Interaction between Bhakti and Sufi Saints

Sufism

According to Dabistan, ''Sufism belongs to all religions; its adherents are

known under different names among the Hindus, Persian and Arabians, it

appears to be nothing else but rationalism of any sort of doctrine. It could never

be the religion of the whole nation; it remained confined to the precincts of

schools and societies."''

During the 12"' century a large number of Sufi saints came to India with

the Muslim conquest and took shelter especially in Multan, Punjab and Sind.

Sufism in India underwent a considerable change till the end of the 17* century.

It is the branch of Islamic Mystics as Yusuf Husain rightly said ''Sufism was

born in the bosom of Islam." Sufism. and Bhakti tradition are a particular type

of mysticism which has many traits in common, including the centrality of

Divine Love in their approach of the ultimate Reality, God.^ In India it was

completely influenced by the Hindu thought, belief and practiced the best

conception of a loving God the relation between God and soul as the relation

between beloved and lover is very unique in Hinduism and it was too adopted

by the Sufi, saints in India.

Generally scholars trace its origin by the Arabic root 'Safa' (purity) says

those who keeps their heart pure with God are Sufis. The Sufi Mystics who had

the doctrine of universal brotherhood and a definite way of community life

Fani, Musin, Dabistan-i-Mazahib or School of Manners, tr. Sheba and Troyer, Paris, 1943 p. CLVIII,
" Husain, Yusuf Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 33.
' Giiaffurova, Nine!, 'Divine Love in Sufism and Bhakli-Marga (Kabir Das and Sri Ramkrishna)' Sufi
and Sufism, (ed.) Neeru Mislira, Manoliar, Delhi, 2004, p. 83.
'' Nicholson, R.A., Literaiy History of Arabs, Curzon, Richmond, rpt.1993, p. 228.

144
 were generally wearing a particular kind of woollen garment, known as Sufi.^

Abu Nasaral Sarraj the author of Arabic treatise on Sufism declared that in his

opinion the word Sufi is derived from Suf (wool)*" after the Muhammad Sahib

those saints who used to wear woolen garb, became famous by the name of

Sufi?,.

Advent oiSufism in India

With pious mission of love to all many Sufi's, and Dervishes from Arabia,

Iraq, Syria, Samarqand and Bukhara came to India during (1000 A.D. to 1150

A.D.)- For example Shaikh Ismail of Bukhara came to Lahore in about 1005

A.D., Shah Sultan Rumi with his spiritual guide Syed Shah Surkh Khul Auliya

arrieved at Madanpur (Bangladesh) Hazarat Shaikh Abdullah came from

Yemen. Shaikh Hussain Zanjani of Azarbaijal settled at Lahore. Ali Hujwiri

came to Lahore (d.l072 A.D.). Another saint was Nuru'd-din Ismail. Nur
Q

Satagar came to Gujarat during the reign of Siddharaya (1094-1193 A.D.).

Khawaja Muinud-Din Chishti of Ajmer came to India and settled at Ajmer long

before the Muhammad Ghuri. There was also a warrior saint during the reign of

Ballala Sena (d.llI9 A.D'.), Baba Adam Sahib in east Bengal (Bengladesh).

From 1150 to 1400A.D. the advent of Sufiisin was continue in India.

^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. .4, part 2, London, 1964, p. 681.

'' E.R.E, Vol Xn,p. 10
^ it is said that Koch King of the region tried to poison him in 1053 A.D., but the effort failed then the
king was influenced by the miraculous power of the saint gave out a whole village to the revered
memory of the saint for the advent of Islam.
** Ishwari Prasad describes in A Short Hisloiy of Muslim Rule in India that Nuru'd-din known as Nur
Satagar came to Gujarat during the reign of Siddharaja (1094-1143 A.D.) and converted to Islam such
castes as the Koris, Kunbis, Karwas, p. 14; Influence of Islam, op. cit., p. 46.

145
 Thus it is clear that Sufism came in India many years before the

extension of Turkish poHtical power. The Muslim trades, merchants, saints and

mystics peacefully entered into India and settled down; these Muslim

immigrants lived outside the foilified town amongst the lower section of the

Indian people because of caste taboos. The Muslim settled down in India

before the Ghurid conquest and they have settled their permanent stay in India.

Ibn Asir writesin Kamilu-i-Twarikh, "there were Musalmans in that country

since the days of Mohammad Bin Subuktigin."

Thus the advent of Sufism continued in India from 1150 to 1400 A.D.

and organized their silsila. Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari gives a list of

fourteen silsilas in Hindustan." Among them four gained to more fame i.e. The

Chishti Silsila, The Suharwardi Silsila, The Naqshbandi Silsila, The Qadiri

Silsila.

The Chishti Order

The Chishti Silsila or Order played an important role in India; the chief

centres of Chishti silsila were in Ajmer, Narnaul, Suwal, Nagaur, Hansi,

Ajodhan in Punjab and other towns of U.P., the whole Bengal including

Bengladesh and Assam. In India it was introduced by Khawaja Mu'inu'd-Din

Chishti. Shaikh was born in 1141 A.D. and died in 1236 A.D. He came in India

in the beginning of the year 1193 A.D. and settled at Ajmer. The Khawaja

' Habib, Mohd. & Nizami, K.A., eds, Comprehensive History of India, 5 Vols. Vol. V, People's
Publication, New Delhi, 1996, p. 138.
'°//./.£.£)., Vol. ll,p. 251.
^^Ain-i-Akbari, Vol. Ill, p. 393.

146
 adopted the catholic attitude in his dealings with the Hindus. His doctrine of

devotion was that to consist of doing service of mankind.

Khawaja had number of disciples to propagated his philosophy two of

them Shaikh Hamidu'd-Din Nagori and Shaikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in

Delhi. He was the distinguish Khalifa of Shaikh Moinu'd-Din, was native of

Ayush. Both saint settled in different parts of India, Nagori Settled in Nagor

and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki settled at Delhi. He was succeeded by

Faridu'd-Din-Ganj-i-Shakar, popularly known as Baba Farid. Baba Farid was

settled at Ajodhan. He gave to Chishti Silsila an organized form for the

spiritual movement. He was much popular among the Sikh Community so that

many of his hymns are collected in Adi Granth. Sheikh Farid's most

outstanding Khalifa was Shaikh Nizamu'd-Din Auliya (1236-1325 A.D.).

Under his the Chishti order reached its highest watermark' for nearly half a

century he worked in Delhi, gained a great fame at his time and also known as

Mehbub-i-illahi (the beloved of God). His religious activities had a great deal

to do with the popularity of Chishti Order in India.

The last great Sufi of the silsila was Shaikh Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud

popularly known as Chirag-i-Delhi, ^ settled down at Lahore. At the age of 45

he became the disciple of Nizamu'd-Din Auliya and died in 1336 A.D.

'" Ayush is a town in Farglianah, south east of Andijen , Nizami, Some Aspect of Religion and Politics
in India during Thirteenth Century, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 2'"* edn.1974, p. I88.(hereafter as
A.R.P.I.)
'' Nizami in his work Life and Times of Shaikh Farid-u'd-din Ganj-i-Shakar, (Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-
Delli, Delhi, 1973. pp. 121-22.) derives it and said that Farid was other person whose hymn are in Adi
Granth not Baba Farid of Chishti Silsila.
'Uin-i-Akbari, Vol. U, p. 20^.
''£/?.£., Vol. XI. p. 63.

147
 The Suharwardi Order

After Chishti order the next popular orderof India was Suharwardi, the

founder of this silsila was Shaikh Shihabu'd-Din Suhrawardi; who directed his

disciples to work in India, within very short time it gained marvelous

popularity."" No doubt there were many saints in Suhrawardi order but for the

organized form of this silsilsh in India the credit goes to Bahau'd-Din Zakariya

of Multani, he settled in Multan till his death in 1262 A.D.'^ he was the most

influential mystic of the 13"' century. His Sufi ideology differed from Chishti

Order. He did not believe in poverty and torturing of the body. He was against

the Hindu practice of bowing against the sheikh and too much fasting like

Chill-i-Ma'kus, he also took part in the political affairs of rulers and

administration of that time.'^ He was succeeded by his son Sadrau'd-Din Arif

in Multan and his disciple Jalalu'd-Din Surkh Bukhari established a strong

Suhrawardi centre at Uch, he came from Bukhra, and settled at Uchch and

Sindh, and within very short time he gained popularity and converted many

Hindus of Uchch in Islam.'^

The Suhrawardi Sufis took greater care of their families and devoted

more time to the upbringing and training of their sons than the Chishti saints.

There is a long list of Sufi?, of the Suhrawardi silsila after these saints among

"M;/7-/-/)A6r/n, Vol. II, p. 362-63.

" For detail see A.R.P.I, pp. 220-229.
"* Srivastava, M.P., Society and Culture in hdedieval India, op. cit., p. 29.
'^ Prasad, A Short History ofh4uslim Rule in India, op. cit., p. 14.

148
 them Jalalu'd-Din Makhdum-i- Jahanian (1308-1383)^° Shaikh Husain Amir

Husain Suhrawardi, Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maniazi.

Qadiri Silsila

Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (1077-1166 A.D.) a great Sufi saint of Islam

found a new order in Baghdad after whom the order was named. It was

introduced in India by Shah Ni'amatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani

who lived towards the middle of the fifteenth century. Makhdum Jilani settled

in Uch in Sindh. He was succeeded by his son Abdul Qadir. Abdul Qadir used

to say his prayers in the Audience Hall of Fatehpur Sikri and when asked by

Akbar to perform them at home, he answered, "My King, this is not your

kingdom that you should pass orders." Akbar cancelled his grant of land, and

he went back to Uch."" Other famous mystics of this order were Shaikh Daud

Kirmanl, Shaikh Abdul Ma'ali Qadiri of Lahore, Shaikh Mir Muhammad also

known as Mian Mir. •"

Naqshbandiyya Order

Naqshbandiyya order was one of the oldest Sufi orders, and flourished in

Transoxiana also known as silsia-i-Khawajgan, under the leadership of

Khawaja Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (d.l389 A.D.).^'' In India it was introduced

'° He was the grandson of Shaikh Jalalu'd-Din and was appointed Shaikh-ul-lslam by sultan
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, M.P. Srivastava, Society and Culture in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 29.
" Yahya was the prominent leaders of the Firdausiya which is the another branch of Suhrawardi
Silsilsh he was a learned man and left behind a good number of letters known as ''Maktubai" in which
he tried to recognized the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wajud QJmiy of Being).
"" Husain Yusuf Glimpses ofh4edieval Idian Culture, op. cit., p, 54.
"•' Prince Dara Shikoh, son of Shahjahan became the disciple of Qadiri order and visited Mian Mir
(1550-1635 A.D.) at Lahore.
-" Basham, A.L., A Cultural History of India, Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, 1983, rpt. 1984, p. 289.

149
 by Khawaja Baqi Billah of Kabul (1563-1603 A.D.), seventh in the lines of

succession to the founder of the silsila. Khawaja did most to make this order

outstanding in India. In A.D. 1599 he moved to Delhi and settled there.^^ From

the beginning the Sufi of this order paid great attention on the observance of

law of Shariat and had emphatically denounced all innovation which had sold

the purity of the Islamic doctrine. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, most talented

disciple of Khawaja Baqi Billah, was another great mystic saint of this silsila.

He was popularly known as majaddid-Alif-Saani. Other important Sufis of

this order were Shah Abdur Rahim, Shah Walliullah of Delhi, and Khawaja

Mir Dard.

Interaction between Bhakti and Sufi Saints

The Sufiis of the several orders were impressed by the Indian thought and

practices that some adopted these ideas. When similar features are found in two

places it becomes difficult to say that are they borrowed from each other or

they both are original. It is quite possible for Hinduism and Islam to develop

similar features theories independently of each other. There is a great

possibility of give and take between the two when they come into the close

contact with each other. The Sufii saints who settled in India influenced Indian

"^ Rizvi, The Wonder that was India, Vol. II, op. cit., p. 268.
"''Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 57.
"^ He expounded the philosophy of apparentism {Wahadatu'l Shuhud) also known as the doctrine of
"Unity of Witness," instead of the doctrine of'Wahadatu'l Wujud." He says that the relation between
man and God is that of slave and master, or that of worshipper and worshipped and not that of lover
and beloved as the Sufis generally think. Due to his object was to harmonize the doctrine of mysticism
with the teachings of orthodox Islam; he was called "Mujaddid,'' the renovator and reformer of Islam.
See Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 57.; Chitnis, K.N., Socio-Econoivic Aspects of
Medieval India, Atlantic Publishers and Distributers, Delhi 1990, p. 289.
"^ Chitnis, K.N., Socio-Economic Aspects of Medieval India, op. cit., p. 192.

150
 masses with their teaching and the way of life in the same manner they are

affected by the philosophy and teachings ofBhakti saints of India.

As the missionaries of Islam and as liberal leaders of its spirituality, the

Sufi?, were the first among the Muslims to come in the contact with the Hindu

masses, and thus also with Hindu mystics saints.

Their Contacts with each others

Bhakti and Sufi saints developed close contact with other. The abodes of

the Sufii saints were visited by peoples of that time without any discrimination

of caste and creeds. We find such evidence that Bhakti saints also used to go to

the abodes of Sufi saints. Dabistan-i-Mazahib mentions that when Kabir was in

the search of a spiritual guide he visited the best of the Musalmans and Hindus.

^'^ It is possible that among the best Musalmans, he might have visited some

Sufi saints too. The method of Kabir's teachings was shaped by that Sufi saints.

As he says in a Ramaini:

"Manikpur was the dwelling place of Kabir, where for long

he listened to Shaikh Taqi. The same teaching he heard at
Jaimpur, and Jhusi (near Allahabad)he learnt the names of
pirs. In that place they have a record of twenty-one pirs
who read the prayers (khutba) in the name of the
Prophet. •'•'°

The same teaching he heard at Jaunpur and Jhusi (near Allahabad) he learnt the

names of pirs (Muslim preceptors).'' He must also hear the poems of Jalal-ud-

Din Rumi and Sa'di besides other Sufis. He speaks about cup of love of the

"' Dahistan-i-Mazahib, p. 186.

'^^ Influence of Islam, p. 148.
"ibid., p. 119.

151
 lover (ashiq, habib) and the beloved (ma 'shuq, mahbuba), of the path of its

station (muqam) which were proved that he was greatly indebted with Sufis,.

Sufis considered Kabir to be a ''Muwahhid' (follower of the Wahadatu'l

Wujud). The author of Ain-i-Akbari writes that Kabir ''Muwahhid" lived during

the reign of Sikandar Lodi. At other place he writes that due to his catholicity

of philosophy and charismatic personality he was the friend of both Hindus and

Musalmans/"'

Like Kabir, Guru Nanak also said to enjoy the company of Sufii saints;

among them were Shah Bu 'Ali Qalandar of Panipat, Shaikh Ibrahim and Mian

Mitha/'' It is said he had a long discussion with Shaikh Sharaf of Panipat, the

pirs of Multan and Shaikh Ibrahim. At Ajodhan and Multan Guru Nanak was

reported to have had discussion with Baba Farid and Shaikh Baha-ud-Din

Zakariya/" He also travelled to Baghdad to visit the famous Qadiri order of

Pir-I Dastgir Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani/'' Dadu another Bhakti saints manifest

great knowledge of Sufiism than his predecessors, probably he was the disciple

of Shaikh Kamal.

Like Bhakti saints' Sufii saints also seems to have an urgent desire to

meet the bhaktas. Shaikh Bahau'd-Din Saharanpuri claims to have visited

Jadrup Gosain. Shaikh relates that it was Jadrup Gosain who told him that the

f Ibid., p. 123.
"'" Rizvi, A History of Siifism in India, 2 Vols. Vol. I, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1978, reprint.
2003, p. 313.
'"' Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, op. cit., p. 28.
'^ Rizvi, A History ofSufism in India, Vol. I, op. cit., p. 389.
;''ibid,
'^ Rizivi, A History ofSufism in India, Vol. . 11. op. cit., p. 410.

152
 TO

Mujaddid was superior to all other spiritual guides. Yet we do not find much

evidence about personal contacts between Bhakti and Sufi saints but interaction

between their thoughts shows that both movements affected each other very

much. Chishti order was the most popular order in India; its popularity was due

to its saints who understood the condition and the religious attitude of India.

They gave respect to the Indian practices and customs and many of them were

adopted by the Sufis. The practice of bowing before the Shaikh, presenting

water to the visitors, shaving the head of a new disciple'*' was common

practices of the saints of India.

Concept of God

As we know that both movements flourished in India at the same time

so it was natural that they reflected each other. And the output of this reflection

was the adoption of different practices. Indian Sufis like Shaikh Mohd. Ghaus,

Shaikh Abdul Quddus Ganghoi, Shaikh Salim Chishti etc. were believed that

God is Real {al Haqq) and he is the Creator, Bestower, and Provider of the

masses of sufficiency. The early mystics Sufi have followed the sayings of

Holy Quran and orthodox belief about the conception of Godhead.'*^ God is self

existent from eternity, Infinite, heaving no relation to space or time, His

attributes is unchangeable, He is all powerful, merciful, and omniscient. He

alone had the power of predestination, both of good and evil, and He is the only

•'' [bid.
^''Nizami, A.R.P.I.,p. 178.
'"ibid, p. 178.
""ibid, p, 178.
''"Smith, Margaret, Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East, The Sheldon Press,
London, 1931, p. 198.

153
 One who is worthy to inspire either hope or fear.'*'' Sufis believed that, the

conceive of any other Real existence beside Him would be polytheism. Such a

doctrine of God as the Only Reality led to the conception of pantheism which is

the characteristic of the later Sufis.'^'^ Duality, according to the Shaikh Abdul

Quddus is a false concept and the idea of anything beside God is misguided.

People should believe only in the Unity of Being (wahadat-al-wujud):

3fc=n5^RT 3mt ^ 5fttl ^ ^ 3Trr £ | ^ 3TTt ^ l

Further

In the same way the philosophy of Bhakti saints led emphasis on One Personal

God and loving God. The idea of god hidden in everything of the universe is

found in the theory of Abdul Quddus is very similar to the Nanak's conception

of God. For nanak He is the One "EK", Nirguna, devoid of all attributes and

Nirankar:

^erf^ ^ w ^ !;i iTcHt f; 3TTt ^ ^i'*''

He is absolute, unconditional. Kabir says that, "He is one and there is no match

for Him"''** he again said, and "1 know Him to be one who exist everywhere."'*'

Dadu says that the Supreme is Omnipresent. He is the only Real in the world of

'^Ibid, p. 198.
''ibid, p. 200.
'^Rizvi, A History ofSnfism in India, op. cit., p. 340.
'' Ibid.
"''A.G.. Rag Asa, A//. l,Vol. 11, p, 40.
^^K.G. (Trigunayat), RagGaudi, Pel. 55.
/I.e., Vol. l,Raga Gaudi, Pd. 3, Tr. from the Original Gitnimiikhi by Dr. Earnest Trumpp, Munsbiram
Manoharial, Delhi, 2'"* Edition, 1970, p. 963,

154
 unreality. He is the treasure house of all Excellencies from which all beings

comes forth. ^ Chaitanya says He is eternal, without a beginning and an end.

Supreme Being by him is called Sri Krishana or Hari. He is infinite and Sat

(absolute Existence) Chit (absolute Intelligence) and Ananda (absolute Bliss).^'

Concept of Hukum or Riza

Guru Nanak's conception of Hukum (Divine Will) had also very close

resemblance with the Sufi interpretation of Riza. In Adi Granth some hymns

use Hukum and Riza as interchangeable terms. The teachings of Guru Nanak

on Hukum and Riza are comprehensive and broadly based. Mcleod observes,

"In Islam the Divine Will, if not actually capricious is at least "unpledged,"

where as the Hukum of Guru Nanak's usage is definitely pledge and

dependable.""'

Concept of Guru or Pir

Importance of a guru or pir is also a common practice among Bhakti and

Sufi saints. According to Hinduism if a person has a desire to lead a life of

religious man must seek a guru for him. As Svetasvatra Upanishad says:

cTf% ^#5rIT 5T2fr: O^QFc^ tH^lrcHH: y^QFrT 3TFIr3T^

'" Influence of Islam, op. cit., p. 186.

' Nath, Radha Govinda, ' A Survey of Chaitanya Movement', Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. IV, op.
cit., 190,
^" Rizvi, A Hislory ofSiiJism in India, op. cit., p. 393.
^"' McLeod, Guru Nanak and Sikh Religion, op. cit., p. 201.

155
 ^'The Supreme mystery ofVedanta ...should be given to one
who has the highest devotion for God, and for his guru as
for God. ""'

Mundaka Upanishad says:

"Let him, in order to understand this, take fuel in his hand

and approach a guru M'ho is learned and dwells entirely in
Brahman." ''

In Sufism a guide is always recommended between God and disciple, because

they believed that no one can become a Sufi without the help of a pir. But

according to orthodox, no one could be intercessor except the Prophet.^*' They

also believe that those who had no human pir were the disciple of a devil, in a

Hindi verse Shaikh Abdul Quddus saysthat if a blind man led another blind man

both bound to fall into a well:

M arm McWT 5te ^ ^rrarii^''

In India many Muslim pirs had Hindu disciples; and similarly, some Hindu

saints have had Muslims disciples [chelas).

Use of vernacular

The popularity of the Sufi saints was also due to the adoption of

Hindawi as their language of preaching and communication with the masses of

society. The term Hindawi was used by the Persian speaking people for the all

'^ Svelasvaira Upanishad, A. VI. SI. 23, above translation has been taken from MuUer, F. Max, Tlie
Upanishads, 2 Vols. Vol. II, Dover Publications, New York, 1884, p. 267.
" h4a)uMa Upanisliad A.\,Klt 2, SI. 12, Ibid, p. 33.
^^ Tasadduq, Husain, 'Sii/ism and its Path .-Reflection of S/iaikli Nizamuddin of Delhi, 14* Century,'
Indian History Congress, 62"" Session, 2001, p. 216.
''' Rizvi, A History of &//;sm in India, op. cit., p. 341

156
 Indian regional dialects. In the Chishti khanqahs, from the time of Shaikh Farid

Hindwai came to be used. Shaikh Farid's verses are also known as Hindwai

poetry. A large number of Hindwai verses of Baba Farid are included in the
CO

Guru Granth of Sikhs. The Hindwai couplets are very common in musical

assemblies of Sufis during thirteenth and fourteenth century. For some Sufis the

Persian poetry no longer created the same level of ecstasy as in Hindwai.^^

Shaikh Abdul Quddus Ganghoi composed his verses under the pen-name

Alakhdasa (Invisible servant) in his Rushadnama he used Hindi doha.^^ For

example in a particular couplet, he used Persian for the first line and Hindi for

the second line:

1 ^ ^ T^:^ ?raT rfrQU c ^ ? t 1 ^ fcfpT J^^
Wf ^Wfr y ^ 7RT sfl^T JTPt fMcTT

(Sincerity is the guide; patience the provision for the

journey; the friend our destination; the heart our
companion; Truth is the city; righteousness its king; yoga
the pure road.)

Besides, a number of love stories {Premakhyan) were written by the Sufi poets

in Awadhi dialects. As Qutub AH Alias Qutuban wrote his Mrigawati in

Awadhi dialect and he compare his hero with the Hindu mythology not with

Rustam, Naushirawan or Hatim. Mir Manjhan, the author of Madhumahi and

Mugdhawati also wrote stories in pure Awadhi language.''^ Padmavat of Malik

Muhammad Jaisi, The greatest Sufi poet of Hindi, will ever remain a jewel in

'' Iraqi, Bhaliti Movement in Medieval India: Social and Political Perspectives, op .c\i.,p. I'M.
''' Aquil, Raziuddin, Stifism, Culture and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, Oxford
Univ. Press, Delhi, 2007, p. 225.
''" Halim, A., 'Growth and Development of Hindi Literature', Journal of Asiatic Society of Pakistan,
Vol. II, Dacca, 1957, p. 88.
''' Aquil, Raziuddin, Siifism, Culture and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, op. cit.,
pp. 225-26.
''' Halim, A., 'Growth and Development of Hindi Literature', Journal of Asiatic Society of Pakistan,
Vol. II, Dacca, 1957, p. 86.

157
 Hindi literature. Like Sufi saints bhakti saints also gave emphasis on the local

dialects of the time. Ramananda was the great scholar of Sanskrit wrote in

Hindi as well. His Ram-Raksha-Strota is partially in Sanskrit and partially in

Hindi, and one of his padas quoted in Adi Granth is in Hindi. Kabir the chief

priest of Nirguna Bhakti wrote in Purbi dialect of Hindi, yet Braja, Punjabi,

Rajasthani, Arabic and Persian are all manifest in his speech. ^ Nanak on the

whole wrote in the Hindi idioms with Punjabi dialects. Vallabhacharya was

also a great scholar of Sanskrit but his Vanayatra and Vishnupada were written

in chaste Braja Bhasha. Persian dialects were also adopted by the Hindus. It is

said during the time of Sikandar Lodi, a Brahmin is reported to have been so

well-versed in Islamic learning that he taught Islamic precepts to Muslims.^''

Sama and Kirtan

The mystic music becomes a tool for ecstasy. The audition party samas

aimed to attain hal (ecstasyj it is similar to the kirtan or devotional songs of

Chaitanya. Chaitanya was the exponent of kirtan, he believed that through

sankirtan and dances a state of and ecstasy could be produced in which one can

realize the personal presence of Lord Krishna.^^ In the same manner Chishti

mystics believed in spiritual value of music and they patronized the talent of

professional singers. Shaikh Nizam-ud-Din was found of music and talks of

ecstasy and rapture (surur). Khawaja Qutb-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki was very

" Ibid,/?/7. 72-73

^"^ Iraqi, Bhakli Movement in Medieval India, op, cit., p. 241.
"Latif, Abdul, The Muslim Mystic Movement in Bengal (1301-1500), K.P. Bagchi & Company,
Calcutta, 1993, p. 99.
'''"Tasadduq, Husain, 'Sufism and its Path:Reflection of Shaikh Nizamuddin of Delhi, 14"' Century,'
Indian History Congress, 62"" Session, 2001, p. 212,

158
 fond of music. It is said in musical parties he was over taken by ecstasy.'

Hindi mystical songs were recited in these samas and many of them musicians

were newly converted Muslims. For this purpose padas were equally popular

among Bhakti and Sufi saints. However, the popularity of Vaishnava themes in

Sufi samas of Hindi-speaking regions was the most significant development of

the time.

Adoption of Yogic practice: Chillalt-i-ma'kus

The ascetic practices which involved starving and torturing the body,

such as chillah-i-ma'kus has close resemblance to Hindu and Buddhist

practices and consequently the appeal of Chishti silsila in the non-Muslim

environment. One who wants to practice of chillah-i-ma 'kus ties a rope to his

feet and gets his body lowered into a well and offers prayers in this posture for

forty nights. Some of the Chishti saints are reported to have practiced this

inverted chillah. Shah Wall Uliah, however remarks,"We could not find any

authority for it in the tradition of the Prophet or in the sayings of the Jurists....

Its legality or otherwise is known to God alone."^' This practice was probably

borrowed from the sadhus who are known as urdhamukhi, about them it is said

that they hang their heads downwards suspended from the branch of a tree, for

perhaps half an hour at a time.^' Shaikh Farid Chishti and later Shaikh Abdur

Rahman Qadiri practiced the ardous chilla-i-makus.'

" Rizvi, y4 History ofSiifism in India, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 326.

''\4./?.F./„p. 179. '
''''Oman, John, Campbell, The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India, Oriental Publishers, Delhi, 1973, p.
46.
™ Iraqi, Bl^akti Movement in Medieval India, op. cit., p. 86.

159
 In the contrast of Chishti order Sufi?> of Suhrawardiyya order didn't

believe in such hard practices. They believed in a life which both their body

and soul received equal pleasure. Neither they fasted perpetually nor did they

recommend a life of starvation. The Chishtis believed in the control of

71

emotional life as a prerequisite to the control of external behavior. Both

Bhakti and Sufi saints had common approach towards the way of life. Almost

all these saints believed in living a balanced life. For example, Nanak and Dadu

opposed to torture of body to get salvation. Like Suhrawardiyya saints many

Bhakti saints did not believe in fasting.

Wandering of the Holy Places

Both Bhakti and Sufi saints laid emphasis on the wandering of the holy

places. In fifteenth and sixteenth century a number of Sufis are known to have
77

visited Ceylon to pay homage to the legendry foot-prints of Adam. Guru

Nanak also visited to Ceylon, Macca and Baghdad. Bhakti saints largely

performed pilgrimage to holy cities like Kashi, Prayag, Vrindaban, Mathura,

Dwarika, etc. likewise the Sufii saints used to pilgrimage to Macca.

Both Bhakti and Sufii saints of India influenced the mass of India by their

thoughts and teachings. No doubt that the principle of universal brotherhood

and human equality are the basis of Islamic society. Social equality and love

for the one Nirguna Brahman is the characteristic feature of Sufiism. This was

^^A.R.P.I.,p. 179.
'"According to Ibn Battuta,Adam was known in Ceylon as Baba (father) and Eve as Mama (motlier),
cited by Rizvi, A History ofSii/lsm in India, Vol. 1, op. cit., p. 387.
' Shah, Sirdar Iqbal Ali, Islamic Siifism, Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, Delhi, 1973, p. 63.
74
Husain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Cvlliirc, op. cit., p. 1.

160
 adopted by the Bhakti saints. Both Bhakti and Sufi saints opposed the caste

system. According to them ail men were equal in the eyes of God. They toolc

their disciples from all strata of society without any distinction of castes and

creeds. By their act they tried to bring reconciliation and unity among Hindu

and Muslims. Many untouchables became the follower of Bhakti cult. Famous

saint Raidas was a Chamar by caste and Kabir was a weaver. It is due to their

preaching the condition of Sudras improved. Sufis also abolished all invidious

class distinctions. Sufis lay down the concept of brotherhood in which everyone

are equal and treat each other as the member of the same family. Ramananda,

Kabir, Nanak, and Dadu did not believe in caste system. Chaitanya was against

the class distinctions. Most of the saints preached the gospel of unity and

friendliness, Nanak and Chaitanya for instance emphasized the fact that

Hinduism and Islam were two different paths leading to the same destination

and Ram and Rahim, Krishana and Karim, Allah and Ishwar were different

names of the same Almighty. However, the main object of the saints to bring

compromise between Hinduism and Islam.

l^he concept of ahinsa (non-violence) which has been one of the

essential features of Indian philosophy was adopted by the Sufis. They lived as
If
vegetarians. Kabir gave more emphasis on the non-violence.

^' Shah, Sirdar Iqbal Ali, Islamic Siijism, op. cit., p. 65.
'"' Iraqi, Bhakti Movement in medieval India, op. cit., p. 252.

161