree 46 20% 65 28%
3 47 20.1% 2 51 22.2% 65 28%
4 27 11.5% 3 73 31.7% 61 26.3%
Strongly disagree 5 2.1% 4 44 19.1% 34 14.7%
Total 234 100% Strongly disagree 16 7% 7 3%
Total 230 100% 232 100%

sues of possible local economic benefit by using

locally grown produce. Nevertheless, at the same the destination has to offer. However, the results also
time a fairly low share of respondents indicated that show that a fairly high proportion of respondents
use of local food would enhance their own business have indicated that they neither agree nor disagree
(Table 9). This may suggest that even though the with these statements by circling the middle value.
B&B operators see that produce and sale of local Discussion with operators would suggest that it can
food is beneficial for other parts of the local be assumed that the B&Bs are either underestimat-
economy, they do not see so much benefit for their ing their own “power” as advisors towards guests,
own business. Therefore, there appears to be a need or that they simply do not regard it as particularly
for more promotion of the “qualities” of local food important to promote local food towards visitors.
towards the B&B industry in order to make the hosts Regardless of what reason, there might be a need to
more aware of possible benefits, such as increased “educate” the B&Bs about the important role they
visitor interest and satisfaction caused by using lo- might play as promoters of local foods and visitor
cal food produce (Hall, Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003). experiences.
The survey indicates that, to a limited extent, the Moreover, based on the notion that bed and break-
B&Bs recognize their role as promoters of local food fast hosts have a close relationship to their guests,
to be important, although they indicate that the B&B and consequently may have great influence on their
operators regard their role as more significant with visitors’ choices (Tucker & Keen, 2002), it was in-
respect to international than domestic visitors (Table teresting to see what factors the B&B hosts saw as
10). This may indicate that the B&B hosts believe important when and if recommending restaurants to
that domestic visitors are already familiar with what their guests. Hence, respondents were asked to rate
the importance of a series of factors on a 5-point
scale. The response to this question showed that
Table 9 “quality of food” was considered to be the most
Attitude Regarding Distribution of Benefits by Use of Local important factor when recommending restaurants to
Food Produce their guests followed by “quality of service” and
Production and Use of Local Produce “value for money.” It is not surprising that these three
Sale of Local Would Enhance factors were considered to be more important than
Food Is Only my Overall
Beneficial Accommodation
“use of local dishes” and “support of local produc-
for the Producer Business ers,” as it can be argued that most people would not
Scale N % N %
care if the food is sourced locally or not if they re-
ceive bad quality food and service at a high price.
Strongly agree 6 2.7% 56 24.8% However, it is significant that the majority of respon-
2 17 7.5% 37 16.4%
3 66 29.2% 75 33.2%
dents seemed to be more or less neutral to a
4 70 31% 41 18.1% restaurant’s offer of local food and support of local
Strongly disagree 67 29.6% 17 7.5% producers (Table 11). This may suggest that most
Total 226 100% 226 100%
respondents have not thought about this approach
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 11

Table 11
Importance of Different Factors When Recommending Restaurants to Guests

Question N Mode Rating Mean Rating SD

How important is the quality of the food 238 1 1.15 0.51

How important is the quality of service 237 1 1.31 0.64
How important is value for money 235 1 1.7 0.89
How important is it that the restaurant offers traditional local dishes 227 3 2.6 1.28
How important is it that the restaurants support local producers 226 3 2.63 1.29

1 = very important and 5 = not at all important.

of indirectly promoting local food. Again, this might what they regarded to be the three most important
represent a need for education about the nature of factors for guest satisfaction. The results (Table 13)
local economic and promotional networks by stress- showed that “clean and tidy accommodation” and
ing the importance of supporting local food through “warm and welcoming atmosphere” were considered
recommending restaurants that highlight local food to be the two most important factors for guest satis-
produce. faction. This might not be too surprising because at
Similarly, respondents were relatively neutral with least the first factor can be described as a so-called
respect as to whether they believed that visitors were “hygiene factor,” which is more or less expected to
interested in local food (Table 12). This is signifi- be a minimum requirement when running a commer-
cant because if respondents do not notice any par- cial accommodation operation. The second highest
ticular interest in local food among visitors, or they ranked factor, “warm and welcoming atmosphere,”
perceive visitors to be less interested in local food, was also expected to be ranked high because the B&B
they consequently might see it as pointless to con- sector is recognized as having a particular close host–
sider the “local food” factor when recommending guest relationship (Tucker & Keen, 2002). However,
restaurants or even in terms of their own business. it is perhaps surprising that respondents ranked both
Furthermore, this result may also be explained by “quality of food” and “experiencing the local lifestyle”
the findings of the Enteleca reseach in the UK that far above “price” and “good service.” This result per-
while many visitors do not actively seek local food, haps indicates that the B&B hosts often recognize the
they are happy to try it when they come across it significance of food and local distinctiveness as im-
and, indeed, their experience may be more positive portant factors in attracting and satisfying visitors and
because of being able to access local foods (Enteleca further reflects the significance of “authenticity fac-
Research and Consultancy, 2000). Hence, in pro- tors” in the overall B&B experience.
motional and network terms it is still important to
promote local foods towards visitors. Conclusion
Finally, in order to more reveal the B&B opera-
tors’ perception of visitors’ needs and wants, respon- The results of this study indicate that the New
dents were given eight alternatives and asked to rank Zealand B&B sector show substantial interest in lo-

Table 12
Visitor Interest in Local Food

Statement N Mode Rating Mean Rating SD

Most visitors are very interested in locally produced food 234 3 2.47 1.15
Visitor’s interest in local food has increased over the past 5 years 227 3 2.52 1.14
Most visitors do not mind if the food they get is sourced locally or not 233 3 2.74 1.09

1 = strongly agree and 5 = strongly disagree.

12 NUMMEDAL AND HALL

Table 13
Factors for Guest Satisfaction Ranked in Order of Importance

Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3

N % N % N %

Clean and tidy accommodation 87 48.3% 55 30.4% 18 10%

Low prices 2 1.1% — — 10 5.6%
Warm and welcoming atmosphere 81 45% 71 39.2% 16 8.9%
Quality of food — — 13 7.2% 52 28.9%
Insight and participation in “real” life 2 1.1% 11 6.1% 28 15.6%
Experience the local/regional lifestyle 4 2.2% 18 9.9% 27 15%
Good service 2 1.1% 11 6.1% 26 14.4%
Other 2 1.1% 2 1.1% 3 1.7%
Total 180 100% 181 100% 180 100%

cal food and produce. Not only did the majority of The study also found that there are differences in
respondents indicate that between 50% and 100% the ability to source local produce between regions.
of the produce used in their cooking was sourced This is perhaps not surprising as some regions, par-
locally, but the majority of B&Bs also indicated that ticularly the West Coast, have less fresh food pro-
they would like to increase usage of local food. The duction compared to regions like Marlborough and
results also show that there are significant indica- Canterbury (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
tions that the B&B operators in the South Island find 2003). However, if international experiences are to
it important to support both “buy local” campaigns be any guide, then the currently unmet demand by
and local food producers. This is essential for local B&Bs for local food production may help stimulate
economic development linkages because “buy lo- new production, thereby further contributing to re-
cal” campaigns are an important component in strat- gional development (Hall, Mitchell, & Sharples,
egies for promoting sustainable food systems at a 2003).
local level (Hall & Mitchell, 2002). Moreover, the Furthermore, as the B&B sector is recognized to
B&Bs indicated that they see it as important for their have a particularly close host–guest relationship,
business to support local producers, and that the pro- there is significant potential for B&B hosts to play a
duction and selling of local food might have broader significant role in the promotion and development
regional economic benefits. Nevertheless, there is of other tourism products in the area, including lo-
an indication that the respondents do not see them- cal foods. However, this study revealed that the New
selves as benefiting from this as much as the pro- Zealand B&Bs tended to take a rather neutral atti-
ducers. Interestingly, parallels can be drawn here tude regarding their role as promoters of local food
with studies of the perception of benefit of wine tour- to visitors and, additionally, respondents indicated
ism in New Zealand in the 1990s, which indicated that they had not registered any particular interest in
that wine producers believed that the tourism ben- local food from visitors even though this is regarded
efited more from wine tourism than the wine indus- as a significant element in the attractiveness of many
try (Hall et al., 2000). However, winery attitudes later regions. This suggests that there is a considerable
changed as they realized the benefits of adding value need to promote local food towards both the B&B
to the wine product and the development of new sector and visitors.
consumer relations (Christensen, Hall, & Mitchell, The results also indicate an overall positive trend
2004). There appears to be a similar need to “edu- towards significant use of local food within the B&B
cate” the B&Bs about possible benefits of local food sector. There is a very positive attitude among B&Bs
promotion through increased visitor interest and sat- towards increasing their use of local food produce,
isfaction that can produce immediate benefits in although there are several areas where greater le-
terms of potentially increasing yield and longer-term verage between the accommodation and food prod-
benefits through positive word of mouth. ucts could be accomplished. In particular, while
 LOCAL FOOD TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND B&B 13

those who are already “food aware” must still be estingly, the present study indicates that many busi-
catered too, it is apparent that there is great poten- nesses are actually willing to engage in business
tial in supplying those visitors who, while not ac- practices that benefit the wider region, although
tively seeking local food, are happy to try it when clearly this would not be done to such an extent as
they come across it (Enteleca Research and to compromise their own economic interests. Finally,
Consultancy, 2000). Such measures may not only and arguably of more significance, it is vital that a
increase their enjoyment of the accommodation ex- “whole of local food network approach” be devel-
perience but may also lead to awareness of food oped that includes all parties in the supply of local
products and potential later purchase whether in the food and produce if benefits are to be maximized.
destination or when they return home. Therefore, Such an approach would emphasize that all firm
one of the main challenges or opportunities in link- actors, including the B&B operators that do not see
ing food and tourism in the context of regional de- themselves as important in promoting local food
velopment may be based in improving the connec- towards visitors, are part of the consumer value
tion between B&B operators and their suppliers chain.
(Hall, Mitchell, & Sharples, 2003). This may be
achieved by actively promoting local produce to the Biographical Notes
local accommodation suppliers as well as other sec- Margunn Nummedal has a Graduate Diploma in Tourism
tors of tourism production, such as restaurants, from the Department of Tourism at the University of Otago,
guides, and transport operators—for example, New Zealand and a master’s degree from Stavanger Univer-
through “buy local” campaigns, establishment of sity College, Norway. After completing her graduate studies
farmers’ markets, familiarity tours for the local in- she commenced work in the Norwegian hospitality industry
where she is currently undertaking a management role.
dustry, and the establishment of local food and tour-
ism providers’ networks. Seasonality also presents
issues for the food and tourism relationship (Mitchell C. Michael Hall is Professor and Head of the Department of
& Hall, 2003), in terms of shifts in the nature of Tourism at the University of Otago and a visitor in the School
food production as well as the patterns of tourist of Service Management, Lund University, Helsingborg, Swe-
den. Coeditor of Current Issues in Tourism, he has published
demand. However, even here there are opportuni- widely on tourism, mobility, and public policy with a special
ties for new products (Hall, Sharples, & Smith, interest in food networks and SMEs and their relevance for
2003), possibly related to more emphasis on the rural and peripheral regional development.
development of winter cuisines and, as some larger
accommodation providers now do, hosting winter References
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