CBLM Raising Large Ruminants
CBLM Raising Large Ruminants
CBLM Raising Large Ruminants
LEARNING MATERIALS
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Sector:
Instruction sheets:
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Information Sheet – This will provide you with information (Concepts,
principles and other relevant information) needed in performing certain
activities.
Job Sheet – This is designed to guide you how to do job that will
contribute to the attainment of the learning outcome.
Worksheet – are the different forms that you need to fill up in certain
activities that you performed
You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skills
covered in this learner’s guide because you have:
Been working for some time
Already completed training in this area
Talk to your trainer about having them formally recognized. If you have
a qualification or certificate of competence from previous training, show it to
your trainer. If the skills you acquired are still current and relevant to the unit/s
of competency they may become part of the evidence you can present for
RPL. If you are not sure about the accuracy of your skills discuss this with
your trainer.
Inside this learner’s guide you will find the activities for you to complete
and at the back are the relevant information sheets for each learning
outcome. Each learning outcome may have more than one learning activities.
At the back of this learner’s guide is a Learner’s Diary. Use this diary
to record important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that
will assist you in providing further details to your trainer or an assessor. A
Record of Achievement is also provided for your trainer to complete once
you complete the module.
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UNIT OF COMPETENCY : Raise Large Ruminants
CODE : AGR621304
CERTIFICATE LEVEL : NC II
PREREQUISITE :
INSTRUCTIONS
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PRE-REQUISITE MODULES. Before you start this Module, you must already
have finished the Module on Tool competencies and Common competencies;
In his module you will learn and practice how to Raise Swine, you
must do the following activities;
INTRODUCTION:
MODULE DESCRIPTOR:
This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to produce
large ruminants such as beef, dairy and buffaloes. It includes selection of animals
for breeding, appropriate care and management at various physiological stages
of the herd, maintaining records, monitoring and implementing appropriate herd
health program, including waste management.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
2.1 Feed resources appropriate for cattle and buffaloes at various
physiological stages are identified based on industry and BAI standard
2.2 Feed additives and mineral supplements are given according to
enterprise procedures
2.3 Appropriate feeding system is implemented
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
3.1 Claves, growers and fatteners are reared according to enterprise
requirements
3.2 Sound stocking rate is ensured and general herd is managed
appropriately
3.3 Breeding cows and bulls are reared according to enterprise
requirements
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
4.1 Areas and support system for pasture establishment and
maintenance, housing and infrastructure facilities and tools and
equipment are identified based on industry and BAI standards
4.2 Pasture grasses and legumes suited for general herd are identified
4.3 Housing system and related infrastructures for general herd is
identified\
4.4 Natural mating or artificial insemination in cattle and buffaloes are
used according to enterprise procedures
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
5.1 Immunization program is adopted in accordance with industry
standards\
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5.2 Medication program is implemented based on industry and farm
requirements
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
6.1 Records are kept, updated and analyzed according to organization standard
6.2 Economic viability of the project is analyzed
Read Info Sheet on Types and breeds Info Sheet 1: Types and breeds of
of cattle and buffaloes cattle and buffaloes
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LO1. Information Sheet No. 1
Types and Breeds of Cattle and Buffaloes
1. Sahiwal
The Sahiwal originated in the dry Punjab region which lies along the Indian-
Pakistani border. They were once kept in large herd by professional herdsmen
called "Junglies.
The Sahiwal is one of the best dairy breeds in India and Pakistan. It is tick-
resistant, heat-tolerant and noted for its high resistance to parasites, both
internal and external.
Cows average 2270 kg of milk during a lactation while suckling a calf and
much higher milk yields have been recorded. Due to their heat tolerance and
high milk production they have been exported to other Asian countries as well
as Africa and the Caribbean.
As oxen they are generally docile and lethargic, making them more useful for
slow work.
Their color can range from reddish brown through to the more predominant
red, with varying amounts of white on the neck, and the underline. In males
the color darkens towards the extremities, such as the head, legs and tails.
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The Sahiwal in Australia
Sahiwal arrived in Australia via New Guinea in the early 1950’s. In Australia,
the Sahiwal was initially selected as a dual-purpose breed.
It played a valuable role in the development of the two Australian tropical dairy
breeds, the Australian Milking Zebu and the Australian Fresian Sahiwal.
The Sahiwal is the heaviest milker of all Zebu breeds and display a well
developed udder. Sahiwals demonstrate the ability to sire small, fast-growing
calves and are noted for their hardiness under unfavorable climatic conditions.
2. Holstein Friesian
The Holstein (US and Canada) or Friesian (UK, Australia, Europe) is a breed
of dairy cow known today as the world's highest production dairy animal.
Originating in Europe, Holsteins were developed in what is now the
Netherlands and more specifically in the two northern provinces of North
Holland and Friesland (not from Holstein, Germany[citation needed]). The original
animals were the regional cattle of the Batavians and Frisians, two tribes who
settled in the coastal Rhine region around 2,000 years ago.
In Europe, the breed is used for milk in the North, meat in the South - Since
1945, European development has led to cattle production becoming
increasingly regionalized. Over 60% of the cattle herd and under 50% of the
usable agricultural area, but over 80% of dairy production, is to be found to
the north of a line joining Bordeaux and Venice. This change led to the need
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for specialized animals for dairy (and beef) production. Until this time, milk
and beef had been produced from dual-purpose animals, and the leading
breeds, national derivatives of the Dutch Friesian, had become very different
animals from their American counterparts. It was the obvious choice to import
superior production animals to cross with the European black and whites. For
this reason, in modern usage of the word Holstein is used to describe North
American stock and its use in Europe. Friesian, denotes animals of a
traditional European ancestry. Crosses between the two are described by the
term Holstein-Friesian.
3. Jersey
Jersey cattle are a small breed of dairy cattle. Originally bred on the British
Channel Island of Jersey, the breed is popular for the high butterfat content of
its milk and the lower maintenance costs incurred by its lower bodyweight, as
well as its genial disposition. Possibly the best known example of the breed
outside the United Kingdom is Elsie the Cow, the famous mascot of Borden,
Inc., in the United States. Her face appears on cans of Eagle Brand
Sweetened Condensed Milk, cheeses, fresh and shelf stable milk.
The Jersey cow is quite small, ranging from only 360 to 540 kg (800 to 1200
pounds). The main factor contributing to the popularity of the breed has been
their greater economy of production, due to:
the ability to carry a larger number of effective milking cows per unit
area due to lower body weight, hence lower maintenance requirements
high butterfat conditions, 6% butterfat and 4% protein and to thrive on
locally produced food.[1] Bulls are also small, ranging from 540 to 820
kg (1200 to 1800 pounds), and are notoriously aggressive.
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Castrated males can be trained into fine oxen which, due to their small size
and gentle nature make them popular with young teamsters. Jersey oxen are
not as strong as larger breeds however and are generally out of favor among
competitive teamsters.
Due to the small size, docile and inquisitive character and attractive features
of the Jersey cow, small herds were imported into England by aristocratic
landowners as adornment for aesthetically landscaped parks.
Jerseys are adaptable to hot climates and are bred in the hottest parts of
Brazil.
Jerseys come in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black. All
purebred Jerseys have a lighter band around their muzzle, a dark switch (long
hair on the end of the tail), and black hooves, although in recent years color
regulations have been relaxed to allow a broadening of the gene pool.
4. Red Sindhi
Red Sindhi cattle are the most popular of all Zebu dairy breeds. The breed
originated in the Sindh province of Pakistan. They are widely kept for milk
production across India, Pakistan, Bangla Desh, Sri Lanka, and other
countries. They have been used for crossbreeding with temperate (European)
origin dairy breeds in many countries to combine their tropical adaptations
(heat tolerance, tick resistance, disease resistance, fertility at higher
temperatures, etc.) with the higher milk production found in temperate
regions. It has been crossed with Jerseys in many places, including India, the
United States, Australia, Sri Lanka, etc. Other breeds it has been crossed with
include Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss and Danish Red. It has also been
used to improve beef and dual purpose cattle in many tropical countries, as it
is sufficiently meaty to produce good beef calves in such crosses and the high
milk production helps give a fast growing calf which is ready for market at one
year. It is somewhat smaller than the very similar Sahiwal and produces a little
less milk per animal as a result. This has caused it to lose favor with some
commercial dairies in India and Pakistan, which have been phasing out their
Red Sindhi herds by breeding to Sahiwal bulls for a few generations. The
resulting cows, which are three-quarters Sahiwal and one-quarter Red Sindhi,
can not be distinguished from pure Sahiwal cattle. The Red Sindhi range in
color from a deep reddish brown to a yellowish red, but most commonly a
deep red. They are distinguished from the other dairy breed of Sindh, the
Tharparkar or White Sindhi, both by color and form, the Red Sindhi is smaller,
rounder, with a more typical dairy form, and with short, curved horns, while the
Tharparkar are taller with a shape more typical of Zebu draft breeds, and with
longer, lyre shaped horns.
Red Sindhi cattle are also used for milk production in Brazil, but this race of
zebu is not popular as others.
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In Gauriakarma, in Hazaribagh in the Indian state of Jharkand, a farm was
established to maintain the germplasm of Red Sindhi cattle. Here, bulls are
given free of cost to the villagers of the state.
Beef Breeds:
1. Brahman
Origin: Several breeds of cattle exist in India. Most of them have been named
after the Indian province in which they were developed. In Europe and South
America they are known collectively as Zebu, and in the United States they
are called Brahman. They are the oldest existing breed of domestic cattle.
2. Simbrah
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Simbrah has been described as "The All Purpose American Breed".
Developed in America, Simbrah genetics may be called on to infuse superior
maternal traits into a herd.
Or, due to their rapid growth, vigor, and heat tolerance, Simbrah may be the
answer in a terminal cross program. In the final analysis, Simbrah will produce
a lean, high quality beef product.
Originally developed in the hot, humid areas of the Gulf Coast, Simbrah have
shown they can Thrive in the Northwest and Northeast regions of the United
States where temperatures may range 115 degrees in the summer to 25
degrees below zero in the winter.
There is great interest in the breed worldwide. Simbrah are being developed
in many areas where Zebu breeding predominates as well as other areas
where Simbrah’s unique blend of features is desired.
Breeders stress structurally sound underlines, i.e. a clean sheath teamed with
large scrotal size on the bulls and a well-attached udder with small teats on
the cows. Many also put emphasis on pigmented eyes, thick muscling, and
reasonable dispositions. Some programs produce polled Simbrah.
Commercial operators appreciate the long and productive life span of Simbrah
cattle. Frequently, well beyond 10 years of age, unpampered cows are still
weaning heavy calves and bulls are still breeding. This can mean a significant
savings in replacement costs for the rancher.
After weaning, most Simbrah calves will perform well if placed directly in the
feedlot. At this phase in their lives, they are growing rapidly and will gain very
efficiently. They can produce a very desirable carcass at 12-15 months of age.
Enthusiastic Simbrah breeders are utilizing all the tools, animal science and
technology available to modern animal breeders.
3. Philippine Native
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Originating from Chinese and Mexican cattle the Philippine Native is used
primarily for milk and as a draft animal. The males of this breed will exhibit a
small hump. The mature body weight in the females is 280 - 300 kg.
4. Santa Gertrudis
Origin: The Santa Gertudis breed of beef cattle was developed on the King
Ranch in southeast Texas. The breed gets its name from the Santa Gertudis
divisions of the famed King Ranch.
The breed was developed by crossing Brahman beef-type bulls on
beef-type Shorthorns. The Santa Gertudis is approximately three-eights
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Brahman and five eights Shorthorn. It is a large beef animal, with its mature
cows attaining weights of 1,600 pounds and mature bulls 2,000 pounds on
pasture. It is solid, cherry-red in color, and horned. The ears are somewhat
pendulant. It is smoother and more compact than the Brahman, but it retains
the loose hide and underline skin folds characteristics of its Brahman
ancestry.
The breed is especially adapted to subtropical climates and semiarid
grazing conditions. They are noted for their ability to make large gains on
grass, to rustle for a living on areas of sparse forage, and to tolerate heat and
insects.
5. Brangus
Brangus is black, hornless, somewhat less compact than the Angus, but much
smoother and more compact than the Brahman. The bred has shown up very
well in feed-lot tests with other breeds.
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6. Beef master
Origin: The beefmaster breed of beef cattle had its beginning on the ranch of
E. C. Lasater at Falfurrias, Texas. Mr. Lasater was interested in developing a
breed of beef cattle capable of withstanding the hot, humid climate, the pest,
and the diseases of his area. He wish to eliminate caner eye, which had been
troublesome problems in his herd.
Beefmasters have no specific color. They may be dun, brown, reddish
brown, red, and red with white extensions and spots. They are large and
horned and have rapid growth rates.
Breeds of Buffalos
1. Nili Ravi
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The Nili-Ravi buffalo is a milk type of buffalo breed. They are found mainly in
Lahore, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Multan and Bahawal Nagar
districts in Punjab Province. Their color is black and their average weight at
maturity is 800 kg for the male and 525 kg for the female.
They have a wedge shape, massive frame, small curly horns, and wall eyes.
They often have white markings on the forehead, face, muzzle and legs and
white switch of tail (buffaloes with such markings highly desired and popularly
called "Panj Kalian"). They have a large, strong udder and are generally
docile. Average age at maturity is 30 months in males and 36 months in
females. Longevity of production is good. White markings extending above
hock and knee and over the neck and body, constitute a serious
disqualification.
2. Murrah Buffalo
1. Native Carabaos
2. American Buffaloes
3. Cambodian Buffaloes
4. Crosses
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2. What are the breeds of buffalo?
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Answer Key No. 1:
1. Breeds of Cattle
1. Philippine Native
2. Brahman
3. Sahiwal
4. Holstein Friesian
5. Beef Master
6. Brangus
7. Santa Gertudis
8. Jersy
9. Red Sendhi
10. Simbrah
2. Breeds of Bufallo
1. Nili-Ravi
2. Murrah Buffalo
3. Native Carabaos
4. Canbodian Bufallo
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LO1. Information Sheet No.2
Criteria for Selection of a Good Replacement Breeder Stocks
a. Bull
b. Heifers
c. Cows
A good head carriage- how the head is held on the cow. This also has
a lot to do with the neck on the cow—the neck should be broad, sit
evenly on the shoulders, and the base must be in line with the spine.
A long body is also desirable to the judge, as this means that the cow
will hold much more meat than a cow with a shorter body.
The cow must also have strong, sturdy legs that show no signs of cow-
hock, bow-leg, or sickle-hock. If the cow has any of these structural
problems, there could be a risk of permanent injury. They must also be
well muscled, and everything must be as large as possible, but all
limbs must still remain in proportion to the size of the body.
As much muscle as possible in order to maximize the profit to the
farmer. However, as a beef cow is much heavier than a dairy cow and
puts much more weight on the hooves, it is very important that there
are no signs of irregular wearing of hooves, as this may be a sign of
structural problems in the leg.
The head
On cows, the judge usually cannot check their teeth without using a head bail,
as cattle are sensitive around the mouth area. When checking their teeth, the
teeth must sit evenly- if the cow has overshot or undershot teeth (much like an
overbite or an underbite) then this could cause problems for the cow later.
These may include soreness in the mouth, and the cow will not be able to eat
as well, and will therefore not be as muscled.
Since the teeth in a cow can't be checked, the judge must look for other
symptoms in the jaw. The judge usually goes through the following system:
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When looking at the head of a cow, most judges believe that it is not
necessary to look at the ears. Some breeds may have big ears, some may
have small ears, but that will have no effect on the meat produced by the cow.
When looking at the head, there are a few key things that the judges are
looking for. One of the main things the judge looks for when judging any
animal is the structure. In most animals, if one joint is set incorrectly, there is a
good chance that others are also set incorrectly. The judges must check that
the head is in proportion to the rest of the body. It should also be held
naturally high- if the head is set naturally below the shoulders of the cow,
there is a likely chance that there is something structurally incorrect there, and
also there may be some other structure faults throughout the rest of the body.
However, the head shouldn't be held too high- this can suggest some
aggressive and bold nature in the cow. However, this will also have no effect
on the quality of meat produced, and in most competitions it would not matter
if a cow was more active than other cows, provided that it wasn't causing
harm to other people and their livestock. If the cow is causing excessive
damage, the judge will have to ask for that cow to leave the ring, and the cow
would be promptly disqualified from the event.
Topline
The term 'topline' refers to the back of the cow being judged in the showing.
On a cow, it should be straight, however, the cow is not a board, and should
therefore have a slight bend in the back, as well as having a relaxed back. As
a bull gets older, he develops a hump on his neck. This is a normal
characteristic of bulls from all breeds, and it is only worrying to the judge if the
hump, or crest, is not there. When the bull is young, the crest will not be as
noticeable, but as he gets older, it will become a lot more obvious. With some
breeds, such as the Brahman, the hump will be above the shoulder. Once
again, breed characteristics are important aspects of judging, and the judge
hired for the event will have a lot of knowledge on the breed characteristics of
that breed he or she is judging, and usually the judges specialize in only a few
breeds because of this reason. The shoulder blades on a cow should be neat-
they should be the same on either side of the back, and they shouldn't stick
out too much- on a beef cow, this area should have some muscle. The
shoulder blades should also be set in line with the spine- if they are not, the
cow could be structurally incorrect. As with the shoulder blades, all joints in
the back should be level with the spine, from the shoulder blades to the hip
and the pins of the cow. However, some cows' pins do sit slightly lower than
the spine. This is acceptable, but it is undesirable for any of the joints to drop
off from the spine too much. If joints are set too low from the spine, this will
affect the angle of the spine, as well as the angle of the ribs and pelvis, and
may cause the animal to walk with a slight waddle. This is not desirable in a
beef cow. This can also cause problems with the legs, which means that the
hooves do not wear evenly on the ground. This can cause permanent
lameness and other conditions at some point in the animal's life.
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The legs
When looking at the legs in an animal, the judge is looking mainly at the
structure, and for some muscle. As mentioned before, when one joint is set
incorrectly on an animal, there is a high chance that the other joints will be set
incorrectly as well. When looking at the legs, the cow should be standing
squarely on the hooves. This means that the cow will have to also stand
squarely on the leg- therefore, the leg must have some bend in it. If the bend
is too much, this is referred to as having too much angle in the leg. If the
cow's leg is straight, this means that it is post-legged. The cow must have
some bend in the hock, however, but not too much. If the cow has too much
or too little bend in the legs, the bones in the shoulder blade will be set at
either too sharp or too flat of an angle. The bones in the shoulder meet
together in an L shape, tilted to the right. We want this angle to be about
roughly 90 degrees.
The legs on a cow should be long and well muscled. In is inadvisable to have
short, but heavily muscled cattle, as it is preferable for the cow to be larger,
have a lot of muscle, but also have some fat. The fat, however, must be
minimal- the cow should have some fat, but not a lot.
Looking at the legs of cattle, just like on any other animal, it is one of the most
important areas to look at. If the joints in the leg are not set correctly, then it
as immediate area of concern. When looking at the legs of cattle, the first
areas the judge will look at are the shoulder blades and the hocks, the joint in
the middle of the leg. When looking at the shoulder blades, they must be in
line with the spine, not above or below. However, it is common to see animals
with their shoulders set slightly above the spine, however, this is still an area
of concern, as this is not where the shoulder is supposed to be set. When
looking at the hocks, they should have a bit of bend in them, however not too
much or too little. If the angle is too straight, we call that post-legged. If the
angle is too bent, we call that hocked. Both of these conditions are very
serious, as they will affect the angle the hoof strikes the ground. This means
that there will be irregular wearing of the hooves, and can lead to permanent
lameness.
A lot of the potential in beef cattle lies in structure, and how the muscle is set
along the body.
When looking at the body, the judge wants to see as much rib extension as
possible- this means having a large chest area, adding more muscle to the
animal. The amount of muscle must be consistent throughout the animal, all
the way from neck to the rump. The body should also be as long as possible,
but everything must remain in proportion to the rest of the body.
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The spine should be as heavily muscled as possible, as this is where most
steaks come from. However, there MUST remain a consistent amount of
muscling on the body- it is not desirable to have an animal who is heavily
muscled in the front shoulders, but not much muscle on the back. Also, when
looking under the body, although there should be a dip in the middle, the dip
should definitely not be right at the front- this can also suggest having too
much muscle. In general, the most muscle is at the back of the animal,
however, we must keep in mind when judging that there is consistency.
Rump
When standing behind an animal, there are a few things the judge looks for.
When standing directly behind a her, they should see only the rump,
and none of the body. This means that there is a good amount of
muscle on the rump.
If there is a wide rump, the feet should be set apart wider, as well.
Like above, if the rump is smaller, the feet should be set closer
together- if they are not, the cow could have an incorrect structure.
The judge will step backwards again and have another look at the legs from
behind. The legs should look straight going all the way down.
If the legs are bent inwards, this is called cow-hocked. This means that
the hocks are pointing inwards, towards each other.
If the legs are bent outwards, this is called bow-leg. This is a condition
that can affect almost any animal.
The widest part of the rump should be the stifle- about halfway down.
The rump should also be round, and not bony. When standing behind the cow,
the rump should obscure any of the body except for the back of the head, as
this means there is a lot more meat on the animal.
After looking at leg structure, the judge then wants to look at the hooves and
pasterns. The pasterns are the bones that run from the top of the hoof to the
fetlock. As the leg structure affects much of the hoof structure, the hooves are
very vulnerable. If the animal does not step on them correctly, lameness, even
permanent lameness, may occur in the animal's life. Although in the judging
ring it will be hard to see the cow's feet, there are a few things the judge must
know, and look out for along the way.
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There are two claws on a cow's feet.
These "dew claws" need to be of equal length, and shouldn't curve
around too much.
However, there should be a slope from the pastern joint down the hoof
to the ground.
The heel of the hoof needs to be sitting above the ground, but not too
far above the ground- we do need some bend in the pastern.
The skin that is attached to the hoof needs to be above the ground as
well.
When the pastern is too straight, it may appear as if the cow is walking
on tip-toes, but this is a problem, as it means that the hoof is not
striking the ground properly.
Hooves need to be of equal size and correct shape. Hooves shouldn't
curl in, under, or be to small. This is the foundation of the animal.
Walking
In a judging ring, the animals will be walking. When the animal is walking
freely, the back hooves should step into the front hooves' footprints.
When animals are around the same size, in general, the bones will be the
same size. However, there could be two cows of the same size, and their
weights will be completely different, as one would have more muscle than the
other. On a beef animal, we want as much muscle as possible. However, we
do want some fat on the animal- just not too much.
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Once looking at the brisket and flank of the cow, the judge looks at the
tail-head. If this is large, this should confirm that the animal is carrying
more fat than it should. If this is not large, then the animal is leaner,
and is carrying more muscle.
The ribs, point of the shoulder and the spine have no muscle- if this
area seems 'muscly', it is really fat. The judge must keep in mind that
all breeds are different on where fat is deposited. Before people judge
cattle, they should know a lot about the breed to be judged, and where
the fat is usually deposited in that breed.
Also, the judge must keep in mind that that the rump of an animal is
where the most muscle will be, and less fat.
There are also a number of places on the animal that a lot of muscle should
be.
On either side of the spine- this is where a lot of steaks come from.
Between the knee and the elbow of an animal- the forearm.
It will also be very obvious looking at some cows where a lot of muscle is,
because of the high muscle definition.
Bulls
When looking at bulls, there are a few things that differ from normal cattle
judging that the judge will be looking out for.
There will be a crest above the neck- the judge mustn’t get this
confused with the shoulder. On big bulls, the crest may even be higher
than the head, creating the illusion that the head is set too far down on
the bull. This may not be true.
If the head really does look like it is set too low on the bull, the judge
will ignore the crest and look at all of the structure on the animal,
especially on the front half, just to make sure the head is set correctly.
The greater size of the testicles, the more cows the bull can service.
The sheath on a bull should be firmly attached and not pendulous. If
the sheath is pendulous, the bull is of more risk to grass seed problems
or injury.
Cows
As there are differences when judging bulls, there are also differences when
judging cows that are very important.
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The navel should not be pendulous.
If the navel does appear pendulous, there is a chance that her brothers
or sons may have the same problem.
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Self Check Questionnaire No.2:
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Answer Key No.2
A good head carriage- how the head is held on the cow. This also has
a lot to do with the neck on the cow—the neck should be broad, sit
evenly on the shoulders, and the base must be in line with the spine.
A long body is also desirable to the judge, as this means that the cow
will hold much more meat than a cow with a shorter body.
The cow must also have strong, sturdy legs that show no signs of cow-
hock, bow-leg, or sickle-hock. If the cow has any of these structural
problems, there could be a risk of permanent injury. They must also be
well muscled, and everything must be as large as possible, but all
limbs must still remain in proportion to the size of the body.
As much muscle as possible in order to maximize the profit to the
farmer. However, as a beef cow is much heavier than a dairy cow and
puts much more weight on the hooves, it is very important that there
are no signs of irregular wearing of hooves, as this may be a sign of
structural problems in the leg.
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LO1. Information Sheet No. 3
Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of Cattle and Buffaloes
It is important you learn the anatomy of the organs that are involved in the
reproductive physiology of the cow. This information will help you to
understand the various processes involved in reproduction. The ovary and
uterus are shown in Figure 1. For detailed descriptions of these parts consult
veterinary books in your library.
Cycles of reproduction
Most cattle in SSA breed all year round. It is important to understand the
basics of the reproductive stages so that management can be applied to
attain high productivity. We have divided the life of the cow in four cycles. It is
important to understand these cycles because this knowledge is important to
formulate strategies to achieve higher productivity.
The three main phases in the lifetime of a cow are pre-puberty (before
cycling), puberty (initiation of cycling) and the reproductive periods. This
module will describe these periods briefly.
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Pre-puberty. This is the period before cycling starts. During this period the
ovaries are small. Incomplete cycles where ovulation does not occur are
detected first. The onset of ovulatory cyclic activity follows and is a gradual
process. The luteinising hormone (LH) can be detected in blood plasma at
normal adult basal levels and peaks as early as 6 weeks of age and continues
up to puberty. In the bull calf, the size of the testicles indicates the approach
to puberty and production of viable semen. The changes are associated with
androgen rather than LH.
Puberty. Puberty (initiation of cycling) may be defined as ‘the time when the
reproductive organs become functional’. In the female, it is defined as the time
when the first functional oestrus occurs and the earliest age at which
reproduction can occur. Usually genotype or breed, nutrition, season and
other environmental factors (e.g. climate) determine the age at which puberty
is attained. As a consequence, large variations occur between and within
breeds. The age at first calf delivery may also vary as a result.
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Figure 2. Measuring testicular size.
Even though cattle in the tropics can breed all year round, the efficiency of
cows and bulls is affected by many environmental factors.
Estrus, or heat, is defined as the time when the female is receptive to the
male. It occurs in cycles.
Duration of estrus
The length of the estrous cycle is 20 days in heifers and 21 days in cows.
Estrus is short, 6–30 hours, but it varies among breeds and the range is
considerable. The first day of estrus is usually designated as day zero.
Ovulation occurs after the end of estrus.
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Figure 3.3. Events in the estrous cycle of the cow.
Luteal phase. A corpus luteum is formed under the influence of pituitary LH.
The function of the corpus luteum is to secrete progesterone, which reduces
the amount of the hormone estrogen produced. As long as the corpus luteum
is functional, estrogen is unable to trigger formation of the follicle (a large
fluid-filled sac containing the egg). By day 18 the corpus luteum degenerates
due to prostaglandin (released from the uterus) and goes through a
regression phase. Associated with corpus luteum regression is a decline in
progesterone (Figure 3.3).
Conception. Mating may take place followed by conception. The luteal phase
of the cycle starts again (Figure 3.3). In this case the embryo develops and
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the corpus luteum does not regress but continues to secrete progesterone
and remains active throughout the pregnancy. If there is no mating or
fertilization fails to occur, progesterone secretion ceases abruptly on day 17
or 18 of the luteal phase. This is brought about by the uterus releasing
uterine luteolysin which initiates the regression of the corpus luteum. The
regression is followed by growth and maturation of another follicle and the
cycle starts again (Figure 3).
Signs of estrus
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Figure4. Hetrosexual/homosexual behaviour: A major indicator of estrus in
cows.
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Figure 3.5. Possible causes of anoestrus in cows.
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Self Check Questionnaire No. 3:
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Answer Key No. 3:
2. Estrus, or heat, is defined as the time when the female is receptive to the
male. It occurs in cycles.
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LO1. Information Sheet No. 4
Breeding Systems for Cattle and Buffaloes
Crossbreeding
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Specific crossbreeding systems
Two Breed Specific
Again, breed complementation is available because the sire and dam lines
can be chosen for their strengths in contribution to the cross. With this and all
other specific crossbreeding systems, source of replacement heifers is a
potential problem. A dependable supply is needed if they are to be purchased.
Management considerations are important if the producer is to provide
replacement heifers from within his own herd.
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Backcross
In a backcross system, heifers from a first cross are mated to a bull from one
of the breeds in their own breed makeup. For example, a black-baldy heifer
might be mated to a Hereford bull. The backcross is most often used when a
particular breed is well suited to the production environment such as
indigenous breeds in tropical areas. Backcrosses yield maximum maternal
heterosis but only 50 percent of maximum individual heterosis. The reduction
in individual heterosis is due to the common breed makeup between bull and
cow in the backcross.
Figure 1
Breeding scheme for a
two-breed rotational
crossbreeding system.
Figure 2
Breeding scheme for a
three-breed rotational
crossbreeding system.
Management is more
complex than for the two-
breed rotation. Choice of
breeds becomes an
important consideration, as
the number of breeds included in a rotation is increased.
First, breeds used to initiate the rotation should be the best available for your
production system. The heterosis gained from adding an additional breed
must be greater than the loss of average genetic merit due to adding a breed
which is poorer than those used to initiate the system. Second, breeds used in
a rotation should be somewhat similar in characteristics such as mature size
and milk production. Diverse breeds may lead to calving difficulty and
problems associated with feeding and marketing heterogeneous calves.
Breeding herds
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available resources match your long-term objectives. There must be adequate
feed, water, and fences to accommodate a year-round operation.
The major concern of cattle producers is profit. For a cow-calf herd, profits are
determined by the percent calf crop (the number of calves weaned per cows
bred), the weaning weight of the calves, the costs of maintaining breeding
animals, and, ultimately, the sale price of the calves.
Because your entire program depends on the fitness of the breeding animals,
it is essential to maintain good herd health by not allowing the cattle to
become too fat or too thin. Cows do not milk as well and may have problems
calving or getting bred if they are overweight or underweight. Bulls that are not
in good condition may perform poorly during the breeding season.
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1. The primary advantage of rotational crosses is that replacement
heifers are provided within the system. Both individual and
maternal heterosis is less than maximum because of the
common breed composition of sire and dam. Since cows share
approximately 1/3 of their breed composition with the bull with
which they are mated, a third of potential heterosis is lost. No
breed complementation is obtained from a rotational cross. Sire
breeds alternate between generations. Therefore, using
specialized sire and dam breeds is not possible.
2. Straight breeding or pure breeding. With a straight breeding
program, only one breed is used. It is the obligation of
management to make progress through selection and at the
same time provide an optimal environment that will allow the
animals selected to express their genetic potential. Any trait to
be improved must be improved in the context of the breed that is
being worked on within a herd.
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Learning Steps Resources
Grasses
There are many different kinds of grasses in the tropics. Every climatic
region has grasses which are adapted to the region. Sometimes it
can be profitable, if you have some extra money and labour available,
to improve your grassland by introducing better grasses. Buy the seeds
and sow them in a prepared field, or sow extra grass among your
existing pasture. Discuss with your local extension worker whether it
is likely to be worthwhile resowing the grass. The extension worker
can help you work out what the benefits are likely to be, but also how
much they will probably cost you. A better quality of grass also means
extra inputs such as manure or fertilizer to maintain this quality. In a
zero-grazing unit you need to be especially aware of the danger of a
mineral deficiency in the soil of potassium, nitrogen or phosphorus.
You need to be able to take appropriate preventive measures.
There are a few easy ways to measure the quality of the grass (see Table
4). If the grass is old and dry it contains a lot of dry matter, and the quality will
be very low.
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HUMIDICOLA SIGNAL GRASS
SETARIA PARAGRASS
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1. Gamba Andopogon gayanus
2. Carpet Grass Axonopus comrpesus
3. Pinhole Grass Bathriochloa insculpta
4. Signal Grass Brachiaria brizantha
5. Para grass Brachiaria mutica
6. Kennedy ruzi Brachiaria ruziziensis
7. Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyus
8. Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
9. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
10. Napier Pennisetum purpureum
11. Golden timothy Setaria sphcelata/Setaria splendida.
12. Guatemala grass Tripsacum laxum
13. Corn Zea mays
14. Rice Oriza sativa
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Supplements
Supplements are products given in addition to the roughage in the
cow’s diet, if the roughage alone cannot satisfy the requirements for
maintenance and production. During the dry season in particular, the
roughage (straw) provided is usually not enough to cover maintenance
requirements, or the animals are unable to eat enough to survive. Also during
the rest of the year if you want to maintain a certain level of production, it
could be wise to supplement your animals.
Supplementation can take the form of an extra dose of nitrogen (for
protein) by treating straw with urea (contains nitrogen) or by providing
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extra urea (nitrogen) and molasses (energy rich) in a solidified lick-block. You
can treat straw by adding 4 kg of urea to every 100 kg of air dry straw.
Dissolve the urea in water and spray this over the straw. Then cover the straw
with some plastic sheets. Use the treated straw as soon as possible. As this
involves quite a lot of work it is best to make enough to last for several days to
a week. The first time the animals may refuse to eat the treated straw
because of the ammonia smell, but if this happens it will only last a few days.
Be sure that the benefits obtained from this treatment are higher than the
costs (the price of urea).
Another possibility is to make a lick-block containing urea and
molasses. The block is given in addition to the roughage. These blocks are
attractive and palatable to ruminants because of the smell and taste of
molasses. Cows can consume up to 0.5 kg per day per animal, depending on
the size of the animal.
The processing of crops leaves waste products for which there is no further
direct use. These are sometimes called concentrates because they contain a
lot of nutrients and hardly any fibre in comparison with roughage. This feed
(concentrate) alone is not sufficient for the animal. Cows need roughage to
maintain the condition of the rumen. A minimum of one third (1/3) of the feed
supplied should be roughage. You can improve production with supplements
but it is costly. Supplements require extra labour and money. Therefore they
should only be used in the more intensive systems such as the grazing-with
supplementary- feeding or zero-grazing systems, and when you are
sure there is a market for your products. Supplements can be divided into
three groups. Depending on the purpose of production of your cows you can
choose a different supplement.
Feeding system
Farming systems or feeding system
There are many ways of keeping animals for production. The one you choose
depends very much on the circumstances in your area: climate, type of
vegetation, market for selling the product, availability of labor and, last but not
least, local traditions. For this reason we describe three examples of farming
systems in this chapter. These will give an idea of possible options. Many
existing cattle keeping systems can be compared with the systems described
here. These systems are not completely different from each other, but overlap
partly. Combinations are also possible. We give a description of the three
systems, together with the limitations of each. This should help you to choose
the system that best fits your situation.
Zero grazing.
Within this system the animals stay in one place only and all the feed is
brought to them. This means that not only the supplementary feed has to be
bought or cultivated, and brought to the animal, but also the roughage (grass,
hay etc.) and the water for drinking has to be brought to the animal (see
Chapter 3). The grass can be cultivated (e.g. Pennisetum, Napier, elephant
grass, Panicum, see Chapter 3) or cut from natural pastures. This system is
mostly only used with dairy cows and only if the milk fetches a good price.
Meat is not usually produced under this system as it can never be sold for a
high enough price.
Calculate forage demand. To calculate forage demand one must know the
average weight of the animals in a herd or flock and the number of days in the
planned grazing period. The amount of forage each animal will eat daily
can be estimated by multiplying the average body weight times 2.5%. When
forage is green and growing, animals can consume as much as 3.5% of body
weight and in the dormant season intake generally falls to about 1.5%. A
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yearly average of 2.5% is usually acceptable. Studies comparing calculated
forage demand with actual long-term stocking rates reveal that using the
figure of 2% of body weight results in excessive stocking rate estimates.
Therefore, calculating forage demand as 2.5% of body weight results in a
stocking rate closer to proper stocking. This higher figure accounts for
rejection of some usable forage by the animal, use of forage by wildlife, and
some trampling of plants. For example, a big old range cow that weighs 1200
pounds requires 30 pounds of forage per day (1200 lbs * 2.5%). If cattle are
grazed year-round, each cow would require 10,950 pounds (30 lbs * 365
days) of forage per year.
Horses and rabbits are common range herbivores that ferment forage in an
enlarged cecum rather than a rumen. This digestive morphology is less
efficient than the rumen but it allows for greater consumption. Therefore, non-
ruminants are estimated to consume about 3% of body weight per day.
Calculate stocking rate. The number of livestock that can be grazed on the
management unit surveyed for the desired grazing period equals the pounds
of usable forage divided by the forage demand. For example, 315,000 lbs of
usable forage divided by 10,950 pounds of forage demand equals 29 bison
cows that can graze on the management unit year-round.
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Self Check Questionnaire No. 5:
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Answer Key No. 5:
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LO3. Manage the General Herd
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LO3. Information Sheet No. 1
Rearing Bulls
Since the sire contributes 50% of the genetic make-up of the offspring,
it should be managed well. Use these guidelines:
1. Teach the bull to lead when 6 months old or eight months old.
3. The bull of a six months should have a nose ring to make
handling easier.
4. After the ring has been affixed in the nasal septum, attach the
staff to it when handling the bull.
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5. House the bull in separate shed but allow daily exercise in an
open yard.
When animals select substantially different diets, they can often graze
the same area of range with complimentary effects. For example, in the
foothills of Idaho, cattle prefer mostly grass and they graze these areas mostly
in the spring. In the fall and winter, deer and elk move into these foothill
regions and primarily eat shrubs such as bitterbrush and sagebrush. If the
stocking rate of these lands is set for cattle, no reduction is necessary for the
amount of forage used by elk and deer because they do not consume the
forages used by cattle. One added benefit of this multispecies grazing is that
the removal of herbaceous forage by cattle in the spring improves the vigor
and biomass production of the winter browse species used by deer and elk. In
turn, the use of browse by wild ungulates improves grass production for cattle.
In the case above, little dietary overlap occurs between the cattle and the wild
ungulates, therefore grazing capacity is additive when both groups of animals
graze the same range. However, if dietary overlap between animals is
substantial, such as between cattle and bison, then the presence of both
species must be accounted for in forage demand estimates. There are
equations, worksheets, and computer models that improve stocking rate
estimates in multi-species situations. However, caution must be used when
interpreting diet “rules-of-thumb” such as those given in Table 3. The caution
is that animals are very flexible in their diet selection. For example, cattle
generally prefer grass and may select diets as high as 86% grass. However, if
grass becomes limited they may select diets as high as 74% browse.
Increased dietary overlap between species is often, therefore, observed in
periods of limited forage availability. Furthermore, diet overlap does not
necessarily indicate that animals are competing for forage. If there is enough
forage to go around, animals don’t compete for forage even if they are
selecting very similar diets.
Managing calves
When you purchase calves for a growing or feeding operation, keep them in
an area that allows you to observe them for 2 weeks. This enables you to
prevent the spread of disease.
Calves should have access to plenty of water and feed. Working the calves
requires a lot of patience, as they are easily excited and stressed. Your
veterinarian or Extension agent can help you develop a health program that
lowers the risk of disease for newly received calves.
Breeding herds
The major concern of cattle producers is profit. For a cow-calf herd, profits are
determined by the percent calf crop (the number of calves weaned per cows
bred), the weaning weight of the calves, the costs of maintaining breeding
animals, and, ultimately, the sale price of the calves.
Because your entire program depends on the fitness of the breeding animals,
it is essential to maintain good herd health by not allowing the cattle to
become too fat or too thin. Cows do not milk as well and may have problems
calving or getting bred if they are overweight or underweight. Bulls that are not
in good condition may perform poorly during the breeding season.
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Self Check Questionnaire No. 7:
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Answer Key No.7:
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LO4. Provide Life Support Facilities
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LO4. Information Sheet No. 1
Classification of Pastures
A. Annual versus Perennial
1. Annual – is a crop that must be propagated from seed each year it
is grown.
2. Perennial – is one that does not have to be reseeded each year but
will reestablish itself from It's roots.
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1. Temporary pasture – is one that is seeded on freshly cultivated soil
for use through only one or a part of one grazing season. Usually it
consist of an annual.
2. Permanent pasture – is one that once established, remains as
pasture for at least a period of years and in some instances
continuously. It may consist of either perennial or reseeding
annuals.
IPIL-IPIL
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KAKAWATE RENSONII
SETARIA PARAGRASS
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GUINEA GRASS NAPIER GRASS
Housing
There are several options for using the barn in a new type of system for
housing, feeding, or handling dairy beef cattle. These uses might include:
Weaned Calf Housing
Growing Cattle Housing
Finishing Cattle Housing
Cattle Handling Facility
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As has been pointed out, cattle will be more efficient in the production
of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, i.e.
temperatures of 25 to 30°C, and particularly from direct sunshine. Thus in
tropical and subtropical climates shade becomes an important factor. If cattle
are kept in a confined area, it should be free of mud and manure in order to
reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal
where the area per cow is limited. However, where ample space is available,
an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.
Sun Shade
With these needs in mind a shade structure allowing 2.5 to 3m: per
animal will give the minimum desirable protection for cattle, whether it be for
one animal belonging to a small holder or many animals in a commercial herd.
A 3x7m roof will provide adequate shade for up to X cows. The roof should be
a minimum of 3m high to allow air movement. If financially feasible, all the
area that will be shaded some time during the day should be paved with good
quality concrete. The size of this paved area depends on the orientation of the
shade structure. If the longitudinal axis is east and west, pan of the floor under
the roof will be in shade all day. Extending the floor approximately one third its
length on the east and on the west as shown in Figure 10. 3, a paved surface
will provide for the shaded area at all times.
If the longitudinal axis is north and south, the paved area must be 3 times the
roof area i.e. 1/3 to the east, 1/3 to the west and l/3 underneath. Obviously
this means an increase in the cost of paving. In deciding which orientation to
build, the following factors need be considered:
1 With the east-west orientation the feed and water troughs can be
under the shade which will allow the cows to eat and drink in shade at
any time of the day. The shaded area, however, should be increased to
3 to 4m² per cow. By locating the feed and water in the shade, feed
consumption will be encouraged, but also more manure will be dropped
in the shaded area which in turn will lead to dirty cows.
2 With the north-south orientation, the sun will strike every part of the
floor area under and on either side of the roof at some time during the
day. This will help to keep the floored area dry. A shaded area of 2.5 to
3m² per cow is adequate if feed and water troughs are placed away
from the shaded area.
3 If it is felt that paving is too costly, the north-south orientation is the
best choice in order to keep the area as dry as possible.
4 In regions where temperatures average 30°C or more for up to five
hours per day during some period of the year, the east-west orientation
is most beneficial.
Yards
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If space is severely limited and only 4 to 5m² per cow is available, then
concrete paving is highly desirable. If up to 40 to 60m² per cow is available,
then unpaved yards should be quite satisfactory as long as the feed and
shade areas are paved and the yard is graded for good drainage.
Bull Pens
A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12 to 15m² and a large
exercise area of 20 to 30m². The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight
horizontal rails of minimum 100mm round timber or 50mm galvanized steel
tubes to a total height of 1.5m and fixed to 200mm timber posts not more than
2m apart will be sufficient. The gate must be designed so that the bull cannot
lift it off its hinges and there should be at least two exits where the herdsman
can escape.
A service stall where the cow can be tethered prior to and during service is
usually provided close to the bull pen. The stall can have ramps at the sides
to support the bull's front feet.
Calf Pens
Individual pens for calves from birth to 2 to 3 months of age are often
built with an elevated slatted floor. This floor, which is best constructed from
37 to 50mm by 75 to 100mm sawn timber boards leaving a 25 to 30mm slat
between each board, will ensure that the calf is always dry and clean. The
required minimum internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 1200 by
800mm for a pen where the calf is kept to two weeks of age, 1200 by l000mm
where the calf is kept to 6 to 8 weeks of age and 1500 by 1 200mm where the
calf is kept from 6 to 14 weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be tight
to prevent contact with other calves and* to prevent draughts. Draughts
through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with litter until
the calf is at least one month of age. The front of the pen should be made so
that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water easily from buckets or a
trough fixed to the outside of the pen and so that the calf can be moved out of
the pen without lifting. The milk or milk substitute fed to the calf will not
provide it with enough liquid and therefore it should be given fresh, clean
water daily or preferably have continuous access to water in a drinking nipple.
All calves, but especially those which are weaned early, should have access
to good quality forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development.
Forage can be supplied in a rack placed above the side wall of the pen. This
construction with a feed alley will be rather expensive but can be cheaper if
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calves are fed from outside. Calf pens are recommended where the cows are
kept in a semi-zero grazing or zero grazing system.
Another system that works well is the use of individual hutches. The
hutch must be thoroughly cleanedset up in a new location each time a new
calf is housed in it. Plenty of litter is placed directly on the ground inside the
hutch. Protection from wind, rain and sun is all the calf requires, but always
moving the hutch to clean ground is the key to success.
For the small holder who wants to make the very best use of his crop
land and to provide his cattle with good housing that will encourage high
production, a zero grazing system is recommended.
Gum poles may be used instead of the cedar posts and sawn rafters,
but any wood in contact with or within 5Ocm of the ground should be well
treated with wood preservative. It is desirable to pave the alley, but if that is
not possible, the distance between the free stalls (cubicles) and the feed
trough should be doubled or tripled.
The circular manure tank has a volume of 10m³. This will be adequate
to store the manure produced during one month plus any rainfall collected in
the alley. If more stalls are added the capacity of the tank will need to be
increased or the interval between the emptyings shortened.
A water tank to collect water from the roof can be very useful unless
there is an abundant supply of water nearby.
For the farmer with up to about 30 cows a yard with paved shade and
feed area would be suitable. The yard and feeding area may alternatively be
combined with an open sided barn designed for deep bedding or equipped
with free-stalls and where the herd consists of high yielding cows the milking
shed may be equipped with a bucket milking machine. Some farmers with up
to 30 cows may even consider using an open sided tie-stall shed.
In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following
facilities:
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1 Resting area for cows: a Paved shade, or b Deep bedding in an open sided
barn, or c Free-stalls in an open sided barn
2 Exercise yard (paved or unpaved)
3 Paved feed area:
4 Milking Centre:
12 Waste store:
a Slurry storage, or
b Separate storage of solids and effluents
Each of the parts of the dairy unit may be planned in many different ways
to suit the production management system, and the chosen method of
feeding. Some requirements and work routines to consider when the layout is
planned are as follows:
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illness are commonly discovered during milking and cows are easily
separated from the rest of the herd while leaving the milking.
5 Easy and periodical cleaning of accommodation, yards, milking
facilities and dairy, and transfer of the waste to storage and then to the
fields.
6 The movements of the herdsman. Minimum travel to move cows in or
out of milking area.
7 Provision for future expansion of the various parts of the unit.
For the farmer with 10 to 30 cows and a yard with a paved shade and
feed area, the milking parlor is of suitable design. Two stands will be sufficient
where the herd number is 8 to 14, but more stands should be added as
indicated when the herd number increases. Hand milking would probably be
used for an operation of this size. If machine milking is installed the vacuum
pump and the engine, which powers it, can be put in the engine room, which
is indicated in outline in the plan view. This is arranged by closing off a portion
of the store room with a simple partition.
A milk cooler will be necessary to cool and hold the milk for pick up.
This and facilities for washing and storing the milking equipment will be
accommodated in the milk room, while concentrates are kept in the store
room.
A milk room should face the prevailing wind to ensure good ventilation
and to keep it as cool as possible, but any openings should be screened with
insect mesh.
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Self Check Questionnaire No.8
1. What is pasture?
2. What is Good pasture
3. What are the facilities in general a medium or large scale dairy
unit?
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Key Answer No. 8:
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3. In general a medium or large scale dairy unit may include the following
facilities:
4 Milking Centre
12 Waste stores
1. Read Info Sheet on Herd Info Sheet 17: Herd vaccination and
vaccination and medication program, medication program, Common pests
Common pests and diseases of large and diseases of large ruminants
ruminants
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2.Perform Self Check Questionnaire. Self Check Questionnaire 17.
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Vaccination and Medication Procedures for Cattle
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o Don't keep leftover reconstituted vaccine. It is probably contaminated with
all sorts of bacteria and will not be effective.
• Be extra clean and sanitary. Put a new needle in bottle and use only that
needle to withdraw vaccine. Never stick a needle you have stuck into an
animal into a bottle.
• Oral
o Administration of boluses, tablets, liquids, or pastes through the mouth.
o For boluses and tablets, a balling gun is used with entry through the side of
the mouth and over the top of the tongue to the back of the throat, where the
trigger mechanism of the balling gun releases the bolus or tablet.
The animal will usually swallow at this point, assuring consumption.
Watch the throat area to determine if the material was swallowed.
o Caution should be used because rough handling with a balling gun can
produce tender areas in the mouth, making the animal go off feed or causing
problems of a more serious nature.
o Liquids and pastes can be administered with a dose syringe.
The tip of the dose syringe should be inserted into the side of the mouth
between the teeth and over the tongue and directed into the back part of the
throat.
The liquid should then be dispensed at a moderate rate so that the animal
has time to swallow the material, rather than causing an overload, which could
cause fluids to be aspirated into the lungs.
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Another problem with dose syringes is that, in careless hands, severe
damage can be inflicted to the roof of the mouth when the tip of the syringe is
gouged rather than gently placed in the back of the throat.
• Intranasal
• This is a relatively rare system used to create local resistance to disease
affecting the respiratory tract.
o Most of the antibody protection will be in an animal's general system and
vaccine must be in small amounts to permit absorption into the respiratory
system.
• Intramuscular - IM
o Injection deep into the meaty area of the neck muscle, not in the round or
loin or hip.
o This may be difficult until you are familiar with this technique.
o However, we must all work to keep scar tissue (gristle) out of our
consumer's T-Bone and Round steaks!
o Absorption is rapid due to good blood supply.
o A 1-1/2" long needle should be used, allowing complete penetration of skin
and fat and partial penetration of muscle.
o Volume of injection should never be more than 10 ml.
• Subcutaneous - SubQ
o Injection under the skin.
o This route gives a slow but sustained absorption due to small blood supply.
o Injection site is where the skin is loose in the neck area.
o Loose skin is gathered and needle inserted through gathered area.
o A 1/2" to 3/4" long needle can be used.
o SubQ is always the preferred route of administration when label gives
a choice between IM and SubQ.
• Intravenous - IV
o This route is used when you need a quick response.
o Drugs are rapidly available to animal's system in larger volume and tissue
irritation is avoided.
o Best site is jugular vein, located between the neck muscles and throat on
the side of the neck (ideal site is approximately one-third of the distance
between jaw and chest).
o Site should be wet with alcohol, 1-1/2" to 2" long needle should be inserted
at a 30 degree angle pointing toward the body.
o Slight suction on the syringe should produce blood in the fluid and injection
should be slow and steady.
• Implanting
o The proper technique is to insert the needle approximately midway between
the tip and base of the ear, avoiding cartilage ribs and blood vessels.
o Once needle is inserted up to the hilt, withdraw needle one-half way and
deposit implant.
o You should be able to feel pellets under the skin.
o Improper implantation can lead to poor absorption, usually caused by
gouging of the cartilage of the ear
intradermal rather than subcutaneous implantation
severing one of the veins of the ear, causing hemorrhage.
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o Observe the "Thumb Rule" when implanting.
Always place implants at least a thumb's width away from ear tags, ear
notches, old implant sites, etc., to avoid lack of proper absorption of implant
material.
A high quality herd health program is essential to any cattle operation. Having
a good herd health program will decrease the number of sick cattle in most
operations, and generally healthy cattle are better performing cattle.
A good herd health management program will also encourage the production
of safe, healthy and wholesome products. A good herd health program
reduces the incidence of sickness and reduces treatment costs.
Studies have shown that cattle in the feedlot diagnosed with respiratory illness
will produce a carcass with a lower quality grade. Typically sick cattle are less
profitable than healthy cattle because of increased treatment costs and the
decreased value of their carcass.
A clean environment
Adequate nutrition program
Good reproduction (A.I. and Calving) practices
Quality vaccination management
Keeping records
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Your nutrition program determines the health and the ability of your cattle to
perform. Cows and heifers should have access to a good quality diet,
particularly when they are lactating. Females should be in good condition
(Body Condition Score of 5 or greater), at calving time. In addition, mineral
should be supplemented based on nutrient composition of the forages
available. Feeders and troughs should be free of moldy and/or stale feed, and
feedstuffs should be checked for nitrates, mycotoxins, and nutrient
composition. If medicated feed is fed, withdrawal times must be adhered to.
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Extra-Label Drug Use
What is "extra label" drug use?
Off-label drug use requires a veterinarian's prescription
FDA criteria for off-label drug use
Exactly what is extra-label or off-label drug use? Extra-label drug use is using
animal health products in a manner not specified on the label. Examples
include using a product at higher doses or in different species than stated on
the label. A veterinarian's prescription is needed for extra-label drug use.
Some drugs are not currently approved for use in food-producing animals,
even under the extra-label criteria. The Animal Medicinal Drug Usage
Clarification Act (AMDUCA) provides that the FDA may prohibit an extra-label
drug use in animals if the agency finds that such use presents a risk to the
public health. Your veterinarian should be aware of current changes to the list
of non-approved products.
Chloramphenicol
Clenbuterol
Diethylstilbestrol
Dimetridazole
Ipronidazole
Other nitroimidazoles
Furzolidone (except for topical use)
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Nitrofurazone (except for topical use)
Sulfonamide drugs in lactating dairy cattle
Fluroquinolones
Glycopeptides
All drugs, whether over the counter (OTC) or prescription (Rx), must contain
the following information on the label: name of the drug; active ingredients;
instructions for use; withdrawal times; quantity of contents; name of
distributor, lot number and expiration date.
Prescription drugs not only must have the name of the drug, active
ingredients, instructions for use, withdrawal times, quantity of contents, and
name of distributor, but must also include name and address of the dispensing
veterinarian, not just the veterinary clinic; the statement "CAUTION: Federal
law restricts this drug to use by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian";
directions for use; prescribed withdrawal times, even if zero; and any other
cautionary statements.
To reduce the chance of reactions and minimize the risk of residues, check
and follow these instructions on each label: dosage; timing; route of
administration; warnings or indications (for example, "not for use in pregnant
animals"); withdrawal times if any; storage; disposal; and shelf life or
expiration date.
Health problems
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The cost of caring for sick cattle can seriously reduce your profit margin. With
the increasing need to cut production costs, good herd health care is very
important for any beef operation.
You can recognize a sick animal first by its abnormal behavior or physical
appearance. Droopy ears, loss of appetite, head down, scouring (diarrhea), or
inactivity may indicate illness. A high temperature usually indicates disease.
The best course of action is to find a sick animal quickly, treat it, and then
work to eliminate the cause of the sickness. If one or two animals come down
with a disease, the rest of the herd has been or will be exposed to it.
Health problems are more common during and after periods of stress,
including calving, weaning, shipping, working or moving the cattle, and
extreme weather conditions. Stress can reduce an animal's ability to resist
infectious agents. After a period of stress, give extra attention to your animals'
health.
The following are five of the more common health problems that beef
producers encounter. You also need to be aware of other diseases that affect
the health of livestock in your region.
Respiratory diseases
If you are in an area where white muscle disease is likely to occur, supply
adequate amounts of selenium in the diet. In addition, injecting newborn
calves with a commercial selenium/vitamin E preparation is a short-term
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solution. Your veterinarian can advise you regarding the incidence of disease
in your area.
External parasites
External parasites include horn flies, face flies, stable flies, heel flies, and lice.
The largest health problem comes from the additional stress these insects
cause to animals. When infested, cattle spend more time in the shade and
don't graze, which causes poor performance.
You can reduce these problems by using fly-repellent ear tags or another
parasite control treatment. Eliminating the areas where pests reproduce also
helps to reduce the severity of external parasites.
Internal parasites
Cattle are likely to pick up internal parasites when they graze established
pastures. Internal parasites also can be a problem in confined areas.
Use dewormers at strategic times during the year to reduce the numbers of
internal parasites. Use fecal sampling to determine the severity of the
infestation and the type of dewormer that will be effective.
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Disease control
Vaccinations and parasite controls are available for many of the diseases
affecting cattle. The choice of remedy and time of application depend on a
variety of things, including the animal's nutritional level, disease prevalence in
the herd, and the region in which the cattle are located.
health?
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Answer Key No. 9:
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Decreased respiratory illness increases profitability and carcass quality
A clean environment
Adequate nutrition program
Good reproduction (A.I. and Calving) practices
Quality vaccination management
Keeping records
PERFORMANCE TEST
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Learner’s Name: ________________________________ Date: _____________
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Instructor Signature: Date:
Learner’s Date:
signature:
Instructor Date:
Signature:
LEARNER’S DIARY
DIARY NOTES
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LEARNER’S DIARY
DIARY NOTES
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