Truba Institute of Engineering & Information Technology Bhopal

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UNIT I

 Computer: Definition, Classification

 Organization
 CPU
 register
 Bus architecture
 Instruction set
 Memory & Storage Systems
 I/O Devices
 System & Application Software
 Computing Ethics
 Computer Application in e-Business
 Bio-Informatics
 health Care
 Remote Sensing & GIS
 Meteorology and Climatology
 Computer Gaming
 Multimedia and Animation

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1. Computer: Definition, Classification

3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. We
may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major
decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by
activating and controlling the operations.

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU)

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The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer
to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the
previous section.

4. Registers:
The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there is also movement of data
between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed.
So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the
main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the
control unit.

5. BUS ARCHITECTURE:
All computers use three types of basic buses. The name of the bus is generally determined by the
type of signal it is carrying or the method of operation. We group the buses into three areas as
you see them in their most common uses. They are as follows:

1. Control (also called timing and control bus) bus,

2. Address bus, and
3. Data (also called a memory bus) bus.

Control Bus:
The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other functional areas
of the computer. It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt,
acknowledge, and so forth) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the computer.
The individual signals transmitted over the control bus and their functions are covered in the
appropriate functional area description.

Address Bus
The address bus consists of all the signals necessary to define any of the possible memory
address locations within the computer, or for modular memories any of the possible memory
addresses locations within a module. An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other set of
characters used to designate a location or register where information is stored. Before data or
instructions can be written into or read from memory by the CPU or I/O sections, an address
must be transmitted to memory over the address bus.

Data Bus

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The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles the transfer of all data
and instructions between functional areas of the computer. The bidirectional data bus can only
transmit in one direction at a time. The data bus is used to transfer instructions from memory to
the CPU for execution. It carries data (operands) to and from the CPU and memory as required
by instruction translation. The data bus is also used to transfer data between memory and the I/O
section during input/output operations. The information on the data bus is either written into.

7. Memory
Computer memory is used to store two things:

i) instructions to execute a program and

ii) Data.

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When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the
primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a
secondary storage device like a floppy disk.

FOLLOWING TYPES OF MEMORY ARE USED IN COMPUTER SYSTEM:

Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory
(RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly
store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is
also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is
temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The
memories, which lose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories
.So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.

RAM

SRAM DRAM

SRAM

There are two key features to SRAM - Static random Access Memory, and these set it out against
other types of memory that are available:

1. The data is held statically: This means that the data is held in the semiconductor
memory without the need to be refreshed as long as the power is applied to the memory.
2. SRAM is a form of random access memory: A random access memory is one in
which the locations in the semiconductor memory can be written to or read from in any
order, regardless of the last memory location that was accessed.

DRAM

As the name DRAM, or dynamic random access memory, implies, this form of memory
technology is a type of random access memory. It stores each bit of data on a small capacitor

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within the memory cell. The capacitor can be either charged or discharged and this provides the
two states, "1" or "0" for the cell.

Since the charge within the capacitor leaks, it is necessary to refresh each memory cell
periodically. This refresh requirement gives rise to the term dynamic - static memories do not
have a need to be refreshed.

The advantage of a DRAM is the simplicity of the cell - it only requires a single transistor
compared to around six in a typical static RAM, SRAM memory cell. N view of its simplicity,
the costs of DRAM are much lower than those for SRAM, and they are able to provide much
higher levels of memory density. However the DRAM has disadvantages as well, and as a result,
most computers use both DRAM technology and SRAM, but in different areas.

In view of the fact that power is required for the DRAM to maintain its data, it is what is termed
a volatile memory. Memory technologies such as Flash are non-volatile and retain data even
when the power is removed.

DRAM advantages and disadvantages

As with any technology, there are various advantages and disadvantages to using it. Balancing
the advantages and disadvantages of using DRAM against another form of technology ensures
that the optimum format is chosen.

Advantages Disadvantages

 Complex manufacturing process

 Very dense
 Data requires refreshing
 Low cost per bit
 More complex external circuitry required
 Simple memory cell
(read and refresh periodically)
structure
 Volatile memory
 Relatively slow operational speed

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Read Only Memory (ROM):

ROM

EROM EPROM EEPROM

There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs
inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM
stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal
computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output
program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when
the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not lose their content on failure of power supply, are
known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

PROM:
There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read
Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in
ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programs are
written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs
or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.

EPROM:

This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the problem of
PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information
stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet
light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the
EPROM is in use information can only be read.

EEROM:

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The advantage of an EEPROM memory, apart from the fact that the data stored is non-volatile, is
that it is possible to read data from it and also erase it and write data to it. To erase the data, a
relatively high voltage is required, and early EEPROMs needed an external high voltage source.
Later versions of these memory chips recognized the difficulty in many circuit designs of having
an extra supply just for the EEPROM, and they incorporated the high voltage source into the
EEPROM chip. In this way the memory device could run from a single supply, thereby
considerably reducing the cost of an overall circuit using an EEPROM and simplifying the
design.

When using an EEPROM it is necessary to remember that the read and write cycles are
performed much slower than those experienced with RAM. As a result it is necessary to use the
data stored in the EEPROM memory in such a way that this does not impede the operation of the
overall system. Typically the data stored in it can be downloaded at start-up. It is also important
to note that Write and erase operations are performed on a byte per byte basis.

EEPROM memory uses the same basic principle that is used by EPROM memory technology.
Although there are several different memory cell configurations that can be sued the basic
principle that is behind each memory cell is the same.

Often the memory cell will comprise two field effect transistors. One of these is the storage
transistor. This has what is termed a floating gate. Electrons can be made to become trapped in
this gate, and the presence or absence of electrons then equates to the data stored there.

The other transistor generally in the memory cell is what is known as the access transistor and it
is required for the operational aspects of the EEPROM memory cell.

SECONDARY STORAGE

We are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast
as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive
and hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main
memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data
for the CPU to process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems.
This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.

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In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower
than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and
transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage
devices are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk.

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Disk Capacity

Capacity: maximum number of bits that can be stored

 Vendors express capacity in units of gigabytes (GB), where

1 GB = 109 Bytes

Capacity is determined by these technology factors:

 Recording density (bits/in): number of bits that can be squeezed into a 1 inch
linear segment of a track
 Track density (tracks/in): number of tracks that can be squeezed into a 1 inch
radial segment
 Areal density (bits/in2): product of recording and track density

EXAMPLE:

Capacity = (# bytes/sector) x (avg. # sectors/track) x

(# tracks/surface) x (# surfaces/platter) x

(# platters/disk)

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Example:

 512 bytes/sector
 1000 sectors/track (on average)
 20,000 tracks/surface
 2 surfaces/platter
 5 platters/disk

Capacity = 512 x 1000 x 80000 x 2 x 5

= 409,600,000,000

= 409.6 GB

Cache Memory:

The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore the
performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the
mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory
whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory.
CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store
programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So
each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small.

8.Input Devices/ Output Devices

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When
you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the
computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after processing gives
output through other devices called output devices.

For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We will
discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications. They are
also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication
between computer and the outer world.

Input Devices

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Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be
understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful data
to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices.

1. Keyboard: - This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of
keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter. It also contains some extra command keys
and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. A typical keyboard used in a
computer is shown in Fig. 2.6. You have to press correct combination of keys to input
data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key
combination and processing is done accordingly.

2. Mouse: - Mouse is an input device .It is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a
small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat
surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor
moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is
easier and faster to move through a mouse.

3. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to
input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input
any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical
Character Reader (OCR).

o Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used by banks

to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR.
As they enter the reading unit the cheques pass through the magnetic field which
causes the read head to recognize the character of the cheques.

o Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have
appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a
square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a
computer for grading where OMR is used.
o Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the direct
reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written
characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer.
This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer.
Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be
identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.

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Output Devices

1. Visual Display Unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit
(VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is
used to display the input data and to receive messages from the computer. A monitor has
its own box which is separated from the main computer system and is connected to the
computer by cable. In some systems it is compact with the system unit. It can be color or
monochrome.

2. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two
types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a
printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal
when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also
classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work situation.

3. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the
processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed
for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing,
printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar
typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. Dot-
matrix printers are of this type. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print.
They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet
printers are of this type. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate
graphics.

4. Data and Information:

Data:
Data is raw. It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can
exist in any form, usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself. In computer parlance, a
spreadsheet generally starts out by holding data.

Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.

Ex: It is raining.

Information:
Information is data that has been given meaning by way of relational connection. This "meaning"
can be useful, but does not have to be. In computer parlance, a relational database makes
information from the data stored within it.

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Information embodies the understanding of a relationship of some sort, possibly cause

and effect.

Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

Knowledge:

Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information, such that its intent is to be useful.
Knowledge is a deterministic process. When someone "memorizes" information (as less-
aspiring test-bound students often do), then they have amassed knowledge. This
knowledge has useful meaning to them, but it does not provide for, in and of itself,
integration such as would infer further knowledge. For example, elementary school
children memorize, or amass knowledge of, the "times table". They can tell you that "2 x
2 = 4" because they have amassed that knowledge (it being included in the times table).
But when asked what is "1267 x 300", they cannot respond correctly because that entry is
not in their times table. To correctly answer such a question requires a true cognitive and
analytical ability that is only encompassed in the next level... understanding. In computer
parlance, most of the applications we use (modeling, simulation, etc.) exercise some type
of stored knowledge.

Knowledge represents a pattern that connects and generally provides a high level of
predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.

Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres
is often unlikely to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

Wisdom:

Wisdom is an extrapolative and non-deterministic, non-probabilistic process. It calls

upon all the previous levels of consciousness, and specifically upon special types of
human programming (moral, ethical codes, etc.). It beckons to give us understanding
about which there has previously been no understanding, and in doing so, goes far
beyond understanding itself. It is the essence of philosophical probing. Unlike the
previous four levels, it asks questions to which there is no (easily-achievable) answer,
and in some cases, to which there can be no humanly-known answers period. Wisdom is
therefore, the process by which we also discern, or judge, between right and wrong, good
and bad. I personally believe that computers do not have, and will never have the ability
to posse’s wisdom. Wisdom is a uniquely human state, or as I see it, wisdom requires one
to have a soul, for it resides as much in the heart as in the mind. And a soul is something
machines will never possess (or perhaps I should reword that to say, a soul is something
that, in general, will never possess a machine).

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Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of fundamental principles embodied within

the knowledge that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being what it is. Wisdom is
essentially systemic.

Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses an understanding of all the
interactions that happen between raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients,
changes, and raining.

BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

A computer as shown in Fig performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of
their size and make. These are:

1) It accepts data or instructions by way of input,

2) It stores data,

3) It can process data as required by the user,

4) It gives results in the form of output, and

5) It controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You
should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as

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inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input
unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

Basic computer Operations

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data
has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing
speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with
the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and
processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the
above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit
and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided.
It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere

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inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It
takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

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MEMORY HIERARCHY:

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10. COMPUTER ETHICS:

Ethics is a set of moral principles that govern the behavior of a group or individual. Therefore,
computer ethics is set of moral principles that regulate the use of computers. Some common
issues of computer ethics include intellectual property rights (such as copyrighted electronic
content), privacy concerns, and how computers affect society.

For example, while it is easy to duplicate copyrighted electronic (or digital) content, computer
ethics would suggest that it is wrong to do so without the author's approval. And while it may be
possible to access someone's personal information on a computer system, computer ethics would
advise that such an action is unethical.

As technology advances, computers continue to have a greater impact on society. Therefore,

computer ethics promotes the discussion of how much influence computers should have in areas
such as artificial intelligence and human communication. As the world of computers evolves,
computer ethics continues to create ethical standards that address new issues raised by new
technologies.

 Ethics are standards of moral conduct

 Standards of right and wrong behavior

 A gauge of personal integrity

 The basis of trust and cooperation in relationships with others

 Four primary issues

 Privacy – responsibility to protect data about individuals

 Accuracy - responsibility of data collectors to authenticate information and ensure its

accuracy

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 Property - who owns information and software and how can they be sold and exchanged

 Access - responsibility of data collectors to control access and determine what

information a person has the right to obtain about others and how the information can be
used

LAWS FOR COMPUTER ETHICS:

Copyright refers to laws that regulate the

use of the work of a creator, such as an
artist or author. This includes copying,
distributing, altering and displaying
creative, literary and other types of work.
Unless otherwise stated in a contract, the
author or creator of a work retains the
copyright.

For a copyright to apply to a work, it

must be an original idea that is put to use.
The idea alone cannot be protected by
copyright. It is the physical use of that
idea, such as an illustration or a written
novel that is covered under copyright law.

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PATENT:
A patent is granted as an exclusive right by the Government for an invention for a limited period
of time in consideration of disclosure of the invention by an applicant. A patentee enjoys
exclusive right to prevent a third party from an unauthorized act of making, using, offering for
sale, selling or importing the patented product or process within the country during the term of
the patent. A patented invention becomes free for public use after expiry of the term of the patent
or when the patent ceases to have effect on account of non-payment of renewal fee. A Indian Patent
is effective for a term of: 15 years (from the filing date).

11. Computer Applications

11.1 Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology to the management of biological information.

Computers are used to gather, store, analyze and integrate biological and genetic information which can
then be applied to gene-based drug discovery and development.

Biology is in the middle of a major paradigm shift driven by computing technology. Although it
is already an informational science in many respects, the field has been rapidly becoming much
more computational and analytical. Rapid progress in genetics and biochemistry research
combined with the tools provided by modern biotechnology has generated massive volumes of
genetic and protein sequence data.

Bioinformatics has been defined as a means for analyzing, comparing, graphically displaying,
modeling, storing, systemizing, searching, and ultimately distributing biological information,

This includes sequences, structures, Mathematics, Statistics, Medicine, and

function, and phylogeny. Thus Biology.
bioinformatics may be defined as a
discipline that generates computational
tools, databases, and methods to support
genomic and post genomic research. It
comprises the study of DNA structure and
function, gene and protein expression,
protein production, structure and function,
genetic regulatory systems, and clinical
applications. Bioinformatics needs the
expertise from Computer Science,
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PROTINES

CHROMOSOMES DNA

CELLS RNA
BIOINFORMATICS

BIOMOLECULES

SIGNALLING NETWORK
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11.3 Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making
physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor
technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the atmosphere and
oceans) by means of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic radiation emitted from aircraft or satellites).

• Environmental applications

• Hydrology and coastal mapping

• Urban planning

• Emergencies and Hazards

• Global change and Meteorology

Remote sensing applications

• Land-use mapping

• Forest and agriculture applications

• Telecommunication planning
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Computer animation is a simulation of movement produced by displaying images or a series of

pictures. If you will view it rapidly, every image in the collection shows some changes that
create the illusion of movement. Therefore, viewers find it entertaining since animation delivers
a dynamic look and unique feel for users.

Animation is considered as one of the most progressing form of art and a source of fun. Since its
products have become in demand in the market, the computer applications used in creating it
have become advanced, thus making programs capable of simulating various environment and
movements and environment.

This process of creating animated images by the use of computer is the latest technique applied
in the movie entertainment industry these days. This is because advanced cartoon animation
software can make hand drawn characters and still images appear real. This kind of applications
is commonly used in creating 2D or 3D films that have entertained moviegoers for many years
now. Using them has enable filmmakers to create realistic and fascinating effects that greatly
improved visuals, making the animated movies of the past lame in comparison.

So, because of the fun and amazing results of animated graphics, people have been adoptive to
its advancements. Not only it is only used in movies now but also in television, bringing
individuals' home entertainment experience to another level. Likewise, such process of graphical
production is now also used game making, providing avid gamer players with the best feel for
whatever it is they are playing.
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