Ceramic Tile

Background
Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a
class of ceramics known as whitewares. The production of tile dates
back to ancient times and peoples, including the Egyptians, the
Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For instance, the Step Pyramid for the
Pharoah Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C. , contained
colorful glazed tile. Later, ceramic tile was manufactured in virtually
every major European country and in the United States. By the
beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an
industrial scale. The invention of the tunnel kiln around 1910 increased
the automation of tile manufacture. Today, tile manufacture is highly
automated.
The American National Standards Institute separates tiles into several
classifications. Ceramic mosaic tile may be either porcelain or of
natural clay composition of size less than 39 cm2 (6 in.2). Decorative
wall tile is glazed tile with a thin body used for interior decoration of
residential walls. Paver tile is glazed or unglazed porcelain or natural
clay tile of size 39 cm2 (6 in.2) or more. Porcelain tile is ceramic
mosaic tile or paver tile that is made by a certain method called dry
pressing. Quarry tile is glazed or unglazed tile of the same size as
paver tile, but made by a different forming method.
Europe, Latin America, and the Far East are the largest producers of
tile, with Italy the leader at 16.6 million ft.2/day as of 1989. Following
Italy (at 24.6 percent of the world market) are Spain (12.6 percent),
Brazil and Germany (both at 11.2 percent), and the United States (4.5
percent). The total market for floor and wall tile in 1990 according to
one estimate was $2.4 billion.
The United States has approximately 100 plants that manufacture
ceramic tile, which shipped about 507 million ft.2 in 1990 according to
the U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. imports, by volume, accounted
for approximately 60 percent of consumption in 1990, valued at around
$500 million. Italy accounts for almost half of all imports, with Mexico
and Spain following. U.S. exports have seen some growth, from $12
million in 1988 to about $20 million in 1990.
Because the tile industry is a relatively mature market and dependent
on the building industry, growth will be slow. The United States
Department of Commerce estimates a three to four percent increase in
tile consumption over the next five years. Another economic analysis
predicts that 494 million ft.2 will be shipped in 1992, a growth of about
4 percent from the previous year. Some tile manufacturers are a bit
more optimistic; an American Ceramic Society survey showed an
average growth of around 36 percent per manufacturer over the next
five years.

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The raw materials used to form tile consist of clay minerals mined
from the earth's crust, natural minerals such as feldspar that are used
to lower the firing temperature, and chemical additives required for
the shaping process. The minerals are often refined or beneficiated
near the mine before shipment to the ceramic plant.
The raw materials must be pulverized and classified according to
particle size. Primary crushers are used to reduce large lumps of
material. Either a jaw crusher or gyratory crusher is used, which
operate using a horizontal

The initial step in ceramic tile manufacture involves mixing the ingredients. Sometimes,

water is then added and the ingredients are wet milled or ground in a ball mill. If wet
milling is used, the excess water is removed using filter pressing followed by spray
drying. The resulting powder is then pressed into the desired tile body shape.

squeezing motion between steel plates or rotating motion between

steel cones, respectively.
Secondary crushing reduces smaller lumps to particles. Hammer or
muller mills are often used. A muller mill uses steel wheels in a
shallow rotating pan, while a hammer mill uses rapidly moving steel
hammers to crush the material. Roller or cone type crushers can also
be used.
A third particle size reduction step may be necessary. Tumbling types
of mills are used in combination with grinding media. One of the most
common types of such mills is the ball mill, which consists of large
rotating cylinders partially filled with spherical grinding media.
Screens are used to separate out particles in a specific size range.
They operate in a sloped position and are vibrated mechanically or
electromechanically to improve material flow. Screens are classified
according to mesh number, which is the number of openings per lineal
inch of screen surface. The higher the mesh number, the smaller the
opening size.
A glaze is a glass material designed to melt onto the surface of the tile
during firing, and which then adheres to the tile surface during cooling.
Glazes are used to provide moisture resistance and decoration, as
they can be colored or can produce special textures.

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The Manufacturing
Process
Once the raw materials are processed, a number of steps take place to
obtain the finished product. These steps include batching, mixing and
grinding, spray-drying, forming, drying, glazing, and firing. Many of
these steps are now accomplished using automated equipment.

Batching
 1 For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is
determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw
materials also determine the color of the tile body, which can be red or
white in color, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw
 materials used. Therefore, it is important to mix the right amounts
together to achieve the desired properties. Batch calculations are thus
required, which must take into consideration both physical properties
and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate
weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be
mixed together.

Mixing and grinding

 2 Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a
shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of
two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the
material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer
uses rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the ingredients,
resulting in a finer particle size that improves the subsequent forming
process (see step #4 below).

Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of

a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding.
This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a
ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry or
slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by filter pressing
(which removes 40-50 percent of the moisture), followed by dry
milling.

Spray drying
 3 If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via
spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer
consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are
dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free
flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.

Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by

granulation. Granulation uses a machine in which the mixture of
previously dry-ground material is mixed with water in order to
form the particles into granules, which again form a powder
ready for forming.
Forming
 4 Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing
powder—containing organic binder or a low percentage of moisture—
flows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in
a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom
plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high
as 2,500 tons.

Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a
wetter, more moldable form. Extrusion plus punching is used to
produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more
economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-
pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the
cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one
or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses.
Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this
method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two
halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press.
The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top
half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by
forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess
material must be removed from the part and additional finishing
may be needed.
Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been
developed. This process combines glazing and shaping
simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form)
directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages
include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing
waste material (called sludge) that is produced with the
conventional method.

Drying
 5 Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after
forming, especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take
several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent
shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated
using gas or oil, infrared lamps, or microwave energy. Infrared drying is
better suited for thin tile, whereas microwave drying works better for
 thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air
flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the
material flow direction.

Glazing
 6 To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body.
After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed,
mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using
one of the many methods available. In centrifugal glazing or discing,
the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze
onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto
the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is
simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on,
under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this
process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or
other device.

Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of

powders, crushed frits  (glass materials), and granulated glazes
onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After firing, the glaze particles
melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.

Firing
 7 After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and
give it the desired porosity. Two types of ovens, or 
 After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to
prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is
fired in a furnace or kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing
process, wet-milled tile is fired only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees
Fahrenheit or more. After firing, the tile is packaged and shipped.

kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall tile, or tile that is prepared by dry
grinding instead of wet milling (see #2 and #3 above), usually requires
a two-step process. In this process, the tile goes through a low-
temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step
removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the
shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process
called glost firing. Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or
continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware
is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory batts—shelves built of
materials that are resistant to high temperatures—or in containers
called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with
firing temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees
Celsius).

For tile that only requires a single firing—usually tile that is

prepared by wet milling—roller kilns are generally used. These
kilns move the wares on a roller conveyor and do not require kiln
furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times in roller kilns
can be as low as 60 minutes, with firing temperatures around
2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or more.

 8 After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be packaged and shipped.

Byproducts
A variety of pollutants are generated during the various manufacturing
steps; these emissions must be controlled to meet air control
standards. Among the pollutants produced in tile manufacture are
fluorine and lead compounds, which are produced during firing and
glazing. Lead compounds have been significantly reduced with the
recent development of no-lead or low-lead glazes. Fluorine emissions
can be controlled with scrubbers, devices that basically spray the
gases with water to remove harmful pollutants. They can also be
controlled with dry processes, such as fabric filters coated with lime.
This lime can then be recycled as a raw material for future tile.
The tile industry is also developing processes to recycle wastewater
and sludge produced during milling, glazing, and spray-drying. Already
some plants recycle the excess powder generated during dry-pressing
as well as the overspray produced during glazing. Waste glaze and
rejected tile are also returned to the body preparation process for
reuse.

Quality Control
Most tile manufacturers now use statistical process control (SPC) for
each step of the manufacturing process. Many also work closely with
their raw material suppliers to ensure that specifications are met
before the material is used. Statistical process control consists of
charts that are used to monitor various processing parameters, such
as particle size, milling time, drying temperature and time, compaction
pressure, dimensions after pressing, density, firing temperature and
time, and the like. These charts identify problems with equipment, out
of spec conditions, and help to improve yields before the final product
is finished.
The final product must meet certain specifications regarding physical
and chemical properties. These properties are determined by standard
tests established by the American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM). Properties measured include mechanical strength, abrasion
resistance, chemical resistance, water absorption, dimensional
stability, frost resistance, and linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
More recently, the slip resistance, which can be determined by
measuring the coefficient of friction, has become a concern. However,
no standard has yet been established because other factors (such as
proper floor design and care) can make results meaningless.

The Future
In order to maintain market growth, tile manufacturers will
concentrate on developing and promoting new tile products, including
modular or cladding tile, larger-sized tile, slip- and abrasion-resistant
tile, and tile with a polished, granite or marble finish. This is being
accomplished through the development of different body formulations,
new glazes, and glaze applications, and by new and improved
processing equipment and techniques. Automation will continue to
play an important role in an effort to increase production, lower costs,
and improve quality. In addition, changes in production technology due
to environmental and energy resource issues will continue.

Where to Learn More

Books
Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds. Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and
Operating Practices in the Heavy Clay Industries.  Bauverlag GmbH,
1982.
Jones, J. T. and M. F. Berard. Ceramics: Industrial Processing and
Testing.  Iowa State University Press, 1972.
Pellacani, G. and T. Manfredini. Engineered Materials Handbook.  ASM
International, 1991, pp. 925-929.

Periodicals
Burzacchini, B. "Technical Developments in Ceramic Tile Glazes and
Related Applications," American Ceramic Society Bulletin.  March,
1991, pp. 394-403.
Fugmann, K. "Rapid Changes in Tile Technology," Tile & Brick
International.  March, 1991, pp. 165-166.
Gehringer, George. "Tile Glossary: A Guide to Techniques and Surface
Designs," American Ceramic Society Bulletin.  December, 1990, pp.
1950-1952.
Geiger, Greg. "Developments in the Tile Industry," American Ceramic
Society Bulletin.  December, 1991, pp. 1879-1885.
— L.  S.  Millberg

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