Motivation, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention Towards Food Tourism in Australia and Indonesia
Motivation, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention Towards Food Tourism in Australia and Indonesia
Motivation, Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention Towards Food Tourism in Australia and Indonesia
Introduction
1. Background to the Study
Eating, which in today’s world is one of the physical needs and in relation with the
developing tourism sector and food and beverage industry, has led to the emergence
of a sector that has become to be seen as leisure time activities and desired to be met
outside. Almost all tourists, no matter the accommodations at which they are staying
provide food and beverages services or not, prefer to eat outside; and get to know and
taste the local food belonging to the region (Sormaz, Akmese Gunes and Aras, 2016).
Within this context, local food of a region have become important means to get to
know and learn more about a different culture (Kastenholz and Davis 1999; Gyimothy
et al., 2000; Joppe et al., 2001).
A tourist might want to visit an area to have some new cultural experience, or they
just want to try local food and different tastes belonging to that area as well. As a
result of this, such reasons as trying local food of an area and observing production
phases of and tasting a local food which is made of a raw material available only in
that specific region have now begun to be among the main reasons that affect tourists’
preferences for destinations to visit.
Food has assumed a key role in tourists’ decision making, satisfaction and
behavioural intentions, and it has also been central in promotional destination
strategies and for the organisations that make up the tourism industry such as tour
operators, travel agents and airlines (Rimmington and Yüksel, 1998, p. 40; Kivela and
Crotts, 2006, pp. 369-370; Henderson, 2009, p. 317; Chang et al., 2011, p. 307). Food
can help destinations to develop a distinguishing gastronomic identity by branding
their cuisine with a nationality (e.g. Chinese, British Food Journal French, Italian,
Turkish, and Mexican) (Okumus et al., 2007, p. 253; Henderson, 2009, p. 321) and
can provide coherent alternatives for destinations that lack natural and historical
resources. For example, a destination with shortages of sea, sun and sand, could be a
leading tourism destination for its vineyards and wines (Kivela and Crotts, 2006, p.
359). In addition to these factors, the economic benefits that can be obtained from
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tourists’ food consumption can substantially influence the economic condition and
competitiveness of the tourism business and destinations (Henderson, 2009, p. 321;
Mak et al., 2012, p. 929; Sanchez-Cañizares and Castillo-Canalejo, 2015, p. 2405).
These wide-ranging effects of food explain why gastronomy has become the major
focal point of tourism.
Previous research related to food tourism has indicated that local food products can
help the sustainability of tourism in a region. More specifically, it contributes to brand
identity, enhances destination attraction, and also keeps money in the region by
avoiding the importation of expensive foreign food (Sims, 2009). Local food and
drink is regarded as important for those who want to experience the local culture and
tradition. A study carried out in 2015 by Tourism Australia, found that local cuisine
was actually ranked ahead of the country’s world class beautiful natural attractions
when it came to holiday decision making in the country.
The relationship between tourism, food, and gastronomy is becoming closer (Boyne,
Hall, & Williams, 2003). Through analysing and discussing the different perspectives
outlined above, the importance, benefits, and necessities of developing food tourism
have been identified. It is clear that food is an important component of tourist
destination promotion world-wide (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000) as well as a useful
attraction for certain visitors (Hegarty & Barry, 2001; Henderson, 2009). However,
although the literature supports the idea that food tourism is needed both by host
countries and tourists, there is a need for further research to explore the food
consumption motivation of tourists who visit Australia and Indonesia, their
satisfactions, and repurchase intention, as well as examining the relationship between
customer satisfaction, need satisfaction, and repurchase intention. The results of this
research are expected to provide useful information to tourism managers so that they
can re-examine their services, redesign their products, and by developing new
marketing strategies, finally increase their visitor numbers in both Australia and
Indonesia.
Since the early 1970s rural regions in industrialized societies have been very
substantially affected by successive rounds of economic restructuring. In response to
loss of services and traditional markets, and removal of tariffs and regional support
mechanisms, rural areas have sought to diversify their economic base, with new
agricultural products and tourism being two such responses. Food tourism strategies
are therefore a significant instrument of regional development particularly because of
the potential leverage between products from the two sectors (Hall, 2002; Taylor and
Little 1999; Telfer 2001a; 2001b). Wine and culinary tourism, particularly with a
regional flavour, is becoming big business in Australia. Indeed, a number of
Australian States and regions have placed substantial emphasis on the development of
the food and wine product. For an example, in New South Wales (NSW), former
NSW Tourism Minister, Mr Brian Langton, stated that ‘NSW will embrace food and
wine as an integral part of the visitor experience, and the focus of food and wine will
broaden the destination appeal of NSW, and encourage more first time visitors to
come back for seconds’ (Langton, 1996). As part of the food initiatives the state
government developed a Food and Wine in Tourism Plan and established a culinary
tourism advisory committee (Hall and Macionis, 1998).
Hence, industries that contributed most to direct tourism employment across each
state and territory in 2015–16 were:
Food services – a 23% to 31% share of total employment
Retail trade – a 15% to 19% share of total employment
Accommodation – a 13% to 22% share of total employment
Education and training – a 4% to 10% share of total employment.
Chart Figure 1 provides more detailed information on these state and territory
breakdowns.
Sources: TRA’s estimates (for states/territories) and ABS (2016) (for Australia)
*Refers to cafes, restaurants and take-away food services ADD SOURCE(Tourism
Research Australia, 2017)
In the case of Queensland, the four most significant industries for tourism
contribution are transport, accommodation, food services (i.e. cafes, restaurants and
takeaways) and retail trade – in total, making up around 66% of all tourism sector
direct output. According to Queensland Regional Tourism Satellite Accounts 2015-
16, tourism consumption1 in Queensland totalledtotaled $30.0 billion, of which
consumption in Brisbane accounted for 27% ($8.0 billion). Other tourism
destinations, such as Gold Coast (21% or $6.4 billion), Tropical North
Queensland/TNQ (14% or $4.2 billion) and Sunshine Coast (13% or $4.0 billion)
made up the bulk of the remaining consumption (refer to Figure Chart 2 for details).
1
Tourism consumption is the total value of goods and services consumed by domestic and
international visitors in Australia. It is measured in purchasers’ prices – the price the visitors pay,
including taxes, subsidies, and other mark-ups
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Traditional food as foods typical of the region is one of the cultural elements in
various regions of Indonesia (Wahyudi et al., 2017). Compared with Hongkong,
Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand; Indonesia has more complete assets and
advantages in culinary tourism (Sukenti, 2014). Indonesia as a country with a huge
area, high biodiversity, various cultural traditions, has big opportunities and potential
in developing Indonesia’s tourism. Indonesia’s gastronomy with all its diversity and
uniqueness is one of the potential tourist attraction that can support the tourism sector.
Hence, Indonesian traditional culinary is not only vary in every tribe and region, it
was also categorized as dangerously delicious (Wolf, 2002). By having 247 tribes,
Indonesia has an eco-culinary potential to boost the tourism development (Marliyati et
al., 2013), especially if every tribe and its cultural attribute are managed and
developed seriously. Food tourism in Indonesia could be an integrated package with
any attraction possessed by every tribe.
Local food in Indonesia, which are consisted of various food, beverages and snacks is
a huge potency to support the tourism of Indonesia. Enjoying local cuisines cannot be
separated from tourist traveling activities. Therefore local food with all its aspects is a
great chance for Indonesia to introduce and promote not only the type of dish and
constituent materials, but also the variety of processes, meanings and values existed in
it. In 2012, The Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy of Indonesia encouraged
30 Traditional Indonesian Culinary Icon. This was an effort to register and record the
wealth of Indonesian traditional culinary culture handed down through generations.
Culinary tourism can be used as one of the sectors in increasing the society prosperity
through the provision of ingredients up to the serving process, and it also can create
many opportunities for local people, like job vacancies, local economy rotation,
economic activities, culinary business, and more supporting business related to
culinary (Marliyati et al., 2013). Hence, gastronomy tourism in Indonesia has been a
top national priority sector as it will increase the value added on agricultural and
fishery sectors as well.
Food has historically linked people across cultural and geographical distances and
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divides, going back to the ancient trade routes based on goods such as spices, coffee
and sugar. Tourism is another phenomenon that links peoples and nations, playing a
role on a par with that of sports in the building of national identity (L’Etang, 2006).
Wherever there is contact and interaction between nations, as in both food and
tourism, there is diplomacy; not only traditional diplomacy – defined as the “art of
conducting negotiations between governments” (Deutsch, 1966, p. 81) – but also
diplomacy between governments and foreign publics, as well as at a grassroots level,
between individuals and groups.
The diplomatic dimensions of both food and tourism have long been acknowledged
and studied. The term “gastrodiplomacy” refers to concerted and sustained campaigns
of public relations and investment by governments and states, often in collaboration
with non-state actors, to increase the value and standing of their nation brand through
food (Rockower, 2014). In gastrodiplomacy, food is used to pursue diplomatic aims in
government-to-public diplomacy. Many nations, including Indonesia, have
implemented gastrodiplomacy campaigns during the past decade to increase their
cultural influence abroad. This is understood in terms of creating positive experiences
around the national culinary brand to motivate tourists travel to the country, as well as
in terms of creating positive experiences of the national culinary brand during
tourists’ travel to the country (Suntikul, 2017).
Bali as the leading tourism destination in Indonesia is able to increase welfare of its
people from tourism sector (Sutawa, 2012). Bali has every element of gastronomy
tourism product including fine dining restaurants, traditional or local foods called
“Warung”, culinary theatres in Ubud (Gianyar Regency), cooking classes, vineyards,
coffee plantations, traditional markets and food festivals. Although relatively few
international tourists from outside Asia eat at warungs, these small family-owned
establishments serve a wide range of local employees, especially in the tourism
industry (Tajeddini, Ratten and Denisa, 2017). Moreover, the paddy terrace landscape
is a famous tourist destination in Bali. In the future, Bali tourism ultimately depends
on the preservation of their rich and harmonious culture and natural landscapes. While
tourism can potentially damage the island’s ecosystems, the indigenous Tri Hita
Karana philosophy (a faith of Balinese Hindus based on harmony between human
beings and God, harmony between people and nature, and harmony between people
and people) promotes sustainable development in several ways. First, the Balinese
philosophy provides rules and guidelines by which humans can live in the biosphere
in a sustainable manner. Second, the Balinese system is able to facilitate indigenous
knowledge preservation and its application in the community (Yekti et all., 2017).
Nowadays, indigenous techniques such as ethno-ecology are widely practised to
manage the island’s resources, and significantly contribute to the sustainable
development agenda (Martin, 1995; Dudley et al., 2005; Mercer et al., 2007;
Luchman et al., 2009).
Moreover, the concept of gastronomy tourism in its entirety is unique in that it draws
from many aspects of a destination. Indonesia follows the Triangle Concept of
Indonesian gastronomy, in which gastronomy is influenced equally by history, culture
and food, which influence each other via more specific aspects (Second Global Report
on Gastronomy Tourism, 2017). A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the
Acceleration of Gastronomy Tourism Destination Development in Gianyar Regency,
Bali was signed between the Ministry of Tourism of Indonesia and Local Government
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of Gianyar Regency in 2017. Later in 2018, Ubud has been appointed as the first
gastronomy destination in Asia Pacific which is certified by UNWTO.
This research aims to explore the food consumption motivations of tourists who visit
Australia and Indonesia, their satisfactions, and repurchase intention, as well as
examining the relationship between, need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and
repurchase intention.
Research Objectives
To achieve the aim of the research six objectives have been defined. These objectives
are as follows.
1. To explore the food consumption motivations of tourists when visiting Bribane
and Ubud.
2. To investigate tourists’ need (motivation) satisfaction after visiting Bribane and
Ubud.
3. To investigate tourists’ overall satisfaction after visiting Bribane and Ubud.
4. To investigate tourists’ repurchase intention after visiting Bribane and Ubud.
5. To investigate the relationship between need satisfaction and overall satisfaction.
6. To investigate the relationship between need satisfaction and repurchase intention.
The research is significant and its importance will be discussed in three parts: its
theoretical, methodological and practical contributions.
provides a new approach to examine the relationships between the local food
consumption motivations of tourists, customer satisfaction, motivation (need)
satisfaction and repurchase intention.
Practical contributions:
Food services has become one of the most significant industries for tourism
contribution in Brisbane and Ubud. The extent of expenditure on food as a component
of travel and tourism is significant and helps explain the interests of both government
and business. This research will benefit managers in the tourism industry because the
results will provide sufficient data about the food consumption motivations of tourists,
their satisfaction levels, and their future intentions to revisit the destination. This data
will help managers to make better informed business decisions, improve services, and
develop new promotional strategies.
The Tourism and Events Queensland recorded the international visitors to
Queensland (by region) in the year ending June 2017. The Brisbane market recorded
growth of 3.9% in international visitation, welcoming a record 1.2 million visitors
(holiday visitation was at a record high of 654,000 visitors), with top three source
markets remained China, New Zealand (NZ) and the United Kingdom (UK).
International visitation to the Gold Coast grew by 7.2% to a record-high 1.1 million
visitors (holiday visitation at a record high of 841,000 visitors) with top five source
markets remained China, NZ, UK, Japan and the United States of America (USA).
The Sunshine Coast market recorded high international visitation, with visitor
numbers up by 11.6% to 296,000; holiday visitation was at a record high of 233,000
visitors with top three source markets remained NZ, the UK and Germany.
International visitation to TNQ grew by 4.5% to 898,000, this growth was driven by
the holiday market which grew by 4.7% to reach a record high of 837,000 visitors.
China remains the largest source market, with stable visitation in the year ending June
2017. Visitation grew from USA Japan and Germany while UK visitation softened
(refer to Chart 3 for details)
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Overall aim
The objective of this study is to identify the local food consumption motivations of tourists
during their holiday.
Theoretical justification
The literature supports the idea that identify culinary tradition creates opportunities to
attract tourists with a new specific element, there is a need for further research on the
motivations for consumption of local food in holiday (Brokaj, 2014).
Methodological justification
This study will also contribute to the theoretical understanding in the field of food tourism
research. This study will use the Means-end Chain (MEC) Theory to capture the motivational
antecedents of tourists’ experiences and and confirm that this theory is appropriate in in
gaining an insight into the motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. Although various scholars have explored aspects of the MEC approach,
most MEC research was conducted for consulting purposes to address practical marketing
problems (Olson and Reynolds, 2001). Thus, it should be admitted that there are still some
methodological and theoretical issues unresolved in MEC theory. For example, more
empirical studies are needed to address problems such as the comparison of different forms of
attribute elicitation, while the impact of situational specificity requires more rigorous
statistical treatment (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001). Should researchers collect sufficient data
and conduct research with rigorous processes, it is believed that all the above challenges are
inherently solvable (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001).
Practical importance
This research could assist the local governments and tourism authorities when planning
promotional activities to attract more people to visit area or to increase tourists spending in
the destination. From the perspective of restaurateurs, they should understand the
expectations of tourists and provide satisfactory service and products by bringing to light
peculiar foods of area with new flavors and authentic ingredients.
4. Literature review
However, although the literature supports the idea that identify culinary tradition
creates opportunities to attract tourists with a new specific element, there is a need for
further research on the motivations for consumption of local food in holiday (Brokaj,
2014).
According to Stanley J. & and Stanley L. (2015), the ‘true’ food tourist is interested in
restaurants that focus on local foods and local traditions. Conventional restaurants would not
fit into the food tourism category. A ‘true’ food tourist restaurant includes restaurants such as
Sat Bains in Nottingham in the UK (www.restaurantsatbains.com). Sat Bains is a Michelin
chef who will only source food that is grown or raised within the local postal code. Research
carried out in January and February 2014 in Australia by Colmar Brunton Omnibus on behalf
of the Australian Farmers Markets Association1 shows that 14% of shoppers now use
farmers’ markets to purchase vegetables and 4% purchase directly from the farmer. Many
businesses around the world are concerned about their viability, in the new world order, food
tourist ventures around the first world are ideally situated to take full advantage of the ‘trust
shift’ taking place in society. The consumer wants to support local businesses who have ideas
and solutions and who appeal to their ‘values’. This means food tourism business operators
have to be proactive and build a strong relationship with target consumers. This is an
advantage that regional, national and international businesses will find increasingly difficult
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The gastronomy tourism and food tourism emerge as special interest tourisms which
are developing fast and have its tourism clientele that considers food and nutrition as the most
important or the only item of the tourist offer. It is of tremendous importance for domestic
tourist potential, especially for the development of gastronomy tourism, to know the requests,
needs and preferences of foreign, as well as of domestic tourists (Aslimoski & Gerasimoski,
2012). This growing interest is fuelledfueled by an increasing number of destinations utilising
their culinary resources in promoting and differentiating themselves from others, for
example, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and Singapore (Chang et al., 2010; Hall & Mitchell,
2002a; Scarpato, 2002). (Kozak, Bigne & Andreu 2003).
The fast development and expansion of gastronomy sector in Queensland has established
itself firmly in tourism industry in Australia. However, the restaurateurs and development of
gastronomy products quality mainly depends on the intuitive decisions of restaurateurs. How
tourists feel about gastronomy in Queensland have not been systematically examined so far.
Therefore, it is now critical to evaluate how gastronomy are received by the tourists, whose
experience and satisfaction are mostly needed for providing implications for investors,
entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders, to further develop this gastronomy sector. Hence, it is
important to understand and meet the needs and desires of tourists in the context of
gastronomic experiences. This can help tourism professionals to pay more attention what
tourists may desire to experience when they visit a destination and motivate the tourists to
revisit a destination. Thus, further research into tourist experiences and motivation in food
tourism will provide opportunities for marketers and regulators to develop more appropriate
products for tourists.
In the study of tourism experiences, motivation is an important concept with particular
emphasis on their implied deterministic notions (Gomez-Jacinto et al., 1999). People are
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motivated to travel to obtain experiences related to their goals, and their motivations also
drive their value perception of destination experiences (Duman and Mattila, 2005). Hence,
Crompton and McKay (1997) identified the importance of understanding visitor motivations
for managers as (1) it is a key to designing products, (2) it can help satisfy customers and
increase repetition of purchase, and (3) it can help to understand the decision making process.
In addition, the monitoring of tourist satisfaction provides feedback for detecting problems
that cause dissatisfaction and have a negative impact on future visitation (Kozak, Bigne &
Andreu 2003).
Previously, there have been many attempts in the literature to explore tourist’s motivations
for purchasing local food, however, Kim, Eves and Scarles (2009) point to the fact that
research in the field is in its infancy and its basic tenets is still being established. The need for
research on this important aspect of hospitality and tourism has been urged by a number of
researchers (Chang et al., 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Stewart, Bramble, & Ziraldo, 2008).
Au and Law (2002) contend that tourist food demand tends to be inelastic. Other studies
indicate that food consumption expenditure can constitute up to one-third of the total tourist
expenditure (Telfer & Wall, 2000). Hence, the economic benefits brought by tourist food
consumption can significantly affect the economic viability and sustainable competitiveness
of a destination and the hospitality businesses operating in the locality. Therefore, it is
important to gain an in-depth understanding of local food consumption motivations of
tourists, satisfactions, and future intentions to help provide answers to this fundamental
question. A review of the literature will be conducted to discuss the existing tourism
motivation theories and clarify the theoretical relationship between motivation, customer
satisfaction, and destination loyalty.
Understanding the drivers of memorable tourist experiences provides valuable insights for
product development and improvement of service delivery.
4.1. However, despite the fact that a variety of studies in the tourism literature of tourist
experiences has been documented over the last three decades, the use of the means-
end chain (MEC) approach as a method of capturing the motivational antecedents of
tourists’ experiences has not yet been discussed thoroughly (Chen et al., 2016). This
study therefore responds to a need for further empirical research to identify the
motivational drivers influencing tourist experiences, and how destination attributes
deliver a tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at the value level.
4.2.
4.3. In the context of tourism experience it is widely accepted that post-experience
satisfaction is related to the realization of motivation perceptions (Dunn Ross and Iso-
Ahola, 1991), and that prior travel experience significantly influences tourists’
behaviour of revisiting a destination. As a result, people are more likely to revisit a
destination if they have had satisfactory past travel experiences in it.
4.4.
4.5. While travel experience has been well documented as a popular topic in the
tourism research field (Mazursky, 1989), it is argued that the concept and its
operationalization are blurred and arguable (Huang and Hsu, 2009). A study of
tourism experience conducted using in-depth interviews (Knobloch, 2014) showed
that: (i) respondents associate different meanings to experiences; and (ii) types of
experiences might be prominent in the minds of respondents for different reasons.
This calls for a new approach to looking at tourists’ experiences which emphasizes
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4.7.
4.8.
4.9. Theoretical Framework
This study aims to gain a better understanding of motivations which influencing tourists’
local food consumption during their holiday. To this end, it involves the theoretical and
empirical examination of tourist experiences, motivation, and local food purchase intention.
This research explores the food consumption motivations of tourists, their satisfactions, and
repurchase intention, as well as examining the relationship between need satisfaction, overall
satisfaction and repurchase intention.
To do this, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this study. Qualitative
methods used focus group interviews to explore food consumption motivations of tourists
who visit Queensland. Following the focus group interviews, two pre tests using a self-
administered survey were conducted in order to discover the main variables to be used for the
formal survey. Finally, a pre and post survey was administered based upon the suggestions
of several scholars who stated that travel motivations needed to be measured before the trip,
because tourist motivations change after the trip (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola 1991; Iso-Ahola &
Allen 1982). To discover the motivation factors and to examine the construct validity, both
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used. The importance and performance
analysis (IPA) technique was further used to analyse the motivation satisfaction of tourists.
In addition, cluster analysis was used to segment tourists in terms of their different local food
consumption motivations. Finally, several statistical analysis techniques were used to analyse
the data. Multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationships between
customer satisfaction, need satisfaction, and repurchase intention.
The MEC approach provides a means to identify the motivational drivers influencing
tourist experiences, and how destination attributes deliver a tourist their preferred experiences
and satisfy their needs at the value level (Scott, Jun and Ma, 2017). A tourist’s experience is
affected by psychological (e.g. expectation, perception and motivation), socio-demographic
(e.g. education, income), lifestyle (e.g. basic living, moderate living and extravagant living)
and external factors (e.g. weather, regulations and the environment). Therefore, MEC is a
very useful approach for exploring the psychological factors involved in consumer behaviour
and has been used by scholars in the tourism field (McIntosh and Thyne, 2005; McDonald,
Thyne and McMorland, 2008), including naturebased experiences (Klenosky et al., 1998;
Frauman and Cunningham, 2001). The purpose of the following conceptual framework is to
explore, in the context of leisure travel, how experience attributes provide the preferred
benefits to tourists and satisfy their experience value/goal. The conceptual framework (Figure
3.1) is considered to provide a directed, hierarchically organized structure of the
interconnected levels of travel experience desired by the tourist.
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The purpose of this study is to explore motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. The specific research aims, questions, and hypotheses are:
This study therefore responds to a need for further empirical research to identify the
motivational drivers influencing tourist experiences, and how destination attributes deliver a
tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at the value level.
1. To better understand tourist’s purchase intentions concerning Australia local food by applying the means-
end chain theory.
2. To explore the key motivational drivers that influence tourists’ purchase intentions concerning local food.
3. To identify how destination attributes deliver a tourist their preferred experiences and satisfy their needs at
the value level.
A growing body of studies have demonstrated that motivational factors can significantly
affect tourist food consumption (Mak et al., 2012). First of all, a number of studies explore
how food per se can be the major, or one of the major, motivations to travel to a destination
(Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager and Richards, 2002; Long, 2004). Kivela and Crotts
(2006) contend that motivation to travel for food/gastronomy is a valid construct, and that
food plays an important role in affecting the overall tourist experience and intention to revisit
a destination. Ignatov and Smith (2006) found that travel motivations and activities differed
significantly among different Canadian culinary tourist segments. Furthermore, Fields (2002)
adopts the typology of tourist motivators suggested by McIntosh, Goeldner, and Ritchie
(1995) to elaborate on the interplay between food consumption and tourism. The four
motivators are: physical, cultural, interpersonal, and status and prestige motivators. First,
food can be a physical motivator as the act of eating is predominately physical in nature
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involving sensory perceptions to appreciate the food or tourists’ need for sustenance. Second,
food can also be a cultural motivator because when tourists are experiencing new local
cuisines, they are simultaneously experiencing a new culture. Third, it might serve as an
interpersonal motivator as meals taken on a holiday have a social function including building
new social relations and strengthening social bonds. Finally, local delicacies can also be a
status and prestige motivator, as tourists can build their knowledge of the local cuisine by
eating as the locals do, and exploring new cuisines and food that they or their friends are not
likely to encounter at home. While the proposition of Fields (2002) lacks empirical evidence,
it suggests a theoretical linkage between tourist motivation and motivational factors
underlying food consumption in tourism. Tourist motivation is recognised as an important
construct in understanding tourist choice and behaviour (Crompton & McKay, 1997). It can
be defined as the ‘global integrating network of biological and cultural forces which gives
value and direction to travel choices, behaviour, and experience’ (Pearce, Morrison, &
Rutledge, 1998, p. 215). Tourist motivation embraces psychological as well as physiological
facets because travel is expected to satisfy different levels of needs such as psychological
(e.g., intrinsic, personal, and interpersonal rewards) and physiological needs (e.g., food,
shelter, safety, health, and fitness) (Mak, Wong, & Chang, 2009; Witt & Wright, 1992). Since
tourist motivation exerts significant influence over tourist choice and behaviour, it can be a
significant force affecting tourist food consumption. For example, a tourist motivated to visit
a destination by its cultural factors may be more inclined to try local traditional food in order
to explore the local food culture. This has led to the first area of research which was
investigated in this dissertation. This concerns the specific food consumption motivations of
tourists who visited Brisbane and Ubud, their satisfaction and their repurchase intention.
A composite approach to repurchase intention that combines the behavioural and attitudinal
approach was used because this approach increases the accuracy of the findings and the
predictive power (Hanefors & Mossberg 1999; Niininen & Riley 2004).
The second question examines the link between need satisfaction and repurchase intention.
Several researchers have found satisfaction and attitude to be major antecedents of customer
repurchase intention (Bearden and Teel, 1983; Innis, 1991; Oliver, 1980, 1981; Roest and
Pieters, 1997). A direct positive relationship between customer satisfaction and repurchase
intention is supported by a wide variety of product and service studies (Anderson and
Sullivan, 1993; Bolton, 1998; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Fornell, 1992; Oliver, 1980;
Patterson and Spreng, 1997; Rust and Zahorik, 1993; Selnes, 1998; Swan and Trawick, 1981;
Taylor and Baker, 1994; Woodside et al., 1989). These studies establish that overall customer
satisfaction with a service is strongly associated with the behavioural intention to return to the
same service provider. However, the need satisfaction linkage to predict future intention to
purchase, or repurchase intention is remained unknown. Therefore, the second question to be
answered is: ‘Does need satisfaction affect repurchase intention?’
Based on these two questions stated above, this study proposes that a tourist experiences a
combination of push and pull tourist motivations to purchase food in order to satisfy their
motivations or needs. These motivations or needs are dis/satisfied through the tourist’s
experiences that are created from interactions with restaurants. Therefore, the first
assumption is that if a tourist or customer is satisfied with his food consumption experience at
a destination, the results will positively influence the tourist’s satisfaction related to their
motivations or needs. If motivations or needs are satisfied, the results will produce feedback
to tourists and affects their repurchase intention. Thus, the second assumption is that if
motivations or needs are satisfied, these results will positively affect repurchase intention (see
Figure 3).
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This research explores the food consumption motivations of tourists Bribane and Ubud, and
investigates their need satisfaction, overall satisfaction and repurchase intention. In addition,
this research also examines the relationships between need satisfaction, overall satisfaction
and repurchase intention.
To do this, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this study. Qualitative
methods used individual tourist interviews with respondents from mainland China, Taiwan,
and Macao were combined into the “Chinese group” and respondents from other Asian
countries, such as Korea, Japan, and other Southeast Asian countries, were combined into the
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“other Asians”. Tourists from Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and America were combined
into the “Westerner” group. Following the interviews, two pre tests using a self- administered
survey were conducted in order to discover the main variables to be used for the formal
survey. Finally, a pre and post survey was administered based upon the suggestions of
several scholars who stated that travel motivations needed to be measured before the trip,
because tourist motivations change after the trip (Dunn Ross & Iso-Ahola 1991; Iso-Ahola &
Allen 1982). To discover the motivation factors and to examine the construct validity, both
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used. The importance and performance
analysis (IPA) technique was further used to analyse the motivation satisfaction of tourists. In
addition, cluster analysis was used to segment tourists in terms of their different food
consumption motivations. Finally, several statistical analysis techniques were used to analyse
the data. Multiple regression analysis examined the predictive relationships between
customer satisfaction, need satisfaction and repurchase intention. A summary of the
methodology and data analysis instruments used is presented in Table 1.
objectives. A sequential exploratory design is adopted with both qualitative and quantitative
methods used to collect data.
Phase one, a literature review will be undertaken focusing on the culinary tourism
phenomenon. It relates to the major factors that have contributed to the increased interesting
culinary tourism; and the concept of culinary tourism and its various definitions. Hence, a
literature review on strategic measures adopted by the gastronomy chains will be undertaken
focusing on increasing the quality experience with gastronomy in the destination.
Phase two, to build inventory of local foods of the Queensland, the self-report method
together with eye tracking method (psychophysiological method) will be undertaken focusing
on the menus of 16 restaurants in Queensland across a range of tourism locations as Brisbane,
Gold Coast, Sunshine Coast and TNQ. Many tourists’ first experience with local or regional
food and wine is often far removed from its place of production, occurring at their hotel or at
a restaurant. In this context the restaurant and catering sector represents a significant
opportunity to facilitate the development of a regional culinary image and, thereby, an
increased use of regional produce (Hall et all, 2003).
Phase three, to find out inclusion level of local food in restaurants, a document review
method was is usually employed (Patton, 2002; Sterk and Elifson, 2004). Therefore, all the
menus of restaurants in Queensland are reviewed and researchers will carefully noted total
menu items and local foods, which are included in the menu.
Phase four, this study identifies the local food consumption motivations of tourists during
their holiday. It is importance to identify culinary tradition which creates opportunities to
attract tourists with a new specific element (Brokaj, 2014). A questionnaire survey way will
be employed to 240 international tourists which visiting to Queensland. The study will focus
on the potential respondents from China, NZ, UK, Japan, USA and Germany which recorded
the top source markets for Queensland. The instrument used to collect the data is a
questionnaire which will be developed and modified by the researchers. Questions are
divided into five ranks based on Likert scale ranging from that is including: (1=strongly
disagree to 5=strongly agree). The survey time will be taken around 3 months.
The questionnaire had three parts. In the first part the study was focused on the demographic
factors of participants. The second part contained 20 statements that were linked to a 5-point
Likert Scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) to identify what kind of motives
impact tourists local food choose on their holiday. And at the end there are some questions
regarding the expectations of tourists’ from restaurants.
Previously, there have been many attempts in the literature to explore tourist’s
motivations for purchasing local food, however, Kim, Eves and Scarles (2009) point to the
fact that research in the field is in its infancy and its basic tenets is still being established. The
need for research on this important aspect of hospitality and tourism has been urged by a
number of researchers (Chang et al., 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Stewart, Bramble, &
Ziraldo, 2008). Au and Law (2002) contend that tourist food demand tends to be inelastic.
Other studies indicate that food consumption expenditure can constitute up to one-third of the
total tourist expenditure (Telfer & Wall, 2000). Hence, the economic benefits brought by
tourist food consumption can significantly affect the economic viability and sustainable
competitiveness of a destination and the hospitality businesses operating in the locality.
Therefore, motivation is an important concept in the study of tourism experiences,
although scholars discussing tourist experiences have largely probed the relationship between
motivation and tourist experiences, with particular emphasis on their implied deterministic
notions (Gomez-Jacinto et al., 1999). People are motivated to travel to obtain experiences
Regina Pricilla
related to their goals, and their motivations also drive their value perception of destination
experiences (Duman and Mattila, 2005). The study of motivation in relation to local food can
provide insights for stakeholders and marketers keen to develop their respective food tourism
market. Understanding potential consumers’ desires, allows local governors and tourism
authorities to develop more appropriate policies, products, and marketing strategies to cater
for the needs and wants of tourists. Hence, with the purpose of exploring tourist’s local food
buying motivation, this study will help to gain a better understanding of food choice from a
tourist’s perspective. This, in turn, can provide local governors and tourism authorities with
practical advice regarding marketing strategies and promotion of their local food to visitors.
From the perspective of restaurateurs, they should understand the expectations of tourists and
provide satisfactory service and products by bringing to light peculiar foods of area with new
flavors and authentic ingredients
This study will also contribute to the theoretical understanding in the field of food tourism
research. This study will use the Means-end Chain (MEC) Theory to capture the motivational
antecedents of tourists’ experiences and and confirm that this theory is appropriate in in
gaining an insight into the motivations which influencing tourists’ local food consumption
during their holiday. Although various scholars have explored aspects of the MEC approach,
most MEC research was conducted for consulting purposes to address practical marketing
problems (Olson and Reynolds, 2001). Thus, it should be admitted that there are still some
methodological and theoretical issues unresolved in MEC theory. For example, more
empirical studies are needed to address problems such as the comparison of different forms of
attribute elicitation, while the impact of situational specificity requires more rigorous
statistical treatment (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001). Should researchers collect sufficient data
and conduct research with rigorous processes, it is believed that all the above challenges are
inherently solvable (Grunert and Bechmann, 2001).
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Regina Pricilla
Mazursky, D. (1989) Past experience and future tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism
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McDonald, S., Thyne, M. and McMorland, L.-A. (2008) Means-end theory in tourism
research. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), pp.596–599.
McIntosh, A.J. and Thyne, M.A. (2005) Understanding tourist behavior using means-end
chain theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(1), pp.259–262.
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illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25(3), pp.297-305.
Queener
Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: local food and the sustainable tourism
experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), pp.321-336.
Stewart, J. W., Bramble, L., & Ziraldo, D. (2008). Key challenges in wine and culinary
tourism with practical recommendations. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 20(3), pp.302-312.
Telfer, D. (2001). Strategic alliances along the Niagara Wine Route. Tourism Management,
22(1), pp.21-30.
Telfer, D. (2001). From a Wine Tourism Village to a Regional Wine Route: An Investigation
of the Competitive Advantage of Embedded Clusters in Niagara, Canada. Tourism
Recreation Research, 26(2), pp.23-33.
Telfer, D. and Wall, G. (2000). Strengthening backward economic linkages: Local food
purchasing by three Indonesian hotels. Tourism Geographies, 2(4), pp.421-447.
Uner, E.H., (2014). Her Sey Dahil Sistemde Turkiye Gastronomi Turizmi Potansiyelinin
Degerlendirilmesi, Atılım University, Institute of Social Sciences, MA Thesis, Ankara
World Economic Forum (2017). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017.
Regina Pricilla
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