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Teaching Music Literacy in a Choral Setting:

An Annotated Bibliography

Holden Maiorana
Bibliography and Research in Music
Ithaca College
Summer 2019
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INTRODUCTION:

When performing music in an ensemble setting, a multitude of musical skills are

required. One must sing or play in tune, one must perform musical phrases together,

and one must sing or play the right notes at the right time. All of the aforementioned

skills can be achieved if a director has taken careful consideration of teaching their

ensemble to be literate in music.

For the purposes of this search, music literacy is broadly defined as the ability to

read and perform music. For those immersed in the band or orchestral world, this skill

is often taken for granted. However, in the choral classroom, music literacy is something

that many ensembles struggle with. It is not uncommon for choral students to be far

behind their band or orchestra counterparts in their abilities to read and perform music.

This bibliography is a compilation of resources, philosophies, sequences, and

studies conducted on teaching music literacy in a choral setting. All methodologies

(including Kodály, Orff, and Gordon) were included to provide a more comprehensive

collection of resources. The sources selected discuss strategies for ensembles from the

elementary level through adulthood. Sources from any time period were considered.

It is the goal of this bibliography to provide choral music educators with a list of

resources to further their ensemble’s music literacy skills.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Barnes, J. W. (1960). ​An experimental study of interval drill as it affects sight singing

skill ​(Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

Global. (301902164)

Though dated, James Woodrow Barnes looks at the benefits of emphasizing intervals
while teaching sight-singing. By instructing his students to view a sight-singing example
as a series of notes one interval after another, Barnes was able to observe a significant
growth in his students’ ability to sight-sing. That being said, there was not a control
group to cross-reference these students’ growth with. Barnes’s findings provide a
relatively strong case for an emphasis on intervallic relationships when teaching
students how to sight-sing.

Bartle, J. A. (2003). Developing literacy. In ​Sound advice: Becoming a better children’s

choir director​ (pp. 46-58). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bartle’s many years as the conductor of a children’s choir maker her a wonderful
candidate to write about developing literacy in an elementary chorus. In her years of
expertise, Bartle recalls that perhaps the most crucial thing to remember when one
wishes to develop music literacy in their ensemble is to give the singers adequate
opportunities to read music independently. It is seemingly such a simple idea, but very
few choir directors allow their students the opportunity to read and analyze a
sight-singing example quietly by themselves before attempting it as a group. This simple
step can help develop your students’ audiation skills, which will in turn inform their
ability to read music.

Bauguess, D. (1985). ​The Jenson sight singing course (vol. i)​. New York, NY: Jenson.

Bauguess’s book is a favorite among middle school and high school choral educators. It
provides hundreds of sight-singing examples all at a beginning to intermediate level.
This book is an excellent introduction to sight-singing as it scaffolds each chapters’ skills
and concepts in a clear, logical way and provides several sight-singing examples to hone
each specific skill. Bauguess teaches the reader the difference between fixed do and
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movable do, which is useful for students to distinguish between the two and discover
what they prefer or identify what their teacher has taught them.

Berkowitz, S., Fontrier, G., & Kraft, L. (1997). ​A new approach to sight singing​ (4th
ed.).

New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

This sight-singing textbook is a staple for college theory and aural skills professors. The
book provides hundreds of sight-singing examples including individual melodies, duets,
and canons. Berkowitz, Fontrier, and Kraft advocate for a movable do solfege system,
but recognize that any system can be successfully used when performing the examples in
their book. This textbook is very much geared toward college-level students due to the
complex nature of the sight-singing examples from as early as the first chapter.

Bolton, S. G. (2009). ​A study to determine if current music education practices in

selected school districts in eastern nebraska are effective to teach vocal sight

reading to non-instrumentally trained vocal music students ​(Doctoral

dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

(305138796)

Sandra G. Bolton’s 2009 study looks at 8th grade vocal students and assesses their
ability to read music after roughly eight years (kindergarten through 7th grade) of music
instruction. For the purposes of this study, no students with instrumental backgrounds
were considered. Bolton finds in this study that virtually no 8th grade vocal student was
able to successfully sing even the simplest of melodies by looking only at the sheet music
and being giving the starting pitch. This study shows the sad truth that students enrolled
in only chorus, not band or orchestra, have a significantly harder time reading music
than their instrumental counterparts. This study should serve as a reminder that choral
educators must be targeting their instruction to their students who have the least
experience reading music.
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Bowyer, J. O., II. (2010). ​Graduated sight-singing instruction: An adaptation of the

Kodály concept to teach sight-singing to the collegiate choir​. Available from

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. (854850297)

Bowyer’s doctoral dissertation attempts to incorporate the Kodály method into a

collegiate choir setting with hopes of assisting the music reading abilities of its choir
members. He does so through a curriculum of creative sight-singing that encourages
student engagement and puts an emphasis on assessing one’s performance. Bowyer
finds that this curriculum helped the choir members with their intonation and audiation
skills. Bowyers ideas on engaging students and being critical of one’s sight-singing
performance are two tools that can be utilized by choral music educators.

Brinson, B. A., & Demorest, S. M. (2014). Building musicianship skills. In C. Baxter & I.

Lague (Eds.), ​Choral music: Methods and materials (grades 5 to 12)​ (pp.

204-235). New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Brinson and Demorest, professors of music education at SUNY Fredonia and the
University of Washington respectively, provide a near encyclopedic look at all rhythmic
and melodic approaches to sight-singing. Without definitively stating their preferred
method, they weigh the pros and cons of each and provide a wealth of method book
resources for developing music literacy in choir. Lastly, they discuss appropriate
assessment methods for sight-singing, something that other resources have failed to
mention. This chapter is a great resource for those looking to determine which rhythmic
and melodic sight-singing approaches are best for their choir, those who are in need of
sight-singing method books that will aid music literacy, and for those in need of
guidance in assessing music literacy growth.

Broomhead, P. (2019). ​What is music literacy?​ New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.

In this book by Brigham Young professor Paul Broomhead, the author poses that the
definition of music literacy varies depending on a student’s role in music classroom. He
identifies the creator (composer), the performer, the responder (informal music
listener), and the connector (a musical thinker). These roles align precisely with the
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current set of National Association for Music Education standards. This text serves as a
good reference when determining how to build music literacy within a specific music
role.

Collins, D. L. (1999). Teaching music literacy: An imperative. In M. Gottlieb (Ed.),

Teaching choral music ​(pp. 235-280). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Collins provides a comprehensive text to teaching choral music complete with a historic
analysis of music education, tips for teaching proper vocal technique, habits of
successful chorus teachers, and methodologies for teaching music literacy. Collins
provides a breakdown of all facets of sight-singing from reading various meters,
identifying keys, solfege usage, count-singing, and reading chromatic lines. This sizeable
chapter in his book begins with strategies for beginner elementary students, and
concludes with music literacy development techniques for advanced collegiate singers.
Collins’s proficiency in choral music education is a fine resource specifically because of
its count-singing methods and introductory music notation exercises.

Concone, G. (1908). ​The school of sight-singing.​ New York, NY: G. Schirmer.

Concone’s classic book on beginners sight-singing is still used frequently today. While it
is most commonly referenced in private voice lessons, the exercises in this book can be
used in a middle school chorus classroom to help students beginning to sight-sing.
Concone uses solfege (though he uses the syllable “si” as opposed to “ti”) in each
chapter, and the accompaniments he has composed aid the singer or singers without
spoon-feeding them the correct pitches.

Demorest, S. (1998). Improving sight-singing performance in the choral ensemble:

the effect of individual testing. ​Journal of Research in Music Education,​ ​46(​ 2),

182-192. doi: 10.2307/3345622

In this 1998 study, Demorest divided members of the same Washington state high
school choirs into two groups: those who would receive group instruction on
sight-singing, and those who were required to privately teach themselves about
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sight-singing with resources. Upon testing their sight-singing abilities after weeks of
instruction, Demorest found that the students that privately taught themselves
outperformed the students that received group instruction. Demorest theorizes that the
private students were forced to be accountable for their education and were able to work
at their own pace. This study provides evidence that students are able to work
independently towards the development of their own music literacy.

Demorest, S., & May, W. (1995). Sight-singing instruction in the choral ensemble:

Factors related to individual performance. ​Journal of Research in Music

Education,​ ​43(​ 2), 156-167. doi: 10.2307/3345676

This 1995 study, conducted by two highly-respected pedagogues, evaluated over 400
high-achieving high school choral students’ sight-singing abilities and attempted to
identify the factors that lead to their success. The study poses that the top factors that
determine music literacy skills are in order: years of experience in a choral ensemble,
years of piano instruction, taking instrumental lessons, and finally taking voice lessons.
This study provides a strong case for encouraging one’s students to take up lessons on
an instrument in order to being a more literate musician.

Feierabend, J. M. (2014). ​Book of canons.​ Chicago, IL: GIA.

John M. Feierabend is currently among the leading music education pedagogues in the
world. In this compilation of canons and rounds, he aims to select repertoire that can
advance musicianship at all ages. He poses that each canon can be taught by rote or,
ideally, by reading the provided sheet music. He recommends count-singing, solfege,
and movement activities all designed to help create more literate young musicians. This
is a great resource for choral educators of all levels to select repertoire that encourages
music literacy.

Fisher, R. A., Summitt, N. L., & Jacks, L. (2015). A description of sight-singing practices

in Arkansas secondary choral programs. ​Missouri Journal of Research in Music

Education​, (52), 19–29. Retrieved from ​https://search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.

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ithaca​.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rft&AN=A1305004&site=ehost-

live&scope=site

This study of Arkansas sight-singing approaches was initiated by Fisher, Summitt, and
Jacks to determine which sight-singing methodologies yielded the most literate music
students. This study found that two-thirds of schools preferred a movable do
sight-singing approach while the remaining third prefer a number-based system. They
also found that two thirds favor a beat-based counting system while the remaining third
prefer other methods like ​Kodály or Gordon. Finally, it was revealed that the schools
that performed best at state competitions typically favored movable do and beat based
counting systems. Most importantly, this study discovered that the most successful
choirs in Arkansas devote at least 15% or more to sight-singing each rehearsal. This idea
of 15% or more of one’s class time devoted to sight-singing is a great goal that is very
achievable and very much worth the investment.

Floyd, E., & Haning, M. (2015). Sight-singing pedagogy: A content analysis of choral

methods textbooks. ​Journal of Music Teacher Education,​ ​25​(1), 11-22. doi:

10.1177/1057083714539767

This study of ten choral methods textbooks analyzes each text based on the presence of
specific musical attributes (modulations, various tonalities, philosophy/rationale, etc.)
They defined a quality textbook as providing the reader with a sufficient amount of these
musical attributes in order to give an all-encompassing approach to sight-singing. The
study found that no textbooks checked all the boxes of musical attributes. Nearly all
textbooks provided some pedagogical tools such as solfege and rationale behind their
philosophies, but few (20-30%) took the reader through more complex musical
challenges like modulations and tonalities outside of ionian and aeolian. The study
poses that if we want our students to achieve a higher level of musicianship, we must
align our sight-singing material to a more intentionally rigorous curriculum. This idea is
important to remember when selecting repertoire for sight-singing. No single textbook
will provide your students with all musical attributes, so a combination of choral
methods books is likely the most all-encompassing approach.
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Freer, P. K. (2009). Teaching strategies for rehearsals. In ​Getting started with middle

school chorus.​ Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield

Freer’s holistic view of running a middle school choir program is impressive. In this
chapter devoted to planning one’s rehearsals and developing curriculum, Freer notes
that music literacy is a crucial part of being a member of chorus. That being said, Freer
states that your attempts to teach music literacy should not impede a student’s
enjoyment of the class. He believes that to retain singers, they must enjoy sight-singing.
This enjoyment is achieved through appropriate moderation and constant
encouragement. Freer brings up a good point: in order to have successful, musically
literate students, they need to be retained in the program.

Gordon, E. E. (2010). ​Possible impossibilities in undergraduate music education​.

Chiccago, IL: GIA.

In Gordon’s book written for undergraduate students about to embark into their first
teaching experiences, he emphasizes his discoveries in his Music Learning Theory. Each
chapter of the book discusses how to teach music literacy in subsections like scales,
tonal and rhythm patterns, and music notation all through the lens of Gordon’s Music
Learning Theory. There is a primary focus in all chapters on developing audiation.
Audiation can be a remarkable tool that aids a student’s ability to think musically.
Gordon’s extensive research on the subject of music literacy is admirable, and the value
of developing audiational skills in the choral classroom should not be underestimated.

Green, V. B. (1998). ​Enhanced musical literacy through participation in the adult

amateur/volunteer chorus: A descriptive study (​ Doctoral dissertation). Available

from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. (9839071)

In this study, Verna Barbara Green examines chorus members from 19

community/amateur adult choruses in an around New York City and evaluates their
current ability to read music as well as their ability to develop music literacy skills at an
older age. She finds that older singers tend to take their participation in an ensemble
very seriously, and are more inclined to put in the necessary work to develop music
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reading skills. This is relevant to choral music educators because when working with a
community group, often times your older singers will be willing to put in the rehearsal
time to develop musically, while your younger singers may be the ones who need more
encouragement.

Henry, M. (2004). The use of targeted pitch skills for sight-singing instruction in the

choral rehearsal. ​Journal of Research in Music Education,​ ​52​(3), 206-217. doi:

10.2307/3345855

In Michele L. Henry’s study of sight-singing, she recorded the effects of various targeted
pitch skills on students’ sight-singing abilities. In doing so, Henry discovered that
students responded positively to being instructed on sight-singing strategies with a
harmonic context (singing a melodic line while a harmonic progression is played
underneath). This shows the importance of context to a student’s musical development.
They must be able to hear harmonically where a phrase is going in order to achieve their
fullest musical potential. This serves as a reminder that it is best to give students as
much information about a sight-singing example as you can, as opposed to teaching it
isolated with no concern for harmonic context.

Herman, S. (1988). Music literacy: An approach to teaching pitch recognition. In

Building a pyramid of musicianship (​ pp. 63-73). Philadelphia, PA: Curtis Music

Press.

In her years of teaching middle school chorus, Sally Herman has found great success in
emphasizing intervallic relationships while teaching sight-singing to her students. This
chapter outlines her techniques for teaching middle school students how to identify
harmonic and melodic intervals by ear and by reading music. Herman later incorporates
a system of hand gestures that aid rhythmic stability. These techniques are a bit
advanced for some singers, but if a particular ensemble responds well to intervallic
relations and kinesthetic activities, Herman’s ideas may provide an acceptable approach
to teaching music literacy skills.
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Horton, J. D. (1974). ​The relative effectiveness of three systems of sight singing in

developing melodic sight-singing ability at the sixth-grade level ​(Doctoral

dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

(302740276)

Horton attempts to bridge the gap between eye and ear in his 1974 doctoral dissertation.
He examines the sight-singing abilities of 6th graders using three sight-singing systems
and ranks them according to their varying degrees of success. A group of students
learned to read shape notes (solfege syllables assigned to shapes and put on a standard
staff), syllables only (solfege syllables without a staff), and standard notation. In the
end, it was determined that standard notation provided the students with the most
successful sight-singing experience. This shows that when teaching sight-singing, it is
best not to overcomplicate. Teach your students the method of notation that you intend
to use the most, and their skills will develop.

Inzenga, A. (1999). ​Learning to read music cooperatively in a choral setting: A case

study (​ Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

Global. (304513271)

In Andrew Inzenga’s dissertation, he conducted a study to see if a freshmen treble choir

would be able to teach themselves music literacy skills without the aid of a teacher. They
were given time each class for six months to help one another learn to sight-sing. At the
end of the six months, their sight-singing abilities were assessed and each of the
students improved, proving that the cooperative learning method can be effective for
teaching music literacy. This study serves as a reminder that sometimes constructivist
classroom models may be conducive to growing music literacy skills.

Johnson, G. J. B. (1987). ​A descriptive study of the pitch-reading methods and the

amount of time utilized to teach sight-singing by high school choral teachers in

the north central region of the American Choral Directors Association (​ Master’s
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thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (230715442)

In this study by Greta J. Bredemeir Johnson, the author evaluates the sight-singing
methods and time amount of time devoted to said methods in several schools the
American Choral Directors Association’s north central region. In doing so, Johnson
found that most high schools used the movable do method and the ​Kodály rhythm
syllables. She found that the programs that used these two systems often succeed at
state competitions. In her research, Johnson also discovered that while nearly all choral
directors in the study claimed that they believe music literacy is a primary concern, very
few committed substantial rehearsal time to sight-singing exercises. Johnson’s findings
provide a strong case for movable do and Kodály rhythm syllables in the high school
choral setting, and reminds directors to give students more opportunities to sight-sing
in their daily rehearsals.

Jordan, J. (2017). How choirs learn: A call for a new approach to pedagogy. In ​Inside the

Choral Rehearsal: Harmonic rehearsal teaching and learning based on the

Music Learning Theory of Edwin E. Gordon ​(pp. 49-60). Chicago, IL: GIA.

James Jordan, an established pedagogue and advocate for Edwin Gordon’s Music
Learning Theory, discusses the benefits of developing students’ ability to audiate in a
choral setting. He suggests that in order for students to gain the ability to read music
proficiently, they must first be able to think musically. The entire book is filled with
suggestions for how to build a student’s musical thinking abilities. Jordan suggests a
layered rehearsal process in which students first become aware of how to listen to
music, then identify harmonic structure, and finally add in musical elements like
dynamics, diction, and phrase shape. Of all the resources listed in this bibliography, this
chapter is best suited for ensembles that have mastered the basics of music literacy and
wish to incorporate a deeper understanding of how music works while sight reading it.

Karpinski, G., & Kram, R. (2007). ​Anthology for sight singing.​ New York, NY: W.W.

Norton.
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In what appears to be a favorite amongst pedagogues and educators alike, Karpinski’s

2007 book is best suited for college-level students. The extensive sequence for
developing music literacy is well thought out and seems to be designed for singers with
prior knowledge of basic music theory concepts.

Kodály, Z., & Young, P. M. (1963). 333 elementary exercises in sight singing​. New York,

NY: Boosey & Hawkes.

Kodály was among the first to write a book specifically to teach sight-singing to
elementary-aged children. The book still has merit today, though his notation varies
slightly from the standard typeset notation we read so often. Regardless, Kodály and
Young’s 333 exercises are mostly sequenced from beginning to advanced, and have been
written by one of the greatest minds in music education. This book is a welcome
addition to the elementary choral setting.

Kuehne, J. M. (2007). A survey of sight-singing instructional practices in Florida

middle-school choral programs. ​Journal of Research in Music Education,​ ​55(​ 2),

115-128. Retrieved from ​http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.ithaca.edu:2048/stable

/4494337

Kuehne’s survey of sight-singing methods in Florida middle schools initially just

confirmed what was already previously known: most choral educators value music
literacy skills, and there are some textbooks for sight-singing that are preferred to
others. However, in the “other” category on the questionnaire, Kuehne discovered that
many educators opted to use online resources to help with sight-singing. Some cited
www.musictheory.net​ or www.sightreadingfactory.com while others preferred to create
their own sight-singing examples on notation software like Finale or Sibelius. Kuehne
recognized that we may have entered a shift in our preferred sight-singing resources,
and she advocates for creating your own sight-singing examples as well.

Lange, D. M. (2012). Music literacy: Sequential learning towards independent

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musicianship. In P. Burrucker (Ed.), ​Together again in harmony: Combining

Orff Schulwerk and Music Learning Theory​ (pp. 11-19). Chicago, IL: GIA.

In Diane Lange’s 2012 book, the author analyzes both Gordon’s Music Learning Theory
and the Orff Schulwerk methods of teaching to find common ground, and see how each
methodology can be taught to enhance the other. She finds that a combination of the
two can be particularly beneficial for developing music literacy in an elementary setting.
Lange’s knowledge of both techniques is very apparent. She suggests a modification of
Orff’s “Experience then participate” approach and Gordon’s “Whole-Part-Whole”
approach. This emphasizes a student’s ability to understand a song’s harmonic content,
experience a part of the song, and then participate in the final performance of a song
with an understanding of its form. This strategy is highly effective at the elementary
level, and emphasizes the importance of becoming familiar with a song’s key traits
(meter, tonality, tempo) before singing it. Students who understand the importance of
these traits develop into literate sight-singers.

Mason, E. (2012). Using Kodály to promote music literacy skills. ​Music Educators

Journal,​ ​99(​ 1), 28. doi: 10.1177/0027432112456967

In this article penned by former Ithaca College professor Emily Mason, the author
discusses how the Kodály method can incorporate a sequence of preparation,
presentation, and practice in a sound manner. Mason claims that the Kodály method
allows students to access their previously learned musical skills and expand upon them
using her suggested repertoire for the classroom. Mason is a strong advocate for the
Kodály method in the elementary choral setting. Mason’s expertise on the Kodály
method provides a great introduction to teachers interested in incorporating this
methodology to promote music literacy in their elementary classrooms.

Mathews, C. W. (2004). ​Rehearsing toward music literacy: A systematic approach

within the choral rehearsal utilizing literature selected for performance

(Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses

Global. (305175549)
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Mathews, a doctoral candidate from the University of Kentucky, articulates the struggles
of teaching music literacy in an ensemble setting. He reassures the reader that the
constant struggle between taking time to teach literacy and learning repertoire in a
timely fashion is a challenge that nearly all choral educators face. In his dissertation,
Mattews suggests 12 modules to guide choral directors in their pursuits to teach music
literacy to their singers. The modules are sequential and each step is laid out clearly with
an objective and helpful exercises to master the given skill with an ensemble. Mathews’s
modules are best suited for a middle or high school setting. The 12 modules laid out
provide an excellent framework for educators looking to sequence their lessons in music
literacy.

Melago, K. (2015, October). Teaching singers to read: A practical approach to

sight-singing in the choral rehearsal. ​Teaching Music​, ​23​(2), 24. Retrieved from

http://link.galegroup.com.ezproxy.ithaca.edu:2048/apps/doc/A430800719/PR

OF?u=nysl_sc_ithaca&sid=PROF&xid=c1b3f662

In Melago’s 2015 article, she identifies the struggles that many choir directors face when
attempting to develop music literacy in their ensemble. She recognizes that if students
have little to no sight-singing experience, then it is often an uphill battle trying to teach
them. All things considered, Melago assures the reader that the struggles will be worth it
once students become more competent musicians. Her main approach to this struggle is
her ideas on gradual integration. Start introducing unfamiliar ideas slowly as to not
overwhelm your students. Melago writes in the solfege of the exercises she has her
students sing. This gets them familiar with the syllables, so they don’t have to worry
about singing the right solfege syllable. Above all else, Melago instructs her students to
keep singing no matter what and to sing with confidence. These are traits that can
benefit choral directors of all backgrounds.

Munn, C. (2016, March). Chromebooks in the middle school chorus classroom.​ Choral

Director, 13​(2), 18-19. doi: 10.1075/0037432112429587

In this article, Carol Munn seeks to build music literacy with her middle school chorus
using their school-issued Chromebooks. She provides a number of ways she
incorporated them into her classroom including creating note-identification
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assignments on musictheory.net, recording themselves performing sight-singing

examples, and reviewing music terminology on kahoot.com. This is an important idea:
incorporating technology into the choral classroom. Our use for technology as music
educators extends outside of music recording, it can help our students become literate
musicians by providing them with a familiar interface to learn key musical concepts. It
also keeps our students engaged in their learning, and is often something assessed by
administrators in observations.

McClung, A. C. (2008). Sight-singing scores of high school choristers with extensive

training in movable solfège syllables and curwen hand signs. ​Journal of

Research in Music Education,​ ​56(​ 3), 255–266. doi: 1​0.1177/0022429408323290

This study examined students that typically use movable do and the Curwen hand signs
in their choral setting. Alan C. McClung then individually assessed the students’ ability
to sight-sing two different melodies: once while using Curwen hand signs, once without
using Curwen hand signs. McClung found the students performed better when they did
not have to perform the Curwen hand signs while sight-singing. This study shows that
while the Curwen hand signs can be very useful for visualizing intervals and becoming
familiar with solfege, they can be a distraction when sight-singing and signing at the
same time.

Nichols, B. (2013). The way we do the things we do: A survey of middle-school choral

educators' sight-singing attitudes and influences.​ Contributions to Music

Education, 39(​ 1), 87-100. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01296

This study, funded by the Ohio Music Educators Association, surveyed middle school
choral educators on their thoughts on the importance of sight-singing and methods to
approaching this in their ensembles. It is no surprise that nearly all educators recognize
the value in teaching their students this music literacy, but Nichols found that many
choir directors do not hold a consistent belief on the best approach. In his findings, the
programs with the highest level of student achievement belong to choir directors with a
consistent approach to sight-singing in which a significant amount of time each
rehearsal was devoted to developing music literacy. This survey perfectly demonstrates
that music literacy is not something that can be considered every now and then. If a
director wants their ensemble to become proficient in reading music, their students
need to be reading music every rehearsal. It is crucial that the director of an ensemble
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has a clear idea of the goals they have for their ensemble, and is willing to devote a
considerable amount of rehearsal time to achieve these goals.

Ottman, R., & Rogers, N. (2007). ​Music for sight singing​ (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River,

N.J.: Prentice Hall.

This sight-singing textbook is a favorite amongst high school choral music educators. It
provides a logically sequenced outline that begins with simple meter rhythm-only
examples and extends all the way to whole tone and octatonic melodies. This textbook
is best suited for the advanced high school choir or collegiate choirs due to the
complexity of its examples and breadth of musical concepts covered.

Parks, J. K. E. (2005). ​The effect of a program of portable electronic piano keyboard

experience on the acquisition of sight-singing skills in the novice high school

chorus ​(Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

Global. (304994709)

In this study, the author gave half of a high school chorus basic piano instruction and
allowed them to utilize a small, portable keyboard when attempted sight-singing
exercises, while the other half remained the control group. Both groups were assessed
and the group that was allowed to use pianos not only sang their assessment
significantly better than the control group, but rated their sight-singing experience as
more enjoyable than the control group. The practice of using portable pianos as a
sight-singing aid is a very uncommon one, but the results of Parks’s study speak for
themselves. Using pianos while instructing students in sight-singing yields more
advanced singers and a more pleasurable experience for the students.

Pembrook, R. G., & Riggins, H. L. (1990) “Send help!”: Aural skills instruction in U.S.

colleges and universities. ​Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4​(1), 231-242. doi:

10.1324/2091827585690698

This 1990 survey examined the sight-singing methods of college freshmen and
sophomores asking them their preferred method of sight-singing. Interestingly enough,
the most popular method was performing a sight-singing example on a neutral syllable.
That being said, Pembrook and Riggins found that while many preferred to sing on a
neutral syllable, the most successful singers performed their sight-singing examples on
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solfege using movable do. This creates a strong case for using movable do in the
classroom, even when your students complain and would prefer to sing on the syllable
“la.”

Phillips, K. H. (2016). Teaching sight-singing skills. In ​Directing the choral music

program​ (pp. 320-340). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

As a professor emeritus at the University of Iowa, Kenneth H. Phillips has written this
book primarily for undergraduate music education students preparing to teach chorus.
In this chapter, Phillips provides a historic look at sight-singing strategies (dating back
to Guido d’Arezzo’s hand staff) and concludes with his suggestions for successful
sight-singing in the ensemble setting. One thing Phillips is adamant about is that
educators should pick an approach or methodology and be consistent with it. He also
provides practical solutions for incorporating music literacy skills into rehearsal
beyond sight-singing. His strategies can be used at any level to help develop music
literacy skills.

Potts, S. D. (2009). ​Choral sight-singing instruction: An aural-based ensemble

method for developing individual sight-reading skills compared to a non-aural

based sight-singing method ​(Doctoral dissertation)​. A

​ vailable from ProQuest

Dissertations & Theses Global. (304978706)

Shermie Diana Potts, a doctoral candidate from the University of Oklahoma, conducted
a study to measure a group of high school students growth in sight-singing ability before
and after her aural-based curriculum. Students were assessed before the curriculum was
implemented and then again after 30 lessons of Potts’s curriculum. She discovered that
by focusing solely on an aural-based curriculum for the bulk of her lessons, the students
improved immensely in their ability to read music. In the long run, this allowed her
choir to learn music faster and improve their listening skills. Potts’s study provides
evidence that if music literacy is placed at the forefront of a curriculum, one may find
many residual benefits in their students’ overall performance.

Reese, J. (2015). Musical development. In C. Conway (Ed.), ​Musicianship-focused

curriculum and assessment ​(pp. 131-157). Chicago, IL: GIA.

Jill Reese provides some excellent insights to music literacy in an elementary setting.
She enforces the idea of sound before sight and a whole-part-whole mentality that will
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strengthen the relationship between written notation and aural memory for a student.
She suggests a rhythm pattern sequence in which gradually, new and more complex
meters are introduced until a student has developed an ear for nearly all rhythmic
contexts. Reese takes an approach that is heavily influenced by Gordon, but her ideas on
sequencing rhythms would be beneficial in any elementary choral setting.

Reifinger, J. L. (2018). The relationship of pitch sight-singing skills with tonal

discrimination, language reading skills, and academic ability in children. ​Journal

of Research in Music Education​, ​66(​ 1), 71–91. doi: 10.1177/0022429418756029

Reifinger’s research utilizes Gordon’s Primary Measures of Music Audiation and

Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation amongst other music aptitude tests and
compares them to a students’ standardized testing in language, reading, and writing.
Reifinger found that there is a strong correlation between a students ability to match
pitch and a student’s reading comprehension capacity. He theorizes that at this young
age, the thought processes behind matching pitch and understanding a reading excerpt
are similar and that developing one can vastly improve the other. The idea that
developing musical literacy can help with a students’ academics is potentially
game-changing to some educators that often have to advocate for their own programs
and justify their worth. This study validates the merits of promoting music literacy.

Rogers, M. (2013). Aural dictation affects high achievement in sight singing,

performance and composition skills. ​Australian Journal of Music Education,​ (1),

34–52. Retrieved from ​https://search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.ithaca.edu/

login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1061809&site=ehost-live&scope=site

This 2013 study analyzed the effects that performance background, aural dictation skills,
and composition skills had on sight-singing. Students were evaluated on each of the
three categories, then given a sight-singing test to see if there was a correlation between
sight-singing abilities and achievement in any of the three categories. The study found
that the greatest correlation was found between dictation skills and sight-singing. This
means that students who are able to dictate a melody are likely able to sight-sing at a
higher level than those who cannot dictate musical figures well. Rogers poses that
because of this, perhaps choral music educators should place a greater emphasis on
dictation in order for students to gain music literacy skills.
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Rush, S., & Wilkinson, E. (2017). Music literacy. In C. Thomas (Ed.), ​Habits of a

successful choir director​ (pp. 91-102). Chicago, IL: GIA.

In this chapter, Wilkinson recalls his early teaching years in a high school choral
program that previously had little regard for music literacy. He then recounts the
sequences that he implemented on his choir that brought them from being unable to
read music to sight-reading excerpts from masterworks. His three phases are as follows:
train the ear, train the eyes, and combine tonal and rhythm elements. Wilkinson, like
many others, advocates for solfege syllables to be taught with the Curwen hand signs.
Hearing Wilkinson’s personal teaching experiences is refreshing as his anecdotes are not
theoretical, they have been successfully implemented in his own classroom, and
therefore may be useful in high school choral classrooms elsewhere.

Sanders, R. B. (2015). ​The teaching of choral sight singing: Analyzing and

understanding experienced choral directors' perceptions and beliefs (​ Doctoral

dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

(1696058541)

Ronald Byron Sanders takes a look at highly successful choir programs at the middle
school, high school, and college level in an attempt to see the commonalities in their
sight-singing approaches. His study is quite extensive. He finds that the top groups
often use Curwen hand signs as a way of teaching solfege. The other main commonality
is that each group does not subscribe to just one sight-singing textbook of method book,
but rather an assortment of many. This shows that in order to gain a holistic approach to
music literacy, choir directors must pull from different resources when assigning
repertoire to sight-sing.

Smith, S. A. (1998). ​Sight singing in the high school choral rehearsal: Pedagogical

practices, teacher attitudes and university preparation ​(Doctoral dissertation).

Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304423258)

In Susan April Smith’s 1998 doctoral dissertation, she asks undergraduate choral music
students if they feel as though they were prepared for sight-reading at a college level.
 21

Her study found that current college students felt they did not receive adequate
preparation for sight-singing at a college level. In theory, this shows us that students
themselves know that there is more that they can be taught in high school about
sight-singing, and it is a disservice to them to neglect to prepare them for sight-singing
beyond the high school classroom. It should be noted that this study was conducted in
1998, and there may be a change in perception of how students feel they are being
prepared for college-level sight-singing.

​ ew York, NY: Hal Leonard.

Snyder, A. (2011). ​Sing on sight (vol. i). N

Audrey Snyder provides a kid-friendly sight-singing textbook in this 2011 favorite. Using
movable do, Snyder provides illustrations combined with standard notation to teach
young singers about sight-singing. With dozens of sight-singing exercises to choose
from, this is a great choice for developing an elementary choir curriculum that
emphasizes music literacy.

Stevenson, A. R. (2010). ​The effect of specific strategies on the sight-singing

performance of high school singers ​(Master’s thesis)​. A

​ vailable from ProQuest

Dissertations & Theses Global. (516277110)

In this study conducted by Amanda R. Stevenson, the author evaluates the sight-singing
achievement level of 136 high school students and relates it to their academic aptitude
based on a standardized test. Prior to the sight-singing assessment, students were asked
about their practice routine, and their answers were recorded. Stevenson found no
correlation between sight-singing achievement and a student’s academic aptitude, but
found that students with consistent practice regiments were more successful than their
peers without consistent practice regiments. Her findings reinforce the idea that
students do not necessarily need to excel in school to be literate musicians; a consistent
practice routine is the best way to advance one’s sight-singing abilities.

Ward, A. E. (1941). Harmony, sight reading, ear training, and dictation. In E. J.

Stringham (Ed.), ​Music education for high schools (​ pp. 197-207). New York, NY:

American Book Company.

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Ward’s book on teaching music in the high school setting may be dated, but his ideas on
teaching sight reading can still be used today. Ward suggests that a severely
underutilized method of teaching music literacy is dictation. The ability to hear a
melody and notate it demonstrates a deep understanding of music notation, and
therefore music literacy. Ward suggests both melodic and harmonic dictation exercises
to fully gauge a student’s abilities. He provides a list of reference readings and dictation
exercise books that aid a student’s ability to read music.

Ward-Steinman, P. M. (2018). Effective high school choral music teaching. In ​Becoming

a choral music teacher​ (pp. 148-171). New York, NY: Routledge.

Patrice Madura Ward-Steinman is a professor of music education at the Indiana

University Jacobs School of Music. She gives an in depth look at nearly all facets of
teaching middle and high school chorus in her book. Special interest is given to the
development of music literacy in the ensemble setting. She has found that students that
excel at sight-singing often have instrumental music experience, regular group practice
of sight-singing, individual testing of sight-singing, and receive specific feedback in
sight-singing attempts. Additionally, she suggests Curwen hand signs, keeping a steady
beat during exercises, and keeping eyes on one’s music for those who may struggle with
sight-singing. Ward-Steinman’s book is a sufficient resource for choral educators
because she provides an outline of beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels with
suggested sight-singing criteria (meter, key, rhythms, and voicing). This allows an
educator to scaffold their ensemble’s sight-singing ability.

Weary, K. J. (2012). Teaching musical literacy: Developing the independent choral

singer. ​Choral Director,​ ​9​(2), 12-15. doi: 10.1085/4091827341429587

Kyle Weary, a primary/secondary music educator, searches for the best approaches to
teaching music literacy by breaking down tonal literacy and rhythmic literacy. In doing
so, Weary analyzes various ensemble and ensemble directors (it should be noted that
the ensembles selected are all high performing high school or collegiate) and discusses
their approaches. In interviewing ensemble directors, Weary finds that across the board,
directors want their students to develop stronger sight-singing skills. That said, most
directors felt they do not have enough time in rehearsal to implement sight-singing
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strategies and others do not know how or where to start with their students. Weary
makes a strong case for the takademi method of rhythmic sight-singing, and urges all
music educators to hold ourselves accountable for implementing consistent and
impactful sight-singing tactics in our rehearsals. This article provides useful resources
for educators looking to use the takademi method.