Module 1
Module 1
Module 1
MODULE 1:
Meaning, Objectives and Characteristics of research - Research
methods Vs Methodology, Types of research, Descriptive Vs.
Analytical, Applied Vs. Fundamental, Quantitative Vs.
Qualitative, Conceptual Vs. Empirical - Research process - Criteria
of good research -Developing a research plan.
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research is a derivative of the French word; ‘Researche’ means quest, search, pursuit
and search for truth. The term ‘Research’ consists of two words.
Research = Re + Search. ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
something, the following is the process:
Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different
dimensions.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
The Dictionary meaning of research is “a careful investigation or inquiry especially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
Research can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
The research is defined as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge-Redman
and Mory.
Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
The research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating the hypothesis
or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis-Clifford Woody.
The research is defined as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
“The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in its
broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal problems; conversely, any systematic
study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be
considered research.”- George J. Mouly
“To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive, so that
it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that
research is, literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which people
engage. By this definition all intelligent human behaviour involves some research.”
“In social studies, teachers, administrators, or others engage in ‘Research’ when they
systematically and purposefully assemble information about schools, school children,
the social matrix in which a school or school system is determined, the characteristic
of the learner or the interaction between the school and pupil.”- Francis G. Cornell
conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
the formulating hypotheses”- Clifford Woody
“Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialised tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a
problem, collects data or facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions based on
the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal. It
evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. - C.C.
Crawford
“Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavour or primitive hunting.”–
James Harvey Robinson
“Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in
the field studied.”- P.M. Cook
He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition:
1. It is an honest and exhaustive process.
“Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry employed as
the research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of stimulating progress
and helping society and man relate more efficiently and effectively to the problems
that society and man perpetuate and create.”- J.H. McGrath and D.E. Watson
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered till today. Each research study has its own specific purpose. The prime
objectives of research are as follows.
1. To discover the new facts.
2. To verify and test the important facts.
3. To analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship.
4. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and nonscientific problems.
5. To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems.
6. To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern
over practical problems initiate the research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Curiosity about unknown
7. Desire to understand the cause and effect of wide spread social problems
8. Appearance of novel and unanticipated situations
9. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedure as an efficient way to
gain useful and fundamental knowledge.
However, this is not a list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the
like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
Research Methods versus Methodology [Research methods and Research methodology]
Is there any difference between Research methods and Research methodology?
Table 1.1
Type Methods Techniques
x. Case study and life Cross sectional collection of data for intensive
history analysis, longitudinal collection of data of
intensive character.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify the state as it exists at
present. It uses description, classification, measurement and comparison to describe a
situation. The main characteristic is that the researcher has no control over the variables. He
only reports the situation as it is at that time. The term ex-post facto is usually used for
descriptive research studies in social sciences. The survey method is commonly used in
descriptive research.
Fundamental Research
Aims to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of a discipline.
Often several disciplines work together for solving the problem.
Often researches individual cases without the aim to generalise.
Aims to say how things can be changed.
Acknowledges that other variables are constant by changing.
Reports are compiled in a common language.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is
expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. The result of this research is
essentially a number or a set of numbers.
Quantitative research is more concerned with questions about: how much? How
many? How often? To what extent? etc.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/ method are:
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses
numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
The quantitative research finds applications not only in physical sciences but also in
economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods often
begins with the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or experiment followed by
the application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is undertaken to gain insights. Insights concerning to attitudes,
beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to behave in a particular manner. The
nature of this type of research is to explore a social or human problem and open ended. It
includes the methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and
case studies.
Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin
with: why? How? In what way?
v. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
vi. The task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process.
2. Extensive literature survey/ Review the Literature
i. Once the problem has been identified, a brief summary (synopsis) of it should be
prepared. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D degree.
The synopsis of the topic is to be submitted to the necessary Committee or the
Research Board for approval.
ii. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem.
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
iii. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area.
3. Development of working hypotheses
i. After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for research
ii. The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
iii. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on
a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design
The researcher is required to prepare a research design. There are several research
designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental
designs can be either informal designs or formal designs, out of which the researcher must
select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
i. The means of obtaining the information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
iii. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will
be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
iv. The time available for research; and
v. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design
The way of selecting a sample is popularly known as the sample design. In other
words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
The probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.
The non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
i. Deliberate sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire
happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
ii. Simple random sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling. In
this each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.
EX.: if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items,
then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper
and conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling.
Ex.: To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then,
300 five digits random numbers are selected from the table.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of questions through personal interviews. In this method the output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the
end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given
in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
• Keeping our priorities in mind. If we are having a hard time finding an answer to a
particular question, we should ask ourself how important it is to answer - before
we spend lots of time researching
Step 5: Review of Findings
• Have you answered your questions?
• How will we use the information we have found?
• Did our research raise additional questions?
How important are they in relation to our purpose?
Questions
1. Write any five definitions of “Research”.
2. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
5. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey.
7. “Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems for the researchers”. State
the problems that are usually faced by such researchers.
8. “A research scholar has to work as a judge and derive the truth and not as a leader who is only
eager to prove his case in favour of his plaintiff.” Discuss the statement pointing out the
objectives of research.
10. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation.” Do you
agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.
11. It is often said that there is not a proper link between some of the activities under way in the
world of academics and in most business in our country. Account for this state of affairs and
give suggestions for improvement.
12. Define the term ‘Research’, Enumerate the characteristics of research. Give a comprehensive
definition of research.
13. Define the term ‘Research’. Describe the specific features of Research,
14. Enumerate the main objectives of research and explain them in detail.
15. Describe the various classification of research, Differentiate between fundamental research
and action research. Elaborate your answer with examples.
16. Describe the steps of research. Enumerate the objectives of action research.
16. Plan an action research project and describe the various steps which are followed in
completing the project.