Kodaly Journal PDF

The Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia Inc
2010
Australian Kodály Journal
AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010
kmeia journal 2010.indd 1

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8/07/10 2:26 PM
Australian Kodály Journal FROM THE EDITOR
© 2010 This issue of the Australian Kodály Journal
A publication of The Kodály Music Education hopes to engage KMEIA members with the
Institute of Australia Inc research and practice of our colleagues, and to
Affiliated National Institutional Member build our sense of being part of the Australian
of the International Kodály Society and international Kodály music education
ISSN 1836-9286 community. 2010 articles educate us about
Kodály’s solfa origins, explore a fresh aspect of
Zoltán Kodály, investigate the nature of music
teachers, discuss how inner hearing and in-
tune singing are connected, provide advocacy
material for music education and reveal the
large number of Australians who have studied in
Kecskemet.
Kmeia National Council Importantly, a new initiative, From the Archives,

Founder introduces members to highly significant
Dr Deanna Hoermann research from Kodály music education history.
President The 1979 Doreen Bridges paper reveals the hard
Gail Godfrey data from Deanna Hoermann’s pioneer program
Vice Presidents for the NSW Education Department. The 1979
Darren Wicks Sister Mary Alice Hein paper, in contrast, shows
Tess Laird evaluation from a cultural perspective. The
Treasurer evaluation of the Holy Names University San
Jill Meneely Jose School District project was conducted by
an anthropologist.
Dr David Banney
Ann Carroll I am very grateful to the group of distinguished
Ann Clifton music education researchers and practitioners
Anne Davidson who comprise the 2010 Editorial Panel and who
Kirsty Dent have been extremely supportive of the editor and
Jill Green generous with their time, expertise and advice.
Mathew Irving
Aleta King Thank you to all those who submitted material for
Julie Logan this issue. Guidelines for submissions for future
Ruth Robinson issues are on the KMEIA website www.Kodály.
org.au The editor can be contacted at bulletin@
Secretary Kodály.org.au
vacant
National Membership Secretary The Australian Kodály Journal is a fully-
Ethne Brennan refereed journal.
KMEIA
Editorial Team
PO Box 8299
Editorial Panel Toowoomba Mail Centre
Dr Doreen Bridges QLD 4352
Dr James Cuskelly www.kodaly.org.au
Dr Kay Hartwig info@kodaly.org.au
Dr Terrence Hays
Dr Deanna Hoermann
DISCLAIMER
Judith Johnson This publication has been prepared for the members and
Tess Laird professional associates of The Kodály Music Education
Dr Robin Stevens Institute of Australia. The opinions expressed in the publication
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
Design and Layout of the association or the editors. While reasonable checks have
Kevin Kelley been made to ensure the accuracy of statements and advice,
aMuse (Vic) no responsibility can be accepted for errors and omissions,
however caused. No responsibility for any loss occasioned
Editor
to any person acting on or refraining from action as a result
Ann Carroll of material in this publication is accepted by the authors, the
association, or the editors.
kmeia journal 2010.indd 2 8/07/10 2:26 PM

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 59 MEMBER ACTIVITIES
4 A message from the KMEIA president
Gail Godfrey 60 KODÁLY NEWS
5 A message from the IKS president KMEIA National Council News

Gilbert de Greeve
do-re-mi News
REFEREED PAPERS
7 ‘Where do you think we come from?’: Australian Kodály Certificate update
The origins and foundations of the
Kodály approach to music education IKS News
Robin Stevens
Report on 2010 Summer School
17 Music teachers: Who are they
anyway? 66 CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES
Scott Harrison
67 NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS 2011
25 The spirituality of Zoltán Kodály
Colin Weightman
31 Reflections of a choral conductor: The

inter-connectedness of inner hearing
and in-tune singing in early childhood
music education
Ruani Dias-Jayasinha
37 30 Years of Pilgrimage: Australians at

the Kodály Institute, Hungary
Aleta King
REFEREED PAPER: SHARING

PRACTICE
42 The importance of music in education:
The critical difference
Yvonne Tysoe ADVERTISING DIRECTORY
FROM THE ARCHIVE Favourite Music Games 62

45 Outcomes of a developmental music IKS Bulletin Archives CD 58
program KMEIA National Conference 6
Doreen Bridges KMEIA NSW 2011 Certificate Course 30
KMEIA Musical Beginnings DVD Package 36
52 Zoltán Kodály as educator: The KMEIA Purely Pentatonic 15
effects of the Kodály pedagogy on Sound Thinking 16
teacher and student Sound Thinking Australia Summer School 64
Sr. Mary Alice Hein
On the cover: Eilidh Ross of Young Voices of Melbourne. Photo courtesy of Mark O’Leary.
AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010 3

INTRODUCTION
A MESSAGE FROM THE KMEIA PRESIDENT

GAIL GODFREY
that KMEIA continues to flourish and can offer

all members a place in the Kodály community.
You are all full of character, heart, strength,
common-sense and creative talent. I am thankful
that we have been given this opportunity to work
together for a common vision - to share the gift
of music with others and to provide high quality
training courses for our members.
In fact to work contentedly in any worth-while

occupation there must be a calling, and when
you experience it, you become aware that you
have been handed the key to life.
When Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was only five

he composed a minuet and trio; and as a concert
pianist he was considered an infant prodigy. On
a musical tour with his sister he played before
the Empress Maria Theresa and her daughter
Marie Antoinette who later became the tragic
Queen of France. In the course of this tour a
young man took Mozart aside and asked his
advice on how he could succeed as a composer,
whereupon Mozart expressed the opinion that
the questioner was far too young to be thinking
of such a serious occupation. “Too young!”
expostulated the young man. ‘But you were
Gail Godfrey much younger when you began.’ ‘Yes,’ smiled
Mozart. ‘But I didn’t ask anybody how to begin.’
O
ne of the aspects of KMEIA that I am
grateful for is the unity our members I’m sure you have had similar experiences: ‘just
have developed over many years and doing it’, creating a way forward and leaping into
across the various levels of education - music the unknown with faith. I extend my heartfelt
for expectant mothers, through early childhood thanks to our valued members. Your vocation
and right on to tertiary levels. We see collegiality to teach, to attend workshops and courses for
between members in all the KMEIA roles they continued professional development, to work
assume, moving easily from leadership to at the coalface, is the very attitude and energy
participant and back, and experiencing the open necessary for organisations such as KMEIA to be
dialogue that denotes a healthy organisation. of service in Australia and our near neighbours.
Projects, courses and new initiatives occur Gail Godfrey,

with the help of others – we do not achieve in KMEIA President
isolation. It is only through trusting relationships
that ideas are formulated and put into action with
confidence. I formally thank and congratulate
the National Council members and State Branch
and Chapter Committees for their dedication to
and passion for KMEIA. It is only thanks to you
4 AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010

INTRODUCTION
A MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE

INTERNATIONAL KODály SOCIETY
Gilbert de greeve
Dear Colleagues,
Isn’t it interesting that in the many discussions

about music and music education, also with
Ministers or other high-up decision-makers in
the Government, I cannot remember one person
who disagreed about the importance of arts in
general and music in particular. On the contrary,
some of them even proclaimed the importance as
a thesis that they had just invented themselves.
But, when it came down to realizing the

curriculum and music programs this viewpoint
was not always followed. Of course, in the last
20 years, more than ever before, education has
been adapted and re-adapted to the needs of a
changing society. Unfortunately however, these
adaptations are often based on personal views,
on social or political circumstances, or just on
coincidence, rather than on sound humanistic
thought and professional integrity. Gilbert de Greeve
Let us be clear about something: “Zoltán enough to call on governments to provide the
Kodály’s vision is not a dogma but an necessary budgets, to make school principals
inspiration”. An inspiration can only be passed understand that time given to music is not
on through mutual contact. In that perspective wasted time but an investment in the well-being
there is an important and permanent role for the of their students, and to convince parents of the
International Kodály Society. It is not realistic to importance of choosing the right education for
expect that governments and decision-making their children.
authorities care for music as an integrated part
of a child’s general education just because we Zoltán Kodály said in 1956: “Good music has
say that it is important. But nobody can deny to be fought for, and this fight cannot be fought
Kodály’s many wise statements and writings, his with any success by one country alone within its
highly esteemed integrity as a composer, skilled boundaries.”
researcher and humanitarian, and his role as an
ongoing source of inspiration. We wish you all good luck and success with your
professional activities.
Therefore, dear Colleagues, we need you and
your ongoing support - not only through your On behalf of the Board of the International
membership but also through promoting us with Kodály Society,
others working in the field of music and music
education. Please talk to your colleagues,
students and friends so that they learn about the
International Kodály Society and let them visit
our website www.iks.hu. We need their support
as well.
Gilbert De Greeve
Only when we work together will we be strong IKS President

Géza Szilvay Fernando Malvar-Ruiz

REFEREED PAPERS
‘Where do you think we come from?’:

The origins and foundations of the
Kodály approach to music education
by Robin Stevens
The University of Melbourne
Introduction
The popular series of programs entitled ‘Who do
you think you are?’, produced for television by
SBS (the Special Broadcasting Service), focuses
on ‘Well-known Australians play[ing] detective as
they go in search of their family history, revealing
secrets from the past’ (SBS, 2010). As such, the
series represents – in the words of the producers
– ‘a fascinating chronicle of the social, ethnic
and cultural evolution of Australia’s national
identity.’(ibid.) In similar vein, the question
‘Where do you think we come from?’ may well
be asked in relation to the Kodály approach to
music education and like the TV series, there
may – for some Kodály practitioners – be some
facts about the origins of the method that may
surprise and perhaps even inspire. As a group
of music educators, Kodály practitioners in
Australia are generally highly skilled in their
implementation of the method in pre-school,
primary and secondary education settings.
However, one of the possible gaps in their
knowledge and understanding may be in relation
to the pedagogical origins and foundations of the
approach that they are implementing in schools
and other educational settings on a daily basis.
The aim of this article is to provide an historical
account of the pedagogical antecedents to the
Kodály approach – particularly Curwen’s Tonic
Sol-fa method in the hope that Australian Kodály Robin Stevens
practitioners will gain a greater appreciation of
the historical lineage, the inherited traditions and that is commonly referred to as solmization –
pedagogical bases associated with their method. that is, the application of the sol-fa syllables do,
ray, me, fah, soh, lah, and te, as a representation
The origins of solmization of, and mnemonic (memory) aid to realising, the
The teaching of music literacy – particularly seven pitched notes comprising the major scale.
the pitch dimension – is an age-old problem.
However, given numerous evidence-based The first historical revelation that may come as a
studies that support the effectiveness of the surprise to some Kodály teachers is that the use
Kodály method for both music and extra-musical of sol-fa syllables (solmization) has its origins as
learning (see, for example, Hoermann & Herbert, far back as the eleventh century. The first music
1979), it may be argued that the method in its educator to address the issue of accurate pitch
original Hungarian form and then in its various reading and performance was the Benedictine
national adaptations has been and continues monk, Guido d’Arezzo (995–1050) – also known
to be one of the most successful means of as Guido Monaco – who was born in the village
the teaching of music literacy, particularly in of Tulla in northern Italy and who lived much
school music settings. At the core of the Kodály of his life at Arezzo. Guido discovered that his
pedagogical approach is a teaching technique choristers were able to remember how to pitch

REFEREED PAPERS
the notes of what we now know as the major to introduce the fixed doh system to England
scale by referring back to the initial syllables of through Joseph Mainzer’s Singing for the Millions
the first six musical phrases of the Hymn to St (1841) and John Hullah’s Willem’s Method of
John (Ut queant laxis), each of which began on Teaching Singing (1842) achieved only limited
a successively higher note of the scale – ut, re, success, with the complexities of the fixed doh
mi, fa, sol and la (see Figure 1). This system was system limiting its practical value as a singing
formalised into what was known as the Gamut, method both for community singing and for
which became a visual representation of pitch. school music (Rainbow, 1967, chapters 8 and 9).
Guido is also credited with the invention of the However, in 1841, a young Methodist minister,
‘Guidonian Hand’, a widely used mnemonic the Reverend John Curwen (1816–1880), was
system in which note names are mapped to parts commissioned by a conference of Sunday
of the human hand that was used in choir training School teachers to recommend ‘some simple
(see Rainbow, 1967, pp.14-16, 169-171). method to the churches which should enable all
to sing with ease and propriety’ (Rainbow, 1980,
p. 17). Underpinning this commission was the
imperative for social reform particularly among
the working class population in the industrial
towns in the north of England. With only a few
exceptions, factory workers eked out miserable
existences, often with only one day of rest per
week, and many sought solace from this harsh
existence in drunkenness and other undesirable
pursuits. The promotion of choral singing in
church and community settings was widely
considered by both religious evangelists and
Figure 1 – Hymn to St John (Ut queant laxis). Source: Rainbow, social reformers to be a wholesome activity
R. (1989), Music in Education Thought and Practice: A Survey worthy of promotion as an antidote to moral
from 800 BC. Aberystwyth, Wales: Boethius Press (p.28). decadence. After extensive investigations,
Curwen drew on several English and Continental
Several centuries of development based on sources including a system devised by Sarah
Guidonian principles followed in Continental Ann Glover (1785-1867) and known as the
Europe, eventually resulting in the predominance Norwich Sol-fa system to develop his own Tonic
of the fixed doh method of teaching singing – Sol-fa system. This system would not only serve
that is, doh is always the note C, with successive to promote Sunday school singing but also
solmization syllables being similarly tied to the become one of the instruments of social reform
absolute pitches of the notes ascending from during the nineteenth century (for an account of
note C. Sharps and flats are accommodated by the philanthropic aspects of Tonic Sol-fa, see
changing the vowel sound of a particular syllable McGuire, 2009). The basis of the Tonic Sol-fa
so that, for example, C# would be da (instead method was that it facilitated pitch reading by
of do[h]), D# would be ri (instead of re [ray]), including sol-fa notation beneath staff notation
Db would be ra[h] (instead of re [ray]), and so as a mnemonic aid; and this gave even poorly
on. Unfortunately there is no consistency in the educated workers relatively easy access to the
way that the vowels of these syllables change, then standard staff music notation.
so this makes the fixed doh solmization system
increasingly complex as the tonality moves Sarah Glover, the eldest daughter of the rector of
further away from the key of C. Despite the St Lawrence Church in Norwich, had developed a
complexities of utilising the fixed doh system method of teaching singing which she published
outside of the key of C major and its nearly in a book entitled Scheme to Render Psalmody
related keys, the fixed-doh system – known Congregational (1835) (see Rainbow, 1967,
as solfège or solfeggio – presently survives in chapter 3; Southcott, 2001). Glover utilised a
Continental European countries (France, Italy, movable doh system in which the first letters in
Spain, Portugal etc.) and in Latin American uppercase of each of the sol-fa syllables became
countries where southern European colonial symbols for what she called ‘supplementary
influence was particularly dominant (Argentina, notation’. She also made use of a system of
Brazil, Chile etc.). bar lines and punctuation marks to denote the
rhythm in her system of ‘supplementary notation’
The Tonic Sol-fa method (see Figure 2).
During nineteenth century in England, attempts

REFEREED PAPERS
Although Curwen borrowed and adapted several

of Glover’s pedagogical techniques, he also
introduced several new features to his Tonic
Sol-fa method and its system of letter notation.
In 1870, Curwen devised the sol-fa hand-signs
(Curwen & Graham n.d., p.23) (see Figure 4)
and later introduced the ‘mental effects’ as extra-
musical associations for each of the seven tones
to further develop the relationship of notes within
the tonal sequence – for example, doh was
the strong or firm tone, ray was the rousing or
Figure 2 – An example of Sarah Glover’s supplementary hopeful tone, me was the steady or calm tone,
notation. Source: Curwen, J.S. & Graham, J. (n.d. [1891]). The etc.
Tonic Sol-fa jubilee: A popular record and handbook. London: MANUAL SIGNS OF TONE IN KEY
J. Curwen and Sons (p.11). Note – The diagrams show the hand as seen from the left
of the teacher, not as seen form the front. Teachers should
particularly notice this.
She used her supplementary notation as
a mnemonic aid for reading from the staff
but deliberately postponed the use of staff
notation until her pupils has fully mastered
supplementary notation. She also developed
a visual representation of pitch that she called
the Norwich Sol-fa Ladder as a means of drilling
her pupils by ‘sol-fa-ing’ tunes pointed out note-
by-note on the Ladder (see Figure 3). Without
gaining permission, John Curwen ‘borrowed’
the Norwich Sol-fa Ladder from Glover which he
adapted into The Tonic Sol-fa Modulator. Like
Glover, Curwen used this vertically-arranged
chart of sol-fa names for his students to instil
the relationship of each note to its tonality and
to each other.
Figure 4 – Curwen’s Sol-fa hand signs for pitch
Curwen then adopted French time names –

derived from Aimé Paris’s Langue de durées
(Rainbow, 1967, p. 151) – for teaching rhythm
from 1867. The French time names began
with the consonant ‘t’ (or ‘f’) for tones, with the
consonant ‘s’ for rests as in the following table
of examples.
Curwen also devised a system of finger-signs for

time (see Figure 5). In addition, Curwen devised
a ‘Six Step’ learning sequence that formed the
basis for successive editions of his textbook,
The Standard Course of Lessons and Exercises
Figure 3 – Sarah Glover and her ‘Norwich Sol-fa Ladder’. in the Tonic Sol-fa Method of Teaching Music,
Source: Source: Curwen, J. (n.d. [c. 1875]), The Teacher’s first published in 1858. The learning sequence
Manual of the Tonic Sol-fa method. London: Tonic Sol-fa included aspects such as vocal tone production,
Agency. breathing, and the progressive introduction

REFEREED PAPERS
Figure 5 – Table of Curwen’s French time names.
Curwen through his utilising of the movable doh

system promoted a system that was ‘true’ in both
a theoretical and a practical sense. The seven
tones of the major scale could also be applied to
the relative minor scale by starting and ending
the scale on lah. Modulation to related keys was
effected by means of ‘bridge-tones’.
Curwen originally used his adaptation of Glover’s

‘supplementary notation’ as a mnemonic aid to
reading staff notation. However, in 1872, Curwen
took the momentous step of breaking with the
use of staff notation altogether. Curwen had
always kept the level of theoretical complexity
to a minimum and so in post-1872 editions of
The Standard Course, he decided to by-pass
the difficulties associated with staff notation
altogether by utilising the implicit association of
the symbols (d : m : s) with vocalised syllables
(doh, me, soh). Part of the reason for this was
Curwen’s belief that his notation was sufficiently
comprehensive that it could provide for all
aspects of musical representation and therefore,
for vocal and choral music, could effectively
supplant the ‘Old [Staff] Notation’.
Pitch was notated using the first letters of the

Figure 6 – Curwen’s finger signs for time. Source: Curwen, J. solmisation syllables together with vertical dash
(1901), The Standard Course of Lessons and Exercises of the above or below note to indicate octave placement.
Tonic Sol-fa Method of Teaching Music. London: C. Curwen & The only exception to ‘first letter’ representation
Sons (p. v). was the use of chromatic notes such as fe, se,
ba, ta, etc. to indicate accidentals either in a
of pitched tones, rhythmic durations and minor mode or for modulation. Rhythmic notation
metres, expression, tempo, harmony, tonality, consisted of vertical ‘bar’ lines – a double bar to
modulation, etc. indicate the end of a musical section, a barline to
indicate main (strong) metrical divisions, half bar
The motto of the Tonic Sol-fa movement – ‘Easy, lines for subsidiary (medium) metrical divisions
Cheap and True’ – was adopted by Curwen (as with the third beat in quadruple metre) – and
during the 1860s. The motto aptly described, standard punctuation marks – a colon to indicate
first, the relative ease of teaching music literacy beat divisions, a period for half-beat divisions,
compared with other contemporary approaches. a comma for quarter-beat divisions, a rotated
Second, it was less expensive to print, as comma for third-beat division (i.e. for triplets),1
standard printing characters conveniently could with a dash to indicate the continuation of a note
be used, instead of the special characters and to a subsequent beat. Rests were notated by a
processes required for staff notation. Finally, blank space preceded by a punctuation mark to

REFEREED PAPERS
Figure 7 – An example of Tonic Sol-fa notation.
indicate duration. Slurring, where two or more common before the uncommon.
notes are sung to a single word or syllable, was . . . teach the thing before the sign, and when the
indicated by a horizontal line place below the thing is apprehended, attach to it a distinct sign.
notation. The following example indicates these . . . let each step, as far as possible, rise out of
notational elements in the first two phrases of a that which goes before, and lead up to that which
well-known chorale melody. comes after.
. . . call in the understanding to assist the skill at
Even from a contemporary perspective, Curwen every stage.
notation has several inherent advantages (Curwen, n.d., p.221)
over staff notation for choral singing. Firstly,
both the pitch and the rhythmic dimensions of Aside from his ability to both adapt from other
melody are contained within a ‘single cell’ as sources and devise new music teaching
opposed to staff notation where two dimensions techniques, Curwen had remarkable insights
– vertical and horizontal – are required for the into, and an ability to apply, what is now
representation of melody. Although it may be termed cognitive-developmental theory. Indeed
argued that the vertical representation of pitch Curwen’s development of the Tonic Sol-fa
is a useful way of visualising its relative pitch pedagogy correlates remarkably well with the
position, its addition to the left to right horizontal concept development stages of Jerome Bruner.
progression of rhythm (which is common to both O’Brien (1983) outlines Bruner’s (1966) model
staff and Tonic Sol-fa) – particularly with leger of learning which is based on three stages of
lines – often makes the notational ‘spread’ too concept development in children – enactive,
wide for immediate visual perception. Another iconic and symbolic. Significant parallels may be
advantage is alluded to by Jorgensen (1994) – in drawn between aspects of Curwen’s Tonic Sol-
countries where the written language is based on fa method and Bruner’s concept development
the Roman alphabet (which is also the means for model.
representing pitch in the Curwen method), people
are already familiar with alphabetical letters. This First, the enactive mode is essentially experiential
also represents a distinct advantage over the learning in which musical concepts are formed
two-dimensional system of staff lines and spaces mentally through a physical manifestation of
for pitch and of note and rest shapes for rhythm. the concepts. An example in the Tonic Sol-fa
Moreover, Curwen’s notation did not require any method would be the singing of pitched notes
significant knowledge of music theory – once with accompanying hand-signs – the physical
an understanding of pitch and rhythmic notation shape and placement of the hand assists in
is achieved, no other ‘interpretive’ information forming the mental image of the sound within its
(such as a knowledge of time or key signatures) tonal context and promotes its audiation (mental
is required for realising the notation. hearing) as well as its realisation as a sung note.
Another feature of the Curwen Method was a During the second stage, iconic representation
well-founded pedagogy. In his Teacher’s Manual allows learners to categorise musical phenomena
(n.d.[c.1876]), Curwen set out the following into concepts – for example, hand-signs allow
precepts which form the basis of good teaching the concept of relative pitch to be established;
even today: likewise, finger-signs for time allow rhythmic
. . . let the easy come before the difficult. duration – specifically subdivisions of the beat –
. . . introduce the real and concrete before the ideal to be established as discrete musical concepts.
or abstract. In line with the notion of ‘audiation’, the iconic
. . . teach the elemental before the compound and representation of both pitch and rhythm should
do one thing at a time. assist learners to mentally manipulate the sub-
. . . introduce, both for explanation and practice, the elements (individual tones and beat patterns) in

REFEREED PAPERS
their minds without necessarily realising them Certificates to Associate, Licentiate and
acoustically. Fellowship diplomas.
Finally, transfer of the iconic representations Aside from becoming the mainstay of
of pitch hand-signs and time finger-signs to congregational singing and being widely
symbolic representations such as the pitch employed by social reformers, one area where
modulator, and then into music notation itself, Tonic Sol-fa made considerable in-roads was
completes the process whereby these labels the overseas missionary work of organizations
become the means for more abstract thinking. such as the London Missionary Society (LMS),
There are doubtless other parallels that may the Church Missionary Society (CMS) and
be drawn with other contemporary learning the Baptist Missionary Society (BMS). Indeed
theories, but the point hopefully is well made groups of missionaries from both the LMS and
that Curwen’s development of the Tonic Sol-fa the CMS were trained at Curwen’s pastorate at
method is sufficiently well conceived even from Plaistow by one of his assistants, Alfred Brown,
a present-day perspective to retain ‘universal’ from the early 1860s (Tonic Sol-fa Reporter,
pedagogical legitimacy, regardless of differences 1863, p. 139). Tonic Sol-fa was widely used by
in cultural setting. overseas missionaries who often exploited the
novelty of four-part hymn singing as a means of
The nineteenth century Tonic Sol-fa evangelizing indigenous people.
movement
The growth of Tonic Sol-fa as a music teaching In most countries where it gained a foothold
method and notational system for school through missionary activities and later through
and community choral singing and also as choral societies established within indigenous
an instrument of social reform in England in communities, Tonic Sol-fa may now be
the latter part of the nineteenth century was identified not only as an instrument of Christian
phenomenal. Tonic Sol-fa became the mainstay evangelism but also as a means of European
of congregational singing, not only in Methodist cultural imposition. Nevertheless, as well as
churches, but also in churches of other embracing Tonic Sol-fa, indigenous communities
denominations. The method was also widely also readily accepted other aspects of Western
employed by temperance workers and other musical culture including a choral repertoire
social reformers, particularly in the industrial comprising masterworks by Handel, Bach,
towns in the north of England (see Nettel, 1944). Mozart and other European composers. This
From modest beginnings and an estimated 2,000 often resulted in the emergence of a school of
Tonic Sol-fa-ists in 1853, the movement was able indigenous composers writing in Tonic Sol-fa
to claim 315,000 followers by 1872, and then to notation and in the Western tonal-harmonic
spread throughout Britain, to its colonies and to idiom. In South Africa, for example, composers
many other countries (Curwen & Graham, n.d., such as John Knox Bokwe and Enoch Sontonga
pp. 21, 23). As a school music teaching method, both wrote numerous hymns and songs in the
the tonic sol-fa system was officially recognised European style using Tonic Sol-fa notation but
by the English Education Department in 1860 within the context of their indigenous, albeit
and by 1891, two-and-a-half million children in Christianized, African culture.2 Nevertheless
Britain were receiving instruction in tonic sol-fa the result has been that in several countries –
in elementary schools (Curwen & Graham, n.d., including South Africa (see Stevens and Akrofi,
p.33). 2010) and other sub-Saharan countries in
African and several Asia-Pacific countries (see
In order to propagate the Tonic Sol-fa method, Stevens 2007) including India, Japan, China,
Curwen established the Tonic Sol-fa Agency Hong Kong, Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Tahiti, Vanuatu
and then the Tonic Sol-fa Press in 1863, which – Tonic Sol-fa was widely employed for choral
later become the music publishers J. Curwen singing and in some cases was assimilated into
and Sons. He also published a monthly journal the local indigenous musical culture.
entitled The Tonic Sol-fa Reporter, later The
Musical Herald, which was subscribed to It was also inevitable that Tonic Sol-fa advocates
by readers from all over the world. In 1869, from Britain would bring the system to Australia
Curwen founded The Tonic Sol-fa College which during the nineteenth century. One of the
conducted singing classes, correspondence earliest of these was James Churchill Fisher
courses and summer schools and administered (1826-1891) who produced the first Tonic Sol-
a system of public music examinations ranging fa publication in Australia – The Singing Class
from Elementary, Intermediate and Advanced Manual – in 1855 and who went on to be

REFEREED PAPERS
appointed as Singing Master to the New South his Psalmus Hungaricus (Chiel, 1999, p. 110)
Wales Council of Education in 1867. Fisher where he became aware of the ‘highly developed
gained official recognition for Tonic Sol-fa in singing’ in English primary schools that was being
New South Wales schools (Stevens, 2002) and taught through Tonic Sol-fa that, by this time,
provided the foundations for his successor and was again being used as a means of teaching
the first Superintendent of Music, Hugo Alpen, pupils to read from staff notation (Rainbow,
to further promote the Tonic Sol-fa method 1980, p. 54). Two aspects of Tonic Sol-fa in
(Stevens, 1993). An even more significant particular were adopted by Kodály (ibid., p. 55).
figure both in Australia and internationally was The first was the use of Curwen’s solmization
Dr Samuel McBurney (1847-1909). McBurney, syllables and letter notation. However, although
a Fellow of the Tonic Sol-fa College, London, adopting the letter notation for pitch (the first
who became Inspector of Music in the Victorian letters of the solmisation syllables), Kodály did
Education Department, continued his Tonic Sol- not adopt Curwen’s rhythmic notation system
fa advocacy until his post was abolished as a of bar lines and punctuation marks. Instead he
result of the 1890s depression (Stevens 1986). employed ‘stem-and-tail’ rhythmic notation with
Other significant Tonic Sol-fa advocates in solmisation letter notation beneath each stem.
Australia during the latter part of the nineteenth This he adapted from Rousseau’s Tonika Do
century and the early twentieth century included system where there is a separation of pitch and
John Byatt (1862-1930) in Victoria, and rhythm in preparation for combining them for
Alexander Clarke (1843-1913) (Southcott, 1995) reading staff notation. Chiel (1999, pp. 96-105)
and his successor Frank Gratton (1871-1946) points out that the adaptations to Tonic Solfa
(Southcott, 1996) in South Australia. made by Agnes Hundoegger (1858-1927), a
Tonic Sol-fa today – The Kodály approach

With competition from other music teaching
methods, Tonic Sol-fa began to decline in Britain
and in Australia from the early 1920s. By the
1980s, the once thriving Tonic Sol-fa College
had become the Curwen Institute and is now
The John Curwen Society. The Society has
developed the New Curwen Method and has
published a series of music teaching resources
and although the focus of the New Curwen
Method is now on teaching music literacy by
applying sol-fa principles to staff notation, its
impact on British school music has been only
slight.
Exceptions to this decline were in sub-Saharan

Africa and in Pacific Island nations where Tonic
Sol-fa has been incorporated into the local culture
to such an extent that it is now regarded as being
an integral part of the indigenous musical idiom.
Indeed, I have argued elsewhere that, given that
many indigenous South Africans and Fijians are
fluent sight readers of Tonic Sol-fa notation, the
Tonic Sol-fa method and its notational system
can be regarded as an exogenous aspect of the Figure 8 – A comparison of Curwen’s and Kodály’s Sol-fa hand
respective cultures (Stevens 2007). signs for pitch. Source: Rainbow, R. (1980), John Curwen:
A Short Critical Biography. Sevenoaks, Kent: Novello &
One of the aims of this article is to highlight Company Limited (p. 56).
both direct and indirect influence of Tonic Sol-fa
on the Kodály method. Tonic Sol-fa has had a German music educator and graduate (1896) of
considerable influence on and indeed formed the the Tonic Sol-fa College and one of her students,
pedagogical basis for many aspects of the choral Fritz Jöde (1887-1970) were largely instrumental
singing method promoted by Zoltán Kodály in developing the Tonika Do in German schools
(1882-1967) and his associates in Hungary. which also influenced Kodály and his associates
Kodály travelled to England in 1927 to conduct in their development of the Hungarian adaptation.

REFEREED PAPERS
The second was the use of Curwen hand signs Sol-fa system in its various manifestations –
which, with slight modifications, remain an including the Kodály approach – have amply
integral part of the Kodály method (see Figure demonstrated the effectiveness of the system
8). However, Kodály did dispense with Curwen’s of movable doh solmization and its associated
theory of ‘mental effects’ as extra-musical pedagogical techniques to both maintain and
associations for the seven tones of the major improve the standards of music literacy in school
scale principally because, as Bridges (1982) and community settings.
points out, many Hungarian folk songs were
modal and notes other than doh could in fact be A new music curriculum is currently being
the tonic. Her point here is that ‘modern relative developed as part of Phase 2 of the new National
sol-fa is not “tonic sol-fa” and has the function Curriculum by a team of writers appointed by
only of providing vocalized mnemonics and aural the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and
concepts of intervals preparatory to the reading Reporting Authority to develop a ‘“Shape of the
of normal staff notation’ (p.14). Australian Curriculum” in the Arts’ document.
Whilst fully recognising that the new music
Although Kodály did not adopt Curwen’s system curriculum guidelines will need to be sufficiently
of rhythmic notation, he did utilise French time eclectic to accommodate a variety of approaches
names that Curwen had derived from Aimé to music teaching and learning, I nevertheless
Paris; he made small changes to the time hope that the guidelines will provide a framework
names that more easily fitted with the Hungarian which will allow methods such as the Kodály
language – for example, taa became ta, taatai approach to be fully implemented in a sequential
became ti-ti, tafatefe became ti-ri-ti-ri (or ti-ka-ti- and developmental manner from the pre-school
ka in the Australian adaptation) etc. Moreover, through to secondary school level. I continue
Kodály differed from Curwen in his sequence of to be a firm advocate for the wider application
musical instruction. For example, for introducing of movable doh solmization and associated
pitch concepts, Curwen began with the doh - soh teaching techniques in school music education
interval and then added me before progressing through the Kodály method and hope that a fuller
to the other tones, whereas Kodály, with slight appreciation of the origins and foundations will
modifications to the spelling of the sol-fa tones, better enable Australian Kodály practitioners to
introduced the so – mi interval first, then la, and undertake their valuable educational work.
then do and re, etc.
References
Despite these differences, Curwen’s method Bridges, D. (1982), ‘Fixed and Movable Doh in
had an undoubted influence on Kodály who Historical Perspective’, Australian Journal of Music
developed and refined his method into what Education, no. 30 (April 1982), pp. 11-15.
it is today. Indeed, in the foreword to the first Bruner, J. (1966), Toward a theory of instruction.
English edition of his Choral Method, Kodály Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
acknowledged his indebtedness to Tonic Sol-fa Chiel, D. (1999), ‘Solfa: A critique of its history
with the comment: ‘I am now pleased to return to and analytic use’, unpublished PhD thesis, The
the English what I learned from them, and was University of Queensland, St Lucia.
able to adapt to our needs in Hungary.’ (quoted Curwen, J. (1872), The standard course of lessons
in Rainbow, 1980, p. 57). As has been shown, and exercises in the tonic sol-fa method of teaching
Tonic Sol-fa was perhaps the most significant music. London: J. Curwen and Sons.
international music method during the late Curwen, J. (n.d. [c.1876]), Teacher’s manual of the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and tonic sol-fa method. London: Tonic Sol-fa Agency.
as its natural successor, the Kodály method has Curwen, J.S. & Graham, J. (n.d. [1891]). The Tonic Sol-
continued to occupy a similar role from the mid fa jubilee: A popular record and handbook. London:
twentieth century to the present day. J. Curwen and Sons.
Fisher, J.C. (1855), The Singing Class Manual. Sydney
Conclusion (NSW).
The pedagogical principles and teaching Hoermann, D.B. & Herbert, G.F. (1979), Report and
techniques of the Kodály method that were evaluation: A developmental program of music
developed in Hungary during the 1950s, and education for primary school (Kodály-based).
Brookvale, NSW: Dominie (Educational Supplies
the subsequent ‘customization’ of the method Pty Ltd).
for the Australian educational context during the
1970s by Deanna Hoermann, are undoubtedly Jorgensen, E.R. (2001), A dialectical view of theory and
well known to many Kodály practitioners in practice, Journal of Research in Music Education,
Australia. The principles underpinning the Tonic vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 343-359.

REFEREED PAPERS
McGuire, C.E. (2009), Music and Victorian Stevens, R.S. (1986), ‘Samuel McBurney – Australian
philanthropy: The Tonic Sol-fa movement. Tonic Sol-fa advocate’, Journal of Research in
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Music Education, vol.34, no.2, pp.77-87.
Nettel, R. (1944). Music in the five towns 1840-1914: A Stevens, R.S. (1993), ‘Hugo Alpen - New South Wales
study of the social influence of music in an industrial Superintendent of Music 1884-1908’, Unicorn: The
district. London: Oxford University Press. Journal of the Australian College of Education,
vol.19, no.3, pp. 93-96.
O’Brien, J.P. (1983), Teaching music, New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston. Stevens, R.S. (2001), ‘The case for a revival of tonic
Rainbow, B. (1967), The land without music: Musical sol-fa in the twenty-first century’, in N. Jeanneret
education in England 1800-1860 and its continental (ed.) Proceedings of the XXIIIrd Annual Conference
antecedents. London: Novello and Company of the Australian Association for Research in Music
Limited. Education (2001). Newcastle, NSW: AARME (pp.
172-182).
Rainbow, B. (1980), John Curwen: A short critical Stevens, R.S. (2002), ‘James Churchill Fisher: Pioneer
biography. Borough Green, Sevenoaks, Kent: of Tonic Sol-fa in Australia’, in J.E. Southcott and
Novello and Company Limited. R. Smith (eds), Proceedings of the XXIInd Annual
Conference of the Australian Association for
Southcott, J. (2001, ‘Sarah Glover: Music educator Research in Music Education. Melbourne: AARME
and theoretician. in Y. Shinzanoh (ed) Proceedings (pp. 172-182).
of the Third Asia-Pacific Symposium on Music Stevens, R.S. (2007) ‘Tonic sol-fa: An exogenous
Education Research Proceedings, Nagoya, Japan: aspect of South African musical identity’, in E.
Aichi University of Education (pp. 75-80). Akrofi, M. Smit & S-M. Thorsén (eds), Music and
Identity, Stellenbasch, South Africa: AFRICAN SUN
Southcott, J.E. (1995), ‘The establishment of the music MeDIA for the Swedish-South African Research
curriculum in South Australia: the role of Alexander Network (SSARN) (pp. 37-51).
Clark’, Research Studies in Music Education, no. 5, Stevens, R.S. (2007), ‘Tonic sol-fa in Asia-Pacific
pp. 1-10. countries – The missionary legacy’, Asia-Pacific
Southcott, J.E. (1996), ‘Curriculum stasis: Gratton Journal for Arts Education, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 52-76.
in South Australia’, in V. Weidenbach (ed), The Tonic Sol-fa Reporter (1863). London: John
Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of Curwen and Sons.
the Australian Association for Research in Music
Education. Sydney: AARME (pp. 51-59).
Notes
Special Broadcasting Service (2010), Who do you 1 The symbol < is now used in place of the rotated
think you are? Website <http://www.sbs.com.au/ comma (as in Sibelius Music Notation software).
shows/whodoyouthinkyouare> (accessed 20 April 2 For a brief account of the influence Tonic Sol-fa
2010). on compositional work of Enoch Sontonga, see
Stevens, R.S. & Akrofi, E. (2010), ‘South Africa: Stevens, R.S. and Akrofi, E.A. (2004), ‘Tonic Sol-
Indigenous roots, cultural imposition and an fa in South Africa – A case study of endogenous
uncertain future’, in G. Cox & R.S. Stevens (eds), musical practice’ in M. Chaseling (ed.), Proceedings
Origins and foundations of music in compulsory of the XXVIth Annual Conference of the Australian
schooling: Cross-cultural historical studies of music Association for Research in Music Education.
in compulsory education. London: The Continuum Tweed Heads: AARME (pp. 301-314).
International Publishing Group Ltd. (pp. 221-235).
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REFEREED PAPERS
MUSIC TEACHERS: who are they anyway?

by Scott D Harrison
Griffith University
Being a music teacher requires a range of

knowledge, skills and attributes of a kind that no
other profession demands. Specifically, music
teachers question whether they are primarily
musicians or teachers, or whether they take
on another coalesced persona. This persona
is, in turn, related to the acquisition of musical
and pedagogical skills, and to the timeframe for
the development of these skills. In this paper,
teachers discuss their backgrounds in music
and education, their perceptions of themselves
as musicians and teachers and their roles in
the workplace. As they comment on who they
are, they raise questions as to what needs
to be “taught” in music teacher preparation
courses, and where, when and how the required
knowledge, skills and attributes are acquired.
Scott Harrison
Good teacher, regardless of subject area? that teacher identity is dynamically contested,
Music teachers are required to perform a range shaped by and constructed within potentially
of tasks unlike those of other teachers. The contradictory interests and ideologies, competing
training of music teachers needs to account for conceptions of rights and responsibilities of
their specific role and allow for the dichotomy teachers, and differing ways of understanding
that can exist between those who perceive success or effectiveness. Flores and Day (2006)
themselves as musicians who teach and those develop this proposal, contending that learning
who are good teachers, whose subject area is to become a teacher has
music.
multi-dimensional, idiosyncratic and context specific
Good teachers, according to Palmer (1998), are nature which entails an interplay between different,
able to “weave a complex web of connections and sometimes conflicting, perspectives, beliefs
about themselves” (p. 11). Beijaard (1995) and and practices… for some new teachers feelings of
Korthagen (2004, p. 82) refer to the notion of isolation, mismatch between idealistic expectations
identity as meanings that are attached to a person and classroom reality and lack of support and
by themselves or others, while Bullough (1997) guidance have been identified as key features. (p.
claims that an exploration of self is essential in 219)
the early stages of teacher education to ensure
beginning teachers enter the profession with Identity, Flores and Day (2006) conclude, is
some concept of who they are and what they influenced by personal, social and cognitive
offer to education. Welmond (2002) suggests responses. They present a model of teacher

REFEREED PAPERS
identity that encapsulates elements of biography, listen, skills in improvising, and performing and
pre-service programs and school culture, critical judgment.
suggesting that pre-service programs might be
strengthened by the provision of opportunities The timeframe for the development of these
to experience and reflect on personal biography skills is crucial and raises the question as to
and school context. where, when and how the knowledge skills and
attributes are “taught”. Professional identities
Identity is therefore shaped by experience, of music teachers, according to Hargreaves,
training and context. A significant aspect of Welch, Purves, and Marshall (2003), are
context relates to the tasks teachers perform. consolidated within the pre-service music course
According to O’Connor (2005, July), teachers’ and change very little once they reach their
work is complex, multidimensional and subject first teaching post. Hargreaves and Marshall
to change in an era of globalization and shifting (2003) also noted that as pre-service teachers
pedagogical paradigms. Becoming a teacher become early-career teachers, one of the small
involves taking on a variety of personally and changes to take place was the perceived skills
professionally challenging roles. The emotionally required for successful music teaching, with
demanding nature of teaching also requires more in-service teachers increasingly emphasizing
than merely technical skills. Beginning teachers, communication and interpersonal skills rather
according to Pietsch and Williamson (2005), than musical performance skills.
need to have “the opportunity to articulate
beliefs, ideals and values and to realize these The balance between teaching and performance
in professionally and personally meaningful is one of the major concerns for the music
teaching assignments” (p. 370). They suggest teacher: that is, the nexus between musician
that a lack of opportunity for this realization to and teacher and how this contributes to the
take place can result in the professional identity formation of their identity. The work of Mark
of the beginning teacher being curtailed. Ofman (1998) alludes to the use of an interdisciplinary
(2000) refers to “core qualities” and claims that approach to teacher training that simultaneously
they are potentially always present. Korthagen embeds musical and pedagogical skills. In
(2004) asks, “what are the essential qualities spite of this, music teachers’ identity is typically
of good teachers and how can we help people framed as musician or teacher. Evidence for
become good teachers?” (p. 78) and describes this can be found in the work of Roberts (1991)
the process of locating core qualities that can who suggests that music education majors
assist teachers in enhancing the core qualities conceptualize themselves as musicians rather
of their students. than teachers. Woodford (2002) concurs that
the socialization of these students creates a self
Music teacher identity – what’s the perception of musician rather than teacher. This,
difference? in turn, results in conflict in their teacher role
Music teachers’ identity is, in many respects, identities: Teachers find it difficult to reconcile
peculiar to them. In general education, Goodsen their musician persona and their teacher
and Cole (1994) and Volkmann and Anderson persona. While this is true in other subject areas
(1998) claim identity is formed through the (e.g. mathematician/math teacher, sportsperson/
role teachers perform. The nature of the music physical recreation teacher), teachers of music
teachers’ role, encompassing teaching and have the additional challenge of incorporating
performative tasks, along with the embedding of performance and composition skills into their
co-curricular involvement within required duties, everyday roles. Pascoe et al. (2005) summarize
are the most significant contributors to this the distinctive nature of the music teacher in
difference. Woodford (2002) describes the music Australia in these terms:
teacher’s role as incorporating, but not being
limited to, “performer, composer, conductor, critic, Music teachers focus on both process and
musicologist, mentor, facilitator, social activist, performance outcomes . . . music teachers sing,
politician, music listener, music theorist, public talk and play instruments through the length of their
intellectual, diplomat, travel agent, administrator, teaching day . . . this involves considerable out of
confidante, instructor, public speaker, moral class and out of school hours work in ensembles,
agent, visionary and democratic leader” (p. rehearsals and performance . . . (p. 135)
690). Jorgensen (2003, p. 130) confirms that
music teachers are typically preoccupied with Bouij (1998) describes this aspect of development
a wide variety of tasks, including developing of music teacher identity by taking into account
imagination, interpretive creativity, the ability to aspects of the teacher/musicians’ professional

REFEREED PAPERS
role as teacher or performer and the relative In a similar Viennese study, Mark reported that
musical levels of musical comprehensiveness after pedagogical competencies, “the ability to
required in each role. animate” (i.e., create a stimulating atmosphere
in which learning can take place) was ranked
The role of attributes in the construction of by music educators as a significant attribute.
music teacher identity The findings of Warren and Rohwer (2004)
Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop (2004) claim specific confirm this, with teaching skills ranked as the
characteristics contributing to the formation of most desirable attributes, followed by personality
teachers’ professional identity cannot be easily characteristics and musical skills. Ballantyne
identified. A case could be put to suggest that (2006) also noted that early-career music
music teacher attributes are significantly different teachers’ passion for music teaching seems to
from those required for other types of teaching. be related to their love of the subject area.
This assumption is related to the notion that
music teachers have different roles, relationships Music teachers therefore fluctuate between the
and environments through which they interact subject areas they love and the responsibilities
with students: co-curricular involvement, an of imparting this passion, through knowledge,
emphasis on performance and composition skills and attributes, to others. As their roles
along with the nature of music instruction are somewhat different from other teachers,
through ensemble and one-to-one teaching the training of music teachers must reflect this
makes for a distinctive set of attributes peculiar difference and account for acquisition of content-
to the music teacher. This assumption is related related, practically based components, alongside
to the notion that music teachers have different pedagogical skills, curriculum knowledge and
roles, relationships and environments through broad-based attributes. As it is not possible to
which they work with students, due to their co- incorporate all this in a pre-service program,
curricular involvement, their interactions with the selection of students into teacher education
students in ensemble and one-to-one teaching programs needs to account for an intake of
settings and the mentorship that they often students with many skills already developed,
provide students with in relation to performance while training deals with the enhancement
and composition. These instructional situations of these aspects and the encouragement of
that are outside the normal classroom context ongoing learning.
makes for a distinctive set of attributes peculiar
to the music teacher. Method
The research was undertaken with experienced
Recent literature investigating the relationship of classroom music teachers in urban Australia.
music teachers to their students has focussed on Most teachers had been working in schools for
a wide variety of interrelated issues, from specific at least 15 years, having completed four-year
music skills through to broader personality traits. degree programs prior to entering the profession.
Young and Shaw (1999, p. 673) found that content Their teacher preparation programs typically
knowledge rated highly in teacher success comprised two years of concentrated studies in
regardless of the teacher’s overall effectiveness music, followed by two years of curriculum and
rating. Earlier studies (Berliner, 1986; Collier, pedagogy studies. The teachers were recruited
1987) also suggested that knowing one’s subject through professional contacts and provided a
matter is an attribute of effective teaching. The cross-section of pedagogues working in primary,
need to continually develop knowledge and skills secondary, private, public, classroom and
was noted by Bidner (2001), who claims “music instrumental fields. In this sense, elements of
teacher educators have to keep abreast of the purposive sampling were also employed as the
standards for effective teaching so that students experienced teachers were selected on the basis
are appropriately prepared” (p. 4). Teachout of expertise in the field of study. The teachers
(1997) and Hamann, Baker, McAllister and Bauer worked in the middle and senior schools with
(2000, p. 102) confirmed the desire for teachers students aged 12 – 16.
to possess both teaching and personal skills.
Experienced teachers were asked to identify
In a study with 45 German music educators, Mark some of the knowledge, skills and attributes that
(1998, p. 9) commented that pedagogical, artistic, contributed to the construction of their identity.
instrumental and vocal abilities, experience with Data were gathered through questionnaires
music technology and competence as composer (Phase 1) and interviews (Phase 2). These
and arranger were considered highly in the methods were similar in that they both focussed
selection of music teachers at entry to university. on eliciting perceptions regarding important

REFEREED PAPERS
categories of knowledge skills required for the can reveal a “richness of data” (Oatley, 1998, p.
construction of music teacher identity. 1) and cause the data to be viewed through a
completely different lens. In addition to probing
In phase one of the data gathering process, a the question of identity as musician or teacher,
questionnaire was distributed to the participants the interviewees were asked to comment on
to interrogate their perceptions regarding the aspects of early influences as musician-teachers,
knowledge, skills and attributes they require their university training and on-the-job training.
to function effectively in the classroom and The data from both phases of the study
the effectiveness of their pre-service teacher were subjected to content analysis (Cavana,
education, in-service training and experiences Delahaye, & Sekaran, 2001) to identify themes,
in developing these. The findings reported here concepts and meanings (Burns, 2000). It was
focus specifically on participants’ responses the purpose of this study to find similarities and
to the question: Do you perceive yourself as a differences between the themes emerging in
musician, teacher, music teacher or something pre-service and early-career music teachers’
else? Responses from other questions related perceptions of the desirable attributes of effective
to course content in teacher education programs music teachers.
have also been incorporated where appropriate.
The questionnaire was administered via Findings
e-mail. The asynchronous nature of e-mail In the questionnaire, teachers were asked: Do
communication allows the information to be you perceive yourself as a musician, teacher,
readily obtained, with participants responses music teacher or something else? The responses
given at a convenient time, regardless of location. to this question were quite evenly spread: Three
E-mail format allows the researcher to interact teachers considered their main identity to be as
with the participant, ensuring clarification on musician, while four regarded themselves as
issues arising from questions posed. Additional teachers first and foremost, with their subject
features of this type of interaction (as found by being music. Only two responses indicated
Im & Chee, 2003) include financial cost-saving, they were music teachers and three teachers
“as they do not require long-distance travel and considered themselves as musician and teacher
the expenses of paper, pencils, photo-copying, equally. For most, the opportunity to devote their
and mailing fees” (p. 7). Beck (2005, p. 412) lives to music led them to the art-form first and
noted that costs could be further minimized, subsequently to teaching.
as this form of data collection does not require
transcription. Steven: Basically for as long as I can remember I
had a passion for music and it was one of the only
For phase 2 of the research, interviews were things in which I had much success as a student.
undertaken at the participants’ schools. Frey To this day I still have this passion as well as one
and Mertens-Oshi (1995) define an interview as for teaching.
“a purposeful conversation in which one person
asks prepared questions (interviewer) and One teacher’s response represented the
another answers them (respondent)” (p. 1). Six considerable struggle found in identifying oneself
teachers were selected from Phase 1, based on in this way:
the depth of their responses to the questionnaire
and convenience for interviewing face-to-face. Jan: I continue to struggle with this question for two
Participants represented a range of approaches reasons. The first is because I don’t believe you can
to teaching and a variety of educational contexts. have a successful career in both simultaneously.
The purpose of the interviews was to pursue the I have come to accept that I will forever feel a
contents of the questionnaire in greater detail. A conflict between my “musician” identity and my
semi-structured, informal interview of 40 to 50 “teacher” identity. Sometimes this conflict is so
minutes was conducted and videotaped. This great that I don’t perceive myself to be a musician
style of interview was considered appropriate at all anymore which brings me great sadness…
because, as Nichols (1991) suggests, in “an On a philosophical level I like to think of myself as
informal interview, not structured by a standard someone who inspires and helps others to have a
list of questions, the interviewer can choose to richer life. My chosen tool or medium happens to
deal with the topics of interest in any order, and be music.
to phrase their questions as they think best”
(p. 131). While structured interviews are easily Others were quite clear as to their identity:
more readily quantifiable and allow for more Mary: I am a teacher first and my subject area is
direct comparisons, semi-structured interviews music. I am a musician last of all.

REFEREED PAPERS
In responses to other questions, Mary also I think I identify my role as one of an educator.
indicated what a fine musician she was, leading In performance, either as an instrumentalist or
her wind ensemble to successes at competitions conductor, I am a musician. Musicianship and
and producing high quality students for university instrumental technique constitute my core content
entry. This was pursued further in the interviews. knowledge in music teaching at a school level.
Other teachers, rather than giving a definitive The role of an educator, however, needs to extend
response, ranked these roles, as Mary did beyond this core knowledge. There are many
above, and added some to the list: musical people who are poor teachers. When
teaching, I feel that I need to focus on being a
Julie: I consider myself to be a musician first, a teacher. The process is not about me, it becomes
music teacher second, and a teacher third. The about the students’ needs.
reasons for this are: I was always a musician, from
a very early age. I was never always a teacher, Teachers also offered some suggestions on how
although my mother always thought I would be this conundrum can be dealt with in the teacher
a good teacher. Once my skill in music making education process. Most teachers recognized
improved, I naturally gravitated towards teaching that pre-service courses could not contain
as a means of employment…. Therefore I cannot all the necessary components. Suggestions
easily separate the role of musician from the role of were offered as to the balance of musical and
music teacher/educator. I’m also a parent. pedagogical skills, as evidenced in this comment
from Trevor:
The inclusion of parent raises the issue of life
experiences and how these affect the teacher. Trevor: To become a good music teacher, the
This was also raised in the interviews. Julie’s course should involve a great deal of emphasis
response also resonates with the conundrum on the development of the musician. This would
in tertiary music teacher preparation of the include, conducting skills, instrumental skills
performer who “ends up” teaching, introducing (particularly keyboard).
the notion of the “accidental” music teacher.
Another respondent echoed these words: In the discussion over music and pedagogical
skills, Shane suggested that some of the personal
Annette: [I see myself as a] musician – my love of skills had been overlooked, commenting that
music decided my career of 35 years. I trained to much of the music teacher role involved dealing
advance my music skill and knowledge…. I became with people and administration:
a teacher by default.
Shane: Teacher education courses need to provide
The default music teacher is not necessarily a an initial foundation for pre-service teachers to
“bad” music teacher, but one who comes to the have the practical skills needed to teach. Teacher
vocation with a different mindset from those, like education also needs to focus on the development
Julie and Mary, who seem to have a predestined of what has been called “soft skills” such as
approach. This mindset presents challenges interpersonal skills and assertive communication
for the teacher educator in relation to teacher and other administrative tasks.
efficacy. One of the two respondents to construe
themselves as “music teacher” gave this more Shane’s remarks offer some breadth to the
succinct response: discussion, particularly in relation to the content
of courses and the way in which such skills might
Peter: My immediate response is I perceive myself be taught. The remarks also contribute to the
as a Music Teacher. However in order to carry out dialogue about elements that could be placed
this role I need to have both the skills of a teacher beyond the initial training phase in professional
and of a musician. I never forget my primary learning contexts, as Rebecca remarked:
purpose to teach music but often forget my own
ability as a musician. Rebecca: Teacher education will hopefully provide
some foundation and initial skills for teachers.
A final comment in the area is from a teacher Continuous learning is required to allow teachers
who has taken a broader perspective since to develop their skill bases further, making choices
undertaking part-time employment as a teacher that are applicable to their individual experiences
educator: and talents as well as to the context in which they
are practising. It is unlikely that initial teacher
Eliza: I perceive myself to be a teacher, but education can be comprehensive in terms of the
having now been involved in teacher training, skill needs of all students for all teaching contexts.

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In the interview situation, some teachers department or principal.

commented on the constant interaction of
musician/teacher roles, with the teacher role
growing out of the musician role. Jan comments In other questions related to teacher identity,
on the notion of passion, highlighted by so experienced teachers commented further
many responses in the first phase of the study, on course content to create music teachers.
while Julie also returns to the intrinsic nature of Danielle described the essentials of a pre-service
teaching: program, basing her response initially on music
skills, and then branching out into a pedagogical
Jan: During college I developed a passion for music focus:
education and then from the classroom went into it
and thought there is where I need to be. Danielle: . . . the musical skills foundation and how
to teach aural work, how to teach history, how to
In Phase 1, Julie commented that she could not teach composition, then they need to be given
easily separate the role of musician from the perhaps a little bit of instruction on the delivery of a
role of music teacher/educator. When this was curriculum.
probed in the interview, she extrapolated:
Remarks from other interviewees focused on
Julie: Well now I’m a musician actually and the broad-based knowledge and flexibility:
teaching is sort of intrinsically so bound with that
because everything I’ve learnt has been through Peter: Obviously in terms of pre‑service teacher
music and everything I then do is based on that training as a music teacher you want to have
teaching. a good basis in lots of different musical genres
so you’ve got some foundation knowledge, but
Julie’s experience was a common theme: that certainly you want to have an approach that gives
is, that the two roles were inextricably linked. you flexibility in terms of your delivery.
Her reference to “everything I’ve learnt has
been through music” was echoed by Mary, who Peter’s reference to a “good basis in different
embraced a more holistic approach, with music musical genres” begs the question as to how this
as a conduit to a broader end: is achieved: Does it occur through study about
music or through participation in music in the
Mary: My speciality is music, but my prime purpose pre-service phase? The answer to this question
in being here is for the benefit of students and for lies in the content and delivery of the pre-service
their greater education, and that includes a whole course and the location of music education in the
heap more than music. pre-service phase.
This response is consistent with Mary’s Discussion

insistence in Phase 1 that she is a teacher first The responses from both the questionnaires and
and foremost, despite her considerable musical the interviews reflect the idiosyncratic nature
skills. The perception of music teachers by other of the music teacher. The music teacher’s role,
faculty was a highlight of Julie’s responses. The involving both teaching and performance tasks
identity of the music teacher as being different in almost equal measure, requires specific types
from other teachers can be both a blessing and a of training through pre-service programs and on-
curse: creative skills and attributes are perceived going learning.
by some as being diametrically opposed to
organizational skills, with significant impact in The teachers in the study confirmed that a
career progression prospects. Julie’s remarks wide variety of pedagogical and musical skills
allude to this: are required for beginning music teachers
and that some of these take place through
Julie: Teachers consider us (music teachers) formal learning processes including instruction,
different from other teachers . . . I think the external practice, example and reflection (Howard,
image of us is that we are all slightly crazy and that 1992). Throughout this paper, “taught” has been
we couldn’t possibly know how to run the school, or used in quotation marks. This is because the
the department. word implies an emphasis on formal learning
and transmission and many of the qualities
Music teachers who wish to be promoted discussed cannot necessarily be imparted in
may therefore stifle some of the “musician” this way. Learning also takes place through less
characteristics in order to progress to head of formal activities such as osmosis, participation,

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observation and sensibility (Jorgenson, 2003), where, when and how the required knowledge,
so the challenge will be to account for both skills and attributes for music teachers are
the formal and informal. Examples of how this acquired. As the research in the field is ongoing,
could occur might include observation in school the suggestions here are preliminary. The author
settings and changes to courses that emphasize is developing a model, based on Howard (1992)
participation over more theoretical knowledge. and Jorgensen (2003) that presents a way
of acquiring knowledge, skills and attributes
Within the music teacher preparation program, through instruction, practice, example and
the placement and style of practicum experience reflection, osmosis, participation, observation
was one of the themes to emerge from the and sensibility. Furthermore, as acknowledged
research. Experienced teachers advocated in this paper, the sequencing of learning
mentor-based programs from the earliest stages experiences is also being explored in relation to
of the degree, to be maintained throughout the the chronological development of music teacher
degree and into the first years of teaching. There identity in the local context with some synergies
was also support for an apprenticeship-type that could have application across contexts. The
model, whereby teachers could learn through voices of experienced music teachers have much
the informal modes of observation and osmosis. to offer the field of music teacher education.
This has support in the literature that reports that
students who work alongside teachers display
improved attitudes towards teaching as a career
(Harrison, 2006; Mills, 2005).
The location of music education within the

university model was an underlying theme in the
interviewees’ responses. Those who emphasized
a thorough understanding and appreciation
of musical knowledge and skills advocated a References
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THE SPIRITUALITY OF ZOLTáN KODáLY

by Colin Weightman
“Music is a spiritual food for which there is no

substitute. There is no complete spiritual life
without music, for the human soul has regions
which can be illuminated only by music.
Legends of many peoples deem music to be

of divine origin; thus, when we have reached
the boundaries of human understanding,
music points beyond, into a world that cannot
be explored but merely guessed at.” (Kodály
quoted in Szabo 1969, p.4)
Colin Weightman
M
any teachers have a passionate love for their compositions, and the more depth we can
the subject they teach. In my experience impart to our playing or teaching of their works.
this is particularly true of music teachers, While in the last analysis a musical composition
most of whom are never likely to make much must be evaluated according to musical criteria,
money teaching music. We teach the subject in links between a person’s life-experiences and
question not primarily because we are excited the music they compose can sometimes provide
about our methods but because we are excited helpful insights. If we know a piece was the first
about the subject whether it be microbiology, composed after a personal tragedy we might be
mathematics, mythology or music. Pedagogy more sensitive to its nuances. Becoming more
or teaching methodology, while it is essential for familiar with the composers of music we love
the developing of musical skills and attitudes, will widen our own understanding and give us
is always secondary. The most important thing a wealth of material to stimulate our students.
is to have a continually deepening relationship These considerations are all the more important
with the music one teaches—and of course, with with Kodály since he is not only a composer
one’s students. It is also eminently worthwhile but a distinguished teacher as well. Knowing
to learn more about the composers of the music more about him may give further insights not
one teaches. While there is no direct relationship only into his music but also into his pedagogical
between good music and the character of pronouncements. The more we know about him
the composer—with some significant music the more we can see why he emphasised certain
being composed by people whose political things. Of course this is not the whole story since
views most would find repugnant and some by we must also translate Kodály’s insights into our
people whose lives seem boring—nevertheless, own context, but the general point still remains.
generally speaking, the more we know about a It can only be to our advantage to know more
composer the greater is our understanding of about Kodály-the-person as well as his music

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and teaching philosophy. relationship. If we understand spirituality broadly

then every musician and composer has a
This article is abstracted from a much larger work relationship to the spiritual dimension. Whatever
on music and religion of which seventy thousand a person’s theological, a-theological or anti-
words have already been written. It highlights an theological position might be, it must inevitably
aspect of Kodály’s background that as far as I influence the direction of that person’s creativity.
am aware has not been tackled by the Australian However we should not assume too quickly that a
Kodály Journal or its predecessors—and that particular point of view is not religious or indicates
is, his spirituality. Kodály has argued that there an absence of spirituality. Though it may appear
is no complete spiritual life without music. The to be a secular position to westerners, from a
question which this article seeks to answer— Theravada Buddhist point of view atheism is a
as far as it is possible to know—is how Kodály western theological option, though one which
himself understood and experienced the spiritual does not greatly concern them since the whole
dimension. While I do not want to make too much question of atheism versus theism does not
of this component of his character and music, if arise within their way of looking at the world and
we are to come to a well-rounded understanding spirituality (Rahula, 1974, pp.23-34).
of him we cannot ignore it. It is one piece of the
puzzle that should not be disregarded. Seeking Kodály’s thoughts on music and
religion
Defining spirituality Since the book referred to above had its genesis
“Spirituality” is a difficult concept to define. It can in a proposed article for KMEIA I naturally went to
refer to a relationship to some greater reality, the (frustratingly few) writings of Kodály available
whether that reality is immanent or transcendent in English for his insights on spirituality, theology
(or both) to the experienced world. Spirituality or religion. My intention was to preface the article
may also see the natural world itself as the with an examination of Kodály’s religious position
greater reality and this kind of spirituality would as a springboard for the following analysis. As I
include nature mysticism and modern forms continued to explore more deeply it came to my
of ecological spirituality. It might be closely attention that the Christian church in particular,
modelled on one or other of the world’s existing and religions generally, almost never seem to
religious traditions with their standardised beliefs take advice from musicians. The reasons for
and prescribed practices, or it may be unique to this are complex but part of the answer is that
a particular individual. Spirituality may be based opposition to music is often rooted in the concern
on a belief in theism (however understood) “that music may hold the threat of chaos”
or it may be atheistic or agnostic. Indeed it is (Zuckerkandl, 1956, p.241). Of course music
important to realise that Theravada Buddhism is has also been conceived as a bulwark against
a religion which is atheistic and any definition of the threat of chaos, and particularly chaos in the
spirituality must take into account the possibility form of noise (Attali, 1985) but not it seems, by
of an atheistic spirituality, or more accurately theologians. For them music was more often than
put, a spirituality which is unconcerned with not a dangerous activity and liable to upset the
the reality of God or gods. Finally, spirituality established order if not carefully circumscribed.
for some may simply be a code-word for the Religious authorities were, and are, more than
deepest values and meanings by which people willing to give advice and more often than not,
live. In this broadest sense even those who have negative advice, about what kind of music is
no (conscious) knowledge of or interaction with not allowed, but are reluctant to hear what
religion may still have a spirituality since they composers and performers might have to say
live by values which they have derived from about music and spirituality. Those like German
their experience of the world and to which they abbess Hildegard of Bingen (Hildegard, 1994,
inwardly acquiesce. Even those who believe pp.76-80) who contend for a genuinely creative
that life is essentially meaningless often build position concerning the theological aspects
an ordered haven which enables them to give of music and the musical aspects of theology
their lives some temporary meaning and to move are often severely dealt with. This is very
forward in a satisfying fashion. condescending to put it mildly. Musicians should
automatically have a voice in any theological
Roughly speaking then, “spirituality” relates to discussion on the nature of music. Unfortunately
a person’s “inwardness”. Since music flows out they have rarely been given that chance. Had
of the inwardness of experience, or at least it the book not been originally conceived as an
does to a significant degree, it is not surprising article for a Kodály publication I may well have
that spirituality and music often have a close focussed on some other musician, for example

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the French Catholic composer Olivier Messiaen religious position are not easy to find in the small
(Samuel & Messiaen, 1976). Despite the original number of English works that I have been able to
plan disappearing in an avalanche of words I access. I have had to take the relevant comments
decided to keep faith with Kodály as my featured by biographer Percy Young and others more or
musician in the introduction and the following less on face value since I am unable to subject
thoughts are taken almost word for word from it. them to careful scrutiny, reading in context and
cross-checking without knowing Hungarian. Any
Kodály’s Catholic upbringing clarification from those well-versed in Hungarian,
When we turn to Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) we or better still, from those who knew Kodály
find that he was raised in the Catholic faith and personally will be gladly received.
that many of his compositions have religious
themes and inspirations (Eosze, 1962 & Young, Kodály’s faith according to Young and
1964). He was born at Kecskemet in 1882 to his Breuer
stationmaster father Frigyes and mother Paulina. With this proviso in mind I turn first to the biography
They moved briefly to Szob in 1883 and then by Young which makes brief comments on the
in 1885 to Galanta where Kodály, by his own subject of Kodály’s own religious faith on at least
admission, spent the best seven years of his three occasions. Speaking of his composition of
life from 1885 to 1892 from the ages of three to the Missa Brevis during the dark days of World
ten. Kodály later immortalised these years in War Two as the Russians fought the retreating
his Dances of Galanta. In his biography Laslo Germans in the streets of Budapest, Young
Eosze notes that Kodály’s formative musical sees this work as “the supreme example of the
experiences included not only excellent chamber composer’s faith”. He then expands what he
music at home with musically talented parents means by the word “faith” in relation to Kodály.
but also the “ancient, unspoiled tunes of the Young believes Kodály’s faith is one which is
Hungarian countryside” (Eosze, p.12). Among distinguished by a “generous appreciation,
his classmates were children whose parents uncircumscribed by dogmatism, of the Christian
formed the well-known Mihok gypsy band. tenets that have, throughout history, inspired his
race” (Young, 1964, p.122). He enlarges on this
In 1892 at the age of ten Kodály’s family moved in a later chapter where he says that “Kodály in
to the ancient city of Nagyszombat. Though it the narrow sense is uncommitted to particular
had been declining in importance for many years and unreasonable dogmas of Church or of State,
before the Kodálys moved there, it retained but he is persistent in applauding intentions
two institutions which embodied something of that, in his view, are founded on principles of
its former glory, the grammar school and the equity and justice” (p.142). Later he mentions
Catholic cathedral. Kodály played violin in the “the Christian ideal of charity” as a strong
school orchestra and sang in the cathedral influence on Kodály’s conception of democracy
choir. Here he learned the music of the church, which incorporates the twin themes of “private
absorbed the words of the Mass and made a charity and public service” (p.195). Finally
study of the scores of sacred music beginning Young includes an address by Kodály himself
with Beethoven’s Mass in C Major. In the light to the International Folk Music Council in 1963
of this it is not surprising that Kodály would (pp.199-202). Here Kodály raises the question
later produce the religious classics Psalmus of how to define East and West, particularly,
Hungaricus, the Te Deum of Buda Castle, and of course, from a musical point of view. Before
the Missa Brevis. His talents as a composer focussing on music he makes a brief reference to
first began to emerge in this period and he moral principles where he explains that Western
produced an overture for the school orchestra peoples are those who have “accepted the Bible
which was performed in 1898 and received as their moral basis” and that moreover, “the
favourable comments in the Pozsony paper, the whole of Western civilization is founded upon the
Westungarisher Grenzbote. In 1900 at eighteen Bible” (p.199). However the Bible is not the only
he left his childhood behind and moved to possible source of moral principles and Kodály
university in Budapest to study Hungarian and admits that there are also valuable ethical
German Language and Literature in the Faculty principles in Eastern philosophy. The impression
of Philosophy, and Composition in the Academy given by Young is that Kodály is greatly moved
of Music. and motivated by the great Christian principles
of morality and charity but did not take a narrow
Thus in his formative years Kodály had a dogmatic approach to the Christian religion.
classical, Hungarian folk and church music
background but references to Kodály’s own Janos Breuer gives a more intimate and partisan

REFEREED PAPERS
account of Kodály’s faith than Young. Indeed he A close and secret bond linked [Kodály] to the
devotes one whole section of his book to the topic highlands. I feel that through the mountains I shall
of “Kodály in Church” (Breuer, 1999, pp.44-46). one day come to understand him—he who was
Breuer even claims that in Psalmus Hungaricus more mysterious, more filled by magic than anyone
Kodály is operating as a man of belief who is else. Some of us aptly named him the mountain
casting biblical curses at the oppressors of sorcerer (Breuer, p.13).
nations and seeking transcendent hope in the
world to come (p.34). Transcendent hope is one In some ways Szabolcsi’s description of him as
thing, but whether Kodály was in reality casting “the mountain sorcerer” may be misleading since
biblical curses is extremely doubtful. Indeed in Kodály understood his mountain-top experience
the light of Young’s comments we may safely in cosmic Christian terms as a prayer of nature.
discount it. One may set music to biblical words In this he may have been less Catholic and
without advocating their archaic meanings. What more Eastern Orthodox since that church has a
we can confidently affirm with Breuer is that greater emphasis on the cosmic dimensions of
Kodály’s faith was ecumenical in the sense that the Christian faith than Catholicism (Ware, 1995).
he was not simply inspired by the religious music Certainly there is an element of mysticism, or to
of his own Catholic heritage—and especially that be more precise, nature-mysticism in Kodály’s
of the Mass—but also by Protestant and Jewish faith. FC Happold distinguishes between nature-
sacred music, among other religious traditions. mysticism, soul-mysticism and God-mysticism
Kodály’s Te Deum based on Gregorian versions in his anthology, though he notes that these
of this early Christian hymn of praise is an may, and often do, intermix (Happold, 1970,
excellent illustration of the influence of his own pp.43-44). It’s a pity that Kodály did not speak
Catholic tradition (Tardy, 2002), though any more openly about his understanding of spiritual
cursory glance down the list of his published things so that we could see in more detail how
works will uncover many other examples. Breuer traditional Christianity and mystical mountain-top
also informs us that in the 1930s Kodály was the experiences fitted together in his mind. There
technical director of the collection of Catholic folk- are a number of ways in which they might be
songs published as You are Holy, Lord (Breuer, related or mixed but we do not have enough of
p.44). But Kodály did not confine himself to the pieces to decide between them.
Catholic sources. In 1944, in conjunction with
Gyorgy Kerenyi, Kodály published a collection According to Szabo, Benedictine monk Alfonz
of songs for schools which included ten Calvinist Nadasi, a friend of Kodály during the last two
Geneva Psalms and in the same year also decades of his life and someone who shared
sponsored the publication in Hungarian of the time with him in the mountains, puts a more
Geneva Psalter, the Calvinist folk hymn collection theological interpretation on Kodály’s mountain-
of the Protestant Reformation (Berkesi, 2002). top adventures than Szabolcsi. He writes that
Lastly, Istvan Kecskemeti highlights the impact Kodály experienced the coming of night on the
of Jewish liturgy on some of Kodály’s early mountain top as a cosmic encounter. It seems
compositions (1986, pp.137-39). he experienced the whole universe as resonant,
as capable of returning and producing sound.
Kodály’s mountain-top experiences As night fell Kodály’s mystical communion
However there is another quite different aspect with nature would deepen. Nadasi reports that
of Kodály’s spirituality that demands that we “the more the world calmed down and the sun
re‑evaluate the preliminary picture of him that we declined, the more he became resounding in his
have gained thus far, and that is his deep love of inner world”. Only later on the way down from
nature—and especially the mountains. Here is a the mountain (says Nadasi) would Kodály put
Kodály at ease in places far removed from the his experience into words and would exclaim:
school, cathedral or concert hall. It is not just that “What harmonies! This is how Nature is praying!”
Kodály enjoyed mountain scenery but there is a (Szabo, 2002, p.96). This vision of nature
religious dimension to his passion for the high itself praying by expressing itself in wonderful
places. In his analysis of the first movement of his harmonies adds another significant dimension
mountain-inspired song cycle Mountain Nights to Kodály’s faith which may be better articulated
Miklos Szabo draws our attention to the article in the ethereal music of the first movement of
by Kodály’s student Bence Szabolcsi which Mountain Nights than in any words.
highlights the profound relationship between
Kodály and the mountains (Szabo, 2002, p.96). Music as a signpost pointing beyond this
Breuer clearly draws on that same source when world
he quotes Szabolcsi as saying that Some have argued that the presence of the

REFEREED PAPERS
divine may be discerned in Kodály’s music. References

Sandor Szokolay, who studied under Kodály, is Attali, J. (1985). Noise: The Political Economy of Music.
emphatic that his choral pieces in particular, are (B. Massumi Trans.). Minneapolis MN: University of
“full of the feeling of God” (Hein, 1992, p.154). Minnesota Press.
Szokolay estimates that ninety percent of his Berger, P. (1969). A Rumour of Angels. Harmondsworth:
choral works are religious. After singling out Penguin.
Psalmus Hungaricus for praise, he goes on to Berkesi, S. (2002). The 5th Geneva Psalm. In Hartyanyi
claim that “God is living musically in his style” (Ed.), (pp.61-66).
(p.154). The intriguing question is, what did Breuer, J. (1999). Zoltán Kodály. Budapest: Magus
Kodály himself think of his sacred music, both Publishers.
choral and otherwise. Did he also see it as “full of Eosze, L. (1962). Zoltán Kodály: His Life and Work
the feeling of God” or as a bridge to the divine? (I. Farkas & G. Gulyas Trans.). London: Collet’s
Others—like Szokolay—have made this claim, Holdings.
but I am not aware that Kodály has. Hanslick, E. (1986). On the Musically Beautiful (G.
Payzant Trans.) Indianapolis IN: Hackett Publishing
Limited by my lack of Hungarian the most Company.
extended quote by Kodály on these matters of Happold, F.C. (1970). Mysticism: A Study and an
which I am aware remains the one at the head of Anthology. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
this article where he says (in part) that legends of Hartyanyi, J. (Ed.). (2002). An Ode for Music: 11
many peoples deem music to be of divine origin; Analyses of Choral Compositions of Zoltán Kodály.
thus, when we have reached the boundaries of Budapest: International Kodály Society.
human understanding, music points beyond, Hein, M.A. (1992). The Legacy of Zoltán Kodály: An
into a world that cannot be explored but merely Oral History Perspective. Budapest: International
guessed at. What is clear from this quote is that Kodály Society.
Kodály believes that music points us beyond Hildegard of Bingen. (1994). Hildegard to the Prelates
this world, but it would seem that music cannot at Mainz, Letter 23. In The Letters of Hildegard
consummate or clarify the musical guess. Music of Bingen Vol.1 (pp.76-80). (J.L. Baird and R.K.
Ehrman Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press.
can only take us to the borders of the lands
beyond. Picking up a theme of long antiquity Kecskemeti, I. (1986). Kodály, the Composer: Brief
Kodály asserts that “the human soul has regions Studies on the First Half of Kodály’s Oeuvre.
which can be illuminated only by music” but Kecskemet: Zoltán Kodály Pedagogical Institute of
Music.
it seems that he is conceding that it cannot
illuminate the divine, even if many claim music Noth, W. (1990). Music. In W Noth. Handbook of
to be of divine origin. For Kodály music is a Semiotics (pp.429-34). Bloomington IN: Indiana
“signal of transcendence” (Berger, 1969, pp.70- University Press.
92) or signpost pointing beyond this world. In Rahula, W. (1974). What the Buddha Taught (2nd ed.).
other words music is a semiotic (or sign-based) New York: Grove Press.
enterprise in relation to the spiritual dimension. Samuel, C. & Messiaen O. (1976). Conversations with
However the question of whether music is indeed Olivier Messiaen (F. Aprahamin Trans.). London:
a semiotic discipline is the subject of a continuing Stainer and Bell.
debate (Noth, 1990, pp.429-34) and some music Szabo, H. (1969). The Kodály Concept of Music
theorists argue against that position claiming Education (G. Russell-Smith Trans.). London:
that music is self-contained and self-referential Boosey and Hawkes.
(at best) and is merely about the beauty of its Szabo, M. (2002). From the “Mountain Nights”. In
“tonally moving forms” (Hanslick, 1986, p.29). Hartyanyi, (pp.91-96).
The modern debate is rather technical and Szabolcsi, B. (1968). Kodály és a Hegyek [Kodály and
arguments on either side have their good points. the Mountains]. Kortárs 12 (6), 952-55.
Certainly Kodály sees music as “pointing beyond” Tardy, L. (2002). Venerandum tuum verum et unicum
and not simply self-referential—but sadly, at this Filium. In J Hartyanyi (Ed.) (pp.43-49).
late stage in the article, I will need to bring this Ware, K. (1995). The Orthodox Way (2nd ed.).
developing discussion to a close. For detailed Crestwood NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press.
examination of these issues, and others in the Young, P. (1964). Zoltán Kodály: A Hungarian Musician.
overlap between music and religion, the reader London: Ernest Benn.
will have to wait for the book. For the moment Zuckerkandl, V. (1969). Music and the External World:
I am content simply to have opened another Vol.1 Sound and Symbol. (W.R Trask Trans.).
doorway into Kodály the teacher and musician Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
through which others may pass if they wish.

REFEREED PAPERS
ReflectionS of a Choral Conductor:

The Interconnectedness of Inner Hearing and In
tune Singing in Early Childhood Music Education
by Ruani Dias-Jayasinha
‘Music is everyone’s property. But how can we

let it belong to everyone? We can, if a small
child’s interest in music and his mood for singing
a song are not ignored for years on end. We can,
if he learns his music, not as a foreign language,
but as his musical mother tongue; if it is inside
him and grows in him from the earliest possible
stages of his life.’1 (Forrai 2005)
The importance of inner hearing

Both inner hearing and the ability to sing in tune
are vitally important skills in early childhood
music education as they contribute significantly
to developing the natural musical ability all
humans are born with. The period in-utero to five
years of age is an exciting window of opportunity
for musical growth as part of the child’s overall
physical, intellectual, emotional and social
development. It is not only exciting but it is
crucial. The development of the young child’s Ruani DIas-Jayasinha
inner ear proceeds in parallel with the ability
to reproduce what is heard with the singing and songs they sing, hear and learn. As children
voice, and can provide a powerful framework for learn the many songs from their own traditions
musical growth. their musical memory and ability to recall the
‘Inner hearing is the auditory image which exists songs is increased, and they develop auditory
in our minds even without acoustic input. One awareness.3 (Bridges 1999)
precondition of inner hearing is the memory of
previous musical experiences, another is the Edwin Gordon (1965), in the Manual for his
creative imagination which is capable of generating Musical Aptitude Profile (MAP) took a different
new melodies, harmonies, and complete music but related route in relation to the concept of
works.’2 (Forrai 1998) inner hearing and he called it audiation4. Mary
Ellen Pinzino (1994) from the ‘Come Children
At an advanced level inner hearing gives us the Sing Institute’ in the United States states that
ability to hear in our heads what can be seen audiation is
from a written copy, and assists the ability to ‘a way of knowing in melody and rhythm. It is a
notate music that is heard. unique human capacity outside the realm of words.
To audiate is to ‘think’ music, but in melody and
Inner hearing and audiation rhythm rather than in words. Audiation is another
Inner hearing skills enrich and support children’s way of knowing.’5
musical development. In these crucial early
3 Doreen Bridges, Music, Young Children & You A parent-
years key musical patterns and structures are teacher guide to music for 0-5 year olds (London: Hale &
internalised through familiarity with the rhymes Iremonger Pty Ltd, 1999) 102
4 Edwin Gordon, Musical Aptitude Profile Boston:
1 Katalin Forrai, ‘Kodaly and the Children.’ Australian Houghton Mifflin, (1965).
KMEIA Bulletin 2005: 12-14. 5 Mary Ellen Pinzino ‘Audiation - Another Way of Knowing.’
2 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool Queensland, Australia: Letters on Music Learning from the Come Children Sing
Clayfield School of Music, (1998) 71 Institute 12 (1994): 1

REFEREED PAPERS
The development of auditory awareness, Impact on the whole person

whether described as audiation or inner hearing, A substantial body of research has been
assists children and lays the groundwork for published on the benefits of early music
fully participating in a musical experience. education. For example, the Music Council of
Cleveland (2007) says throughout the child’s life Australia (MCA) submission to the Inquiry for a
into adulthood individuals ‘can enjoy the world National Quality Framework for Early Childhood
of inner sound and learn to listen to music with Education and Care: Music in Early Childhood
more understanding’6. Doreen Bridges (1999) Education: A Submission from the Music Council
states, of Australia is supported by a significant body of
‘ . . . the pleasure we get from listening is greatly research about both musical and non-musical
enhanced if we are able to participate fully in a outcomes of music education.10
musical experience, using our auditory awareness
and memory to re-create the music in our minds as Lili Levinowitz (2009) makes the claim that the
it moves through time . . . no wonder that we, as fostering of inner hearing is a key contributor
well as young children, ‘like what we know’!’7 to the development of the child’s ability in the
language arts.11 But more important for this
Inner hearing as basis for singing and article is the impact inner hearing can have on
playing skills the development of a child as a whole person.
Welsh (2009) claims inner hearing is the key It is my belief, based on my experience, that
to developing a child’s musicianship skills the musical skills mentioned previously have
particularly in the areas of ‘listening, aural and long lasting effects on children’s confidence and
ensemble playing or singing skills.’8 If the child relationships with their peers, and as they grow,
chooses a musical path the knowledge and skills with the wider community.
already developed are ready for new applications
when the child is a part of an instrumental or Firstly this sense of confidence is fostered as
choral ensemble. My own work suggests that inner hearing opens the natural channels for
awareness of their individual sound in relation to creativity in the child. Forrai states,
the group is more readily refined, and aspects ‘A colourful picture or a beautiful melody creates
of intonation and knowing how intervals should an internal echo, a feeling in the child. Through the
sound are already in development. The use of effects of sight and hearing, mental images take
hand signs as a visual tool fosters a link to the shape which the child stores in his memory. The
development of inner hearing and the ability to richer this store of memories is, the more colourful
understand tonal relationships. Brain science is is the child’s imagination.’12
a whole area that will not be addressed here, but
it is safe to say that neural pathways are made The child’s ability to draw on their imagination
visually, aurally and kinaesthetically, and they is deeply fulfilling especially if it can be
nurture a holistic musical development in the acknowledged in the music classroom. There is
child. By unlocking a child’s inner ear at a young a sense of satisfaction as the music comes from
age we as music educators are opening a door the child. ‘Fostering inner hearing produces an
- developing inner hearing will assist children to inner life for the melody when performed’.13
develop musically throughout their lives. Welsh
(2009) states in reference to the Kodaly system, Importantly, for the child growing into adulthood,
‘ . . . by the time they reached adulthood the system it is my experience that this inner life for music
would be so ingrained in them that it would be can allow a person to feel that they are the
second nature. Sight-reading or sight-singing would creator of the music they perform and thus music
not be a struggle, nor would difficult enharmonic becomes a mind, body and heart activity.
keys. Memorisation would be taught from an early
age, first through simple folk songs, so that later it I would also contend that the ability to interact
became a natural progression of learning music.
10 De Vries, Peter. “Music in Early Childhood Education:
Pitching any note or interval is also simplified, as a Submission from the Music Council of Australia.” The
the musician will be able to hear inside the head Music Council of Australia. 2008. Web. 09 June 2010.
how it should sound.’9 <http://www.mca.org.au>.
11 Lili M. Levinowitz, ‘The Importance of Music in Early
6 Susan D. Cleveland ‘Inner Hearing is central to what we Childhood.’ Music Together - The Most Loved Early
do!’ BAKE: Boston Area Kodaly Educators 8 (2007): 2 Childhood Music Program. 14 June 2009 <http://www.
7 Bridges 103 musictogether.com>.
8 Rebecca Welsh ‘The Importance of Inner Hearing.’ The 12 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool 92
British Kodaly Academy. 14 June 2009 <http://www. 13 Sarah McGarry ‘The Voice Within: Audiation and Inner
britishkodalyacademy.org>. Hearing in the 21st Century.’ Kodaly Music Education
9 Welsh 2 Institute of Australia Bulletin (2007): 21

REFEREED PAPERS
musically in an instrumental or vocal ensemble Maintaining the connectedness to self and

directly develops a person’s ability to connect others
with others in their life. Again I have observed in In-tune singing is vitally important to early
my own work that the development of auditory childhood music education because it maintains
awareness gained through inner hearing can the human element in an ever changing world
also be linked to the ability to listen to others with where young people (and even young children)
awareness and empathy. This can only have are continually bombarded with computer
a positive effect on the community in which an generated images and entertainment. McGarry
individual lives and interacts, spreading out and mentions a study by Kraut and Lundmark (1988)
having an influence on wider society. showing
‘ . . . a decline in social involvement as measured
Building awareness of self and others by communication within the family and with
Inner hearing is vital to early childhood music increased occurrences of loneliness and
education as it is a crucial factor in children depression . . . Sit, watch and be entertained. More
connecting to themselves and to others. As very than anything else, computers teach children that
young children’s ability to inner hear is nurtured it the world is a pre-programmed place, a virtual
is predominantly expressed through their voice. universe where solving a problem means clicking
Inner-hearing and singing in tune are inextricably on the right icon.’17
linked as each skill influences the development
of the other. This is where singing becomes a way of keeping
‘Deeper musical education always developed only a sense of connectedness to themselves as
where it was based on singing. Only the human individuals and with others. Genuine human
voice – the most beautiful instrument available interaction can occur that is pleasant and joyful
freely to all – can be the foundation of general which can have quite a profound and everlasting
musical culture, influencing all people.’14 imprint on the child’s experience. This
connectedness can then extend from child to
The human voice connects us to ourselves and child, from child to parent, from child to teacher,
is an instrument that can connect us to others from teacher to parent and therefore out to the
through singing. Singing in tune individually wider community.
and with others can have a lasting impact on
a young child who is exposed frequently to the Besides the positive emotional and social
experience. implications the development of in-tune singing
‘Any child who can speak and has normal hearing can have on a child, it can also be seen that
is capable of singing in tune, provided that parents, in-tune singing brings together a balance in
carers and teachers understand the kinds of development between these areas and the
experiences and assistance necessary to bring this physical and intellectual aspects of the child. As
about’15 Forrai states
‘singing involves intellectual activity. This duality or
Singing is healthy for the young child as they are natural unity brings the child’s cognitive abilities into
able to relieve internal tensions and participate play.’18
as a healthy individual in the world. Naturally,
friendships are formed when singing with others As the human voice is an in-built musical
and feelings of harmony and joy are achieved instrument accessible to all, it ‘is the most
leading to a sense of belonging for each child.16 direct way of making a musical response.’19
As the voice is a part of the physical body
As a choral conductor myself I have experienced ‘anything learned through singing is learned
the joy and delight amongst secondary students more deeply and thoroughly.’20 In relation to the
when they all sing in tune, and they feel the development of inner hearing, singing in tune is
music they are creating coming together. This the demonstration of what has been integrated
draws to our attention the value to young children and understood proficiently. Forrai states
in setting the foundation for future experiences. ‘In order to reproduce a song correctly, the child
needs to have both an accurate mental image of
the song and a command over the mechanisms
14 Katalin Forrai, ‘Kodaly and the Children.’ Australian
17 McGarry 24
KMEIA Bulletin 2005: 12-14.
18 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool 7
15 Bridges 111
19 Cyrilla Rowsell ‘The Kodaly experience.’ ABRSM :
16 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool 6
ABRSM.org - Home. 14 June 2009 <http://www.abrsm.
org>.
20 Rowsell 3

REFEREED PAPERS
responsible for his unconscious control over his It is up to teachers in early childhood music
vocal chords. These will enable the child to sing in education to provide this rich experience for
tune.’21 children despite their background. Kodaly
believed that it is children’s birthright to be able
Developing in-tune singing to express themselves musically through the
In-tune singing is a simple yet complex process singing voice.25
hence leading researchers to investigate what
steps are taken by young children to sing in tune. As inner hearing and singing in tune are
‘Studies have shown that there are three parts to inextricably linked, the development of these
accurate pitch perception and vocal response. The concepts in early childhood music education
first is the physical ability to receive sound waves sets a firm foundation for learning an instrument.
from the air and transmit them to the brain. The The child can access music easily and as early
second is the ability to think about or perceive what as possible without the physical and therefore
a sound means and relate it to previously gained technical demands an instrument requires. It is
experience and knowledge. The third is the ability to more than evident that both inner hearing and
use the voice to accurately recreate the perceived singing in tune advance and support a child’s
sound. These three skills make up accurate singing, ability when they do take up an instrument in later
or what is commonly referred to as the ability to years. The foundation given at this young age
sing in tune.’22 will only increase a child’s confidence and thus
success when learning to play the instrument
The awakening of these complex processes chosen. As Kodaly stated,
in a young child can only be of benefit to their ‘before we rear instrumentalists…we must first rear
overall development and once again can be musicians.’26
related to assisting the improvement of spoken
word perception and expression in the language Summing up
arts.23 The skills of inner hearing and singing in tune
are vitally important to early childhood music
The use of short songs with limited range, education. The skills have a profound effect on a
modelled well by the teacher with good child’s behaviour, creativity and receptivity.27 With
intonation and correct pronunciation are factors Ken Guilmartin, a leading early childhood music
that are necessary for a young child to develop educator in the United States, I believe that
the ability to sing in tune. No accompaniment teaching these concepts to young children will
should be employed as accompaniments can definitely aid a ‘restoration of the natural human
be distracting to a young child who is more able ability to ‘speak’ the language of music’, ‘…the
to learn focusing on one thing at a time. Other restoration of the natural human disposition to
factors that may influence a child’s ability to sing participate in music’, ‘ . . . the evolution of our full
in tune are outlined by Bridges: capacity to use music for personal expression’28.
‘A lot depends on [the child’s] background –
whether they have had plenty of opportunities of If this foundation is set for children at this early
singing, whether or not the people around them age we as music educators will have a positive
frequently sing and interact vocally with them, effect on society as a whole. We stand inspired
whether the songs they are exposed to are easy by Kodaly’s commitment to musically educating
or difficult to remember, whether they have been pre-school children for the ‘very building of a
made to feel self-conscious about singing, and nation’.29
whether, in fact, they have even found their singing
(as opposed to speaking) voice and can hear the
difference between speaking and singing.’24
21 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool 41 25 Geoghegan, L. ‘The Kodaly approach.’ With Music in
22 Scott L Phillips ‘The Development of Accurate singing Mind. 14 June 2009 <http://www.britishkodalyacademy.
in children.’ Early childhood music newsletter: Early org>.
Childhood Music Special Research Interest Group 32 26 Rowsell 4
(2001): 2 27 Katalin Forrai, Music in preschool 6
23 Patricia O’Herron,and Dennis Siebenaler ‘The 28 Guilmartin, Ken. ‘Music Together - Early Childhood
Intersection between Vocal Music and Language Music Education in the New Millennium.’ Music
Arts Instruction: A review of the Literature.’ Update - Together - The Most Loved Early Childhood Music
Applications of Research in Music Education Spring 25 Program. 14 June 2009 <http://www.musictogether.com/
(2007): 16-26. EarlyChildhoodMusicEducation>.
24 Bridges 111 29 Lecture Notes Early Childhood Music Education Level 2

REFEREED PAPERS
Applications of Research in Music Education Spring

References 25 (2007): 16-26.
Bridges, Doreen. Music, Young Children & You: A
parent-teacher guide to music for 0-5 year olds. Phillips, Scott L. ‘The Development of Accurate singing
London: Hale & Iremonger Pty Ltd, 1999. in children.’ Early childhood music newsletter: Early
Campbell, Patricia S. ‘Pedagogy Saturday IX: Musical Childhood Music Special Research Interest Group
Meaning for Children and those who teach them.’ 32 (2001): 2-7.
American Music Teacher Oct-Nov 55 (2005): 26-31. Pinzino, Mary Ellen. ‘Audiation - Another Way of
Cleveland, Susan D. ‘Inner Hearing is central to what Knowing.’ Letters on Music Learning from the Come
we do!’ BAKE: Boston Area Kodaly Educators 8 Children Sing Institute 12 (1994): 1-3.
(2007): 2-3. Rowsell, Cyrilla. ‘The Kodaly experience.’ ABRSM :
De Vries, Peter. “Music in Early Childhood Education: ABRSM.org - Home. 14 June 2009 <http://www.
a Submission from the Music Council of Australia.” abrsm.org>.
The Music Council of Australia. 2008. Web. 09 June Stafford, Karen. ‘The Benefits of Early Childhood
2010. <http://www.mca.org.au>. Music.’ The Music Education Madness Site. 14
Forrai, Katalin. ‘Kodaly and the Children.’ Bulletin of June 2009 <http://www.musiceducationmadness.
the Kodaly Music Education Institute of Australia com>.
(2005): 12-14. Van Gestel, Margre. ‘Workshop: Educating the voice of
Forrai, Katalin. Music in preschool. Queensland, young children.’ Music in the early years: Research,
Australia: Clayfield School of Music, 1998. Theory and Practice (2008): 97-99.
Forrai, Katalin. ‘Preschool Music Education in the Welsh, Rebecca. ‘The Importance of Inner Hearing.’
Spirit of Zoltan Kodaly.’ Bulletin of the Kodaly Music The British Kodaly Academy. 14 June 2009 <http://
Education Institute of Australia (2005): 15-18. www.britishkodalyacademy.org>.
Geoghegan, L. ‘The Kodaly approach.’ With
Music in Mind. 14 June 2009 <http://www.
britishkodalyacademy.org>.
Gordon, Edwin. Musical Aptitude Profile. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1965
Guilmartin, Ken. ‘Music Together - Early Childhood
Music Education in the New Millennium.’ Music
Together - The Most Loved Early Childhood Music
Program. 14 June 2009 <http://www.musictogether.
com/EarlyChildhoodMusicEducation>.
Harman, Maryann. ‘Music and Movement - Instrumental

in Language Development.’ Earlychildhood NEWS.
14 June 2009 <http://www.earlychildhoodnews.
com>.
Klonosky, Edward, and Eric A. Johnson. ‘Connecting

the Inner Ear and the Voice.’ Choral Journal
October 44 (2003): 35-40.
‘The Kodaly approach.’ Welcome to Waterhouse-
music. 14 June 2009 <http://www.waterhouse-
music.co.uk>.
Lane, Ann Marie. ‘Teaching Children to read music: A
Comparison of two methods for elementary music
teachers.’ Canadian Music Educator Autumn 48
(2006): 39-43.
Lecture Notes Early Childhood Music Education Level

2, Brisbane 2009
Levinowitz, Lili M. ‘The Importance of Music in Early
Childhood.’ Music Together - The Most Loved Early
Childhood Music Program. 14 June 2009 <http://
www.musictogether.com>.
McGarry, Sarah. ‘The Voice Within: Audiation and Inner

Hearing in the 21st Century.’ Bulletin of the Kodaly
Music Education Institute of Australia (2007): 19-26.
O’Herron, Patricia, and Siebenaler Dennis. ‘The
Intersection between Vocal Music and Language
Arts Instruction: A review of the Literature.’ Update -

REFEREED PAPERS
30 Years of Pilgrimage:
Australians at the Kodály Institute, Hungary
by Aleta King
Aleta King (second from right) and Jenny Gijsbers-Gillan (right) with friends at the Kodály Institute, Kecskémet,
Hungary
A
s an Australian musician and educator unique experiences whilst in Hungary, and
I consider it a privilege to have been discover the effect these unique experiences may
given the opportunity to study choral have had, both personally and professionally,
conducting and music pedagogy in Hungary upon returning to Australia.
at the International Kodály Institute for two
academic years (2002-04). What began The ensuing study involved sending
simply as reflective diary entries during this questionnaires to a sample drawn from the
time eventually evolved into a Master of Music archive listing. The participants selected had to
Studies thesis entitled Australians at the Kodály be Australian by birth or by citizenship, enrolled
Institute: Reflections on the Journey held at the in a full academic year program (for which the
Armus library, School of Music, University of Institute accepts only post-graduate students),
Queensland. This paper is based on an excerpt spread equally across the thirty years and across
of the thesis. all states of Australia, and actively involved
in Australian music education for substantial
Genesis of the study periods throughout their professional career.
Whilst a student of the Kodály Institute, the Those selected were enthusiastic in responding,
author, by chance, discovered an archive listing and the responses led the author to reflect upon
of all Australians who are past students of the personal motivating reasons for pursuing this
Kodály Institute1. This prompted the author’s journey to Hungary.
curiosity about the reasons why so many
others were inspired to make a similar journey What was the reason for this steadfast dream,
to Hungary. The purpose of the resulting study sustained for ten years, that eventually led to
was to investigate the motivating reasons for separation from home and all that was familiar
Australians to pursue studies at the Kodály in order to embark upon a journey to Hungary -
Institute, Hungary, reflect on the nature of these the outcome of which was unknown? Why was

REFEREED PAPERS
it so important that the author made this journey Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) was influenced
destined to be fraught with trials and tribulations by both John Bunyan’s three-stage journey
whilst passing through strange lands to which in Pilgrim’s Progress and van Gennep’s idea
they did not belong? And, what did the author of a three-stage rite of passage. In part one of
make of the anticipated token of dispensation - The Hero with a Thousand Faces Campbell’s
wisdom, grace or gifts - at the ‘source’ or ‘sacred’ archetypal hero follows the three-stage pattern
centre? Finally, how did this token of the journey of adventure appropriately renamed departure,
transform the author’s identity and influence the initiation and return.9 Contemporary schools
future upon returning to their homeland? of thought10 (Coleman, Eade, Tomasi, Swatos,
Badone & Roseman et al.) attempt to reinstate
Upon deep reflection on questionnaire responses the importance of the study of pilgrimage by
and the author’s own experience, and reading exploring its relevance to the concept of ‘cultural
extensive research, the notion of pilgrimage mobility’ that moves modern pilgrimage away
has emerged, both in terms of the author’s from its traditional religious roots into the secular
own journey, and in terms of the journeys of realms of tourism.11 However, further exploration
the other selected past students (referred to as of this link between pilgrimage and that of
‘participants’ in this study). Thus, while the data tourism is outside the scope of this study.
that has been collected has been initially viewed
from a musical and educational standpoint, it is Perhaps the most concise yet descriptive
apparent that this data may also be seen from the explanation of pilgrimage is illustrated through
more anthropological perspective of pilgrimage. Catherine Bell’s definition that highlights the
nature of the three (before, during and after)
Defining pilgrimage stages and the importance of the token of
At this point it would seem appropriate to define dispensation at the sacred centre:
what is meant by the term pilgrimage in order to “ . . . setting out from home and a familiar world,
gain a deeper understanding of why this term the pilgrim endures the trials and tribulations
is relevant to the context of this study. A broad of the journey, passes through strange lands
survey of the literature would suggest that the to which he or she does not belong, and finally
concept of travel for a sacred and/or secular arrives at a place considered holier than others, a
reason appears to be a recurring historical sacred centre where wisdom or grace or gifts are
phenomenon.2 A review of academic research dispensed. Securing a token of that dispensation,
and writing reveals that the study of pilgrimage the pilgrim returns home bearing the transformed
falls under the discipline of anthropology and identity of one who has made the journey, touched
more specifically the study of ritual. Owing to its the sacred objects, and received heavenly boons
ritualistic nature, pilgrimage is considered to be for the effort.”12
one of the various ‘rites of passage’.
Parallels between pilgrimage and this study
This now familiar term originated with Seen in this light the concept of pilgrimage is
anthropologist Arnold van Gennep (1873-1957) certainly applicable to the context of this study
and eventually became the title of his published as there are obvious parallels between the
work in 1908.3 Essentially, van Gennep was anthropological definition of pilgrimage and
interested in the analysis of ceremonial patterns both author and participants’ descriptions of
connected to certain significant events that he the journey undertaken. Firstly, the idea of van
refers to as rites of passage in the life of an Gennep’s preliminal, liminal and postliminal
individual.4 Appropriate examples of rites of stages of a pilgrimage directly parallels that of
passage might include the following events: the three stages (before, during and after) of
birth, baptism, graduation, initiation, death and both the author and participants’ journeys. The
most significantly pilgrimage.5 He concluded that purpose of this study was in fact to highlight
each rite of passage comprised the following the unique nature of these three stages of the
three stages: preliminal rites, liminal rites and journey. Secondly, the idea that it was beneficial
postliminal rites.6 to go back to the perceived ‘source’ emerged
as a recurring theme in the research findings
Continuing on from van Gennep, British and shares similarities to Bell’s concept of a
anthropologist Victor Turner (1920-83) and sacred centre where wisdom might be obtained.
his wife Edith7 further explored the notion of Thirdly, Bell’s token of dispensation is evidently
liminality and in particular that of the liminal the Hungarian folk song Esti Dal for the author.
or transition stage which Turner describes as Lastly, the notion of a transformed identity is
‘betwixt and between’.8 American mythologist analogous with both the author and participants’

REFEREED PAPERS
responses to how they had changed personally, ‘tokens of dispensation’ within the framework of
musically and culturally as a result of their a specifically musical pilgrimage is an intriguing
journey. topic for another time. A better understanding of
the nature of a specifically musical pilgrimage,
Implications from the research findings together with the identification and analysis of
These parallels will be explored in greater detail an individual’s ‘token of dispensation’ of that
through the following analysis of the implications pilgrimage, would contribute knowledgeably
from the research findings. towards a heightened awareness of the
universal, innate human need to understand
Three stage journey one’s self better.
The idea of pilgrimage resonates well with the
overarching three stages (before, during and Transformation
after) of both author and participants’ journeys. The process of personal and musical
Reflective comments about the preliminal transformation is evident in the responses
(before) stage of the journey indicate a common from both author and participants. Personal
willingness among the author and participants to transformation was seen to be evident through
abandon ‘home and a familiar world’ in favour of a a growth in self-confidence as a result of
journey into the unknown. Secondly, in response negotiating personal, musical and cultural
to the liminal (during) stage of the journey both the challenges associated with the journey. Musical
author and the participants freely acknowledged transformation is also evident in particular
the ‘trials and tribulations’ that came with being reference to the comments about becoming
a foreigner in a ‘strange land’. No amount of a better musician as a result of time spent in
prior knowledge or understanding can prepare Hungary. Importantly, the ongoing process of
one for the unexpected personal, musical and continually striving to become a better musician
cultural challenges which must inevitably be was acknowledged and highlighted as part of
faced during the ‘betwixt and between’ stage this transformation process. In terms of cultural
of the journey. Lastly, responses related to the transformation, evidence from the research data
postliminal (after) stage of the journey support suggests a heightened awareness one’s own
the idea that both the author and participants unique identity as an Australian music educator
considered themselves personally and musically together with more of an appreciation of, and
‘transformed’. sensitivity to, the diverse cultural influences
surrounding the context of any given educational
The ‘source’ as a sacred musical centre situation. Again, more specifically targeted
Whist the research data suggests that questions may have illuminated participants’
participants were clearly motivated first and sense of transformation.
foremost by personal relationships, the data also
suggests that participants would not have made Further implications from the research
the journey unless they believed that there was findings
a certain level of musical expertise to be gained. The following additional themes emerged as
Both the author and participants highlighted their a result of the research findings. However,
desire to return to what they saw as the ‘source’ these themes are also shown to have strong
of this musical expertise. It follows that Hungary connections to the anthropological concept of
as the perceived ‘source’ of musical wisdom pilgrimage.
could be seen as the ‘place considered musically
holier’ or the ‘sacred centre’ of the pilgrimage. Unique journeys
It has become clear that while all participants
Token of dispensation embarked upon what initially may have been
Throughout the research for this thesis Esti Dal defined as a ‘similar’ journey to Hungary, the
has clearly emerged as the ‘token of dispensation’ unique nature of each journey is as individual
for the author who has come to understand that and diverse as the unique person to whom the
this unique journey can be viewed as a musical journey belongs. Therefore, because of the
pilgrimage to Hungary. The concept of a musical characteristic uniqueness of one’s journey,
symbol, icon or token interweaves or frames the the term pilgrimage is perhaps a much more
idea of pilgrimage. Parallel to this is the question accurate way to describe each participant’s
of what the unique ‘tokens of dispensation’ were journey.
for each participant. However, this question
was regretfully left unexplored in the survey Personal relationships
questionnaire. This question of defining unique The results of this study advocate the overarching

REFEREED PAPERS
belief that personal relationships have a and meaning music eventually became a much
significant influence on the entire journey from greater journey of discovery about truth and
beginning to end and are therefore difficult to meaning in life for both author and participants.
separate from musical and cultural experiences. While music may have the ability to illuminate the
The research findings suggest that personal truth and give meaning to life, the exact nature of
contact was the most important influence on the this truth and meaning is unique to the individual
decision to pursue further study in Hungary at to whom the journey belongs. As long as there
the Kodály Institute. Personal relationships also is a desire for truth and meaning in music, which
appeared to have had a direct influence upon in turn gives truth and meaning to life, there will
whether an experience was most memorable/ be the desire to embark upon a musical journey
cherished or most difficult/challenging whilst of discovery perhaps more aptly described as a
in Hungary. Likewise, a heightened sense of musical pilgrimage.
personal self-worth together with an ability to
interact confidently and flexibly in personal and Australian past students of the Kodály
professional situations appears to be essential Institute (1976-2006)
to the successful adaptation of one’s experience Participants for this study were chosen from the
in Hungary to the demands of the Australian following list of Australian students of the one-
context. Personal relationships appear to be year courses at the Kodály Institute during the
an extremely significant part of each individual thirty year period 1976-2006. (* denotes IKS
pilgrimage, perhaps even to the point of being scholarship)
considered essential to obtaining the ‘token
of dispensation’ in the case of the author. In McLAUGHLIN Heather 1976-77 (Dec-Apr)
relation to the limits of this present research, the HARLE Rosemary 1977-78, 1978-79
degree to which personal relationships influence HARRISON Ian 1977-78*
one’s ability to obtain the ‘token of dispensation’ TOTH Julie 1978-79
is regretfully outside the scope of this thesis. PALLOS Agnes 1978-79
However, the significance of this connection WEST Susan 1978-79
between personal relationships and ‘tokens BINGHAM Lindsay 1978-79
of dispensation’ would benefit from further DEBSKI Merrill 1979-80
research. KISHI-DEBSKI Sayuri 1979-80
FROMYHR Judith 1979-80
Summary BEATON Patricia 1980-81
While the original purpose of this study was to CLINGAN Judith 1981-82, 1982-83
reflect upon the uniqueness of the journey of LEEK – KOWALIK Lynne 1981-82, 1982-83
Australians who are past students of the Kodály CAMPBELL Vincent 1982-83
Institute, Hungary, it has become apparent that HILL Anna (Deborah) 1983-84, 1984-85
these journeys could equally be viewed and MACINDOE Hugh 1983-84
analysed from the perspective of pilgrimage. PARSONS Lynette 1983-84, 1984-85
Implications from the research findings suggested STEVENS Lynne 1983-84
parallels between pilgrimage and the journey of CHRISTIE Angus 1984-85, 1985-86 *, 1986-87
both author and participants. These parallels PICKERING Judith 1984-85
were illustrated through examining the relevance OLDHAM David 1984-85, 1988-89
of the following to the pilgrimage or journey: a) COLE Malcolm 1985-86
three stage journey, b) token of dispensation, CONWAY – CHIEL Danielle 1985-86
c) ‘source’ as a sacred musical centre and d) MOLLOY David 1985-86, 1986-87
transformation of identity. Further implications HOLSMAN – ZIRKIND Natalie 1985-86, 1986-
from the research findings include the following: 87, 1987-88, 1988-89
a) personal relationships were shown to have BLAKE Rosemary 1986-87, 1987-88
had a significant influence on each stage of the JOYNT Danielle 1987-88
journey, with particular reference to securing MYERS Bronwyn 1987-88
the token of dispensation and b) the concept COLWILL John 1988-89
of pilgrimage would more accurately define the CHRISTMASS Celia 1989-90
uniqueness of each journey. HOLMES Lucie 1989-90, 1990-91
AYSON Julie 1990-91
Conclusion SHEARER – DIRIÉ Debra 1990-91
Finally, there is an innate desire in each one of TENNANT Lindy 1990-91, 1991-92
us to search for truth and meaning in life. What YEMM Jodie 1990-91
began as a quest by the author to find truth MARTIN Wesley 1991-92

REFEREED PAPERS
GUICHARD Egbert 1992-93 5 Ibid., p. 3. See also Catherine Bell Ritual:

HOWELL Gillian 1992-93 perspectives and dimensions (New York: Oxford
WALSH Fiona 1993-94 University Press, 1997) p 94 -102 and S. Glazier
‘Rites of Passage’ In Encyclopedia of Religion and
HUDSON Julie 1994-95, 1995-96 Society. (W. Swatos, Ed.). (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta
WATSON Carolyn 1996-97, 1997-98 Mira Press, 1998) p.423,424.
SCOTT Elizabeth 1998-99, 1999-2000 6 Liminal is derived from the Latin limen meaning
SWAN Helen 1998-99, 1999-2000 threshold which is an appropriate description of the
LYNCH Jamie 2000-01* transitional state between the two stages in which
one is said to be neither here nor there. See The
FERRIER Isobel 2000-01 Concise Oxford Dictionary (7th Ed., J. Sykes, Ed.).
GJISBERS Jennifer 2002-03 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983).
KING Aleta 2002-03, 2003-04* 7 V. & E. Turner Image and Pilgrimage in Christian
TU Amy 2004-05 Culture (New York: Colombia University Press,
N.A. 2005-06 1978) p. 1-39.
8 Believing at the time that pilgrimage was an
Endnotes exceptional rather than a normal ocurrence (i.e.
1 See listing of ‘Australian Past Students of the Kodály outside the realm of normal ‘ritual’ events) in
Institute (1976-2006)’. See also the ‘Yearbook an individual’s life, Turner therefore refrained
of the Kodály Institute, IV. (2001). Kecskémet, from further study of pilgrimage. Turner’s
Hungary: Kodály Institute. disregard appears to have also influenced later
anthropologists by way of temporarily discouraging
2 Perhaps one of the oldest recorded sacred further research into the notion of pilgrimage.
journeys is to be found in the biblical account of 9 P. Cousineau ‘Introduction’ In J. Campbell (1990).
Abram’s trek in the book of Genesis Chapters The Hero’s Journey: Joseph Campbell on His
12-17. Classical antiquity (circa 8thC. BC – 5thC. Life and Work. (S. Brown & P. Cousineau, Eds.).
AD) attests numerous illustrations where travel (New York: Harper & Row) p. xix. See also J.
was undertaken for either sacred and/or secular Campbell The Hero with a Thousand Faces (2nd
reasons (see L. Tomasi ‘Pilgrimage/Tourism’ In ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968) p.
Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. (W. Swatos, 8,9 and contents page where he makes reference
Ed.). (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1998) to van Gennep’s Rites of passage.
p.362-363). During the Middle Ages (c. 5th-16th
centuries AD) an increase in travel to holy places for 10 See S. Coleman & J. Eade (Eds.) Reframing
religious reasons paralleled the rise of Christianity Pilgrimage: Cultures in Motion (London: Routledge,
and gave birth to what later became known as the 2004). See also E. Badone & S. Roseman
pilgrim whose sacred journey was appropriately ‘Approaches to the Anthropology of Pilgrimage
called a pilgrimage. Investigation of the literature and Tourism’ In E. Badone & S. Roseman (Eds.)
confirms the idea that religious pilgrimage dates Intersecting Journeys (Urbana & Chicago: University
from medieval times up to the present and is both of Illinois Press, 2004). See also W. Swatos &
historically well-established and geographically L. Tomasi (Eds.) From Medieval Pilgrimage to
wide-spread. Well known examples include Religious Tourism (Westport: Praeger, 2002).
Canterbury Tales (Geoffrey Chaucer, 14thC), 11 These recent international anthropological
the Chinese tale Journey to the West (c.1590), responses appear to support this link between
Pilgrim’s Progress (John Bunyan, 1678/1684), pilgrimage and tourism as evidenced by the following
and Malcolm X’s journey to Mecca in his self- quote: “rigid dichotomies between pilgrimage
titled autobiography(1965) (see C. Bell Ritual: and tourism, or pilgrims and tourists no longer
Perspectives and Dimensions (New York: Oxford seem tenable in the shifting world of postmodern
University Press, 1997) p. 102). The Pilgrim’s Guide travel.” E. Badone & S. Roseman ‘Approaches to
was considered an essential reference book for the Anthropology of Pilgrimage and Tourism’ In E.
travellers to religious sights during the 11th – 18th Badone & S. Roseman (Eds.) Intersecting Journeys
Centuries (see P. Cousineau The Art of Pilgrimage: (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press,
the Seeker’s Guide to Making Travel Sacred 2004). p. 2.
(Boston, MA: Conari Press, 1998) p. XXV).
3 Originally published in French, Rites of Passage 12 Bell, Catherine. Ritual: perspectives and
is generally considered to be van Gennep’s dimensions. (New York: Oxford University Press,
unique contribution to the field of anthropology. 1997) p. 102.
Ironically, van Gennep’s rite of passage theory
does not appear to have had significant influence
on subsequent anthropological research until the
later half of the 20th century. One explanation
suggests that his work was not widely read until
the 1960’s when it was translated into English
and subsequently re-published. See S. Kimball
‘Introduction’ & M. Vizedom ‘Translator’s Note’ In
Arnold van Gennep The Rites of Passage [1908]
(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960) p. vii, xxi.
See additional explanation at endnote 8 below.
4 Ibid., p.10.

REFEREED PAPERS – SHARING PRACTICE
The Importance of Music in Education:

the critical difference
by Yvonne Tysoe
E
vidence-based research in recent years schoolers with poor language skills, or limited
has established remarkable benefits of opportunity to develop English language skills at
learning music, including higher IQ. In a home.
comprehensive critical review of music research
in the last ten years, all the evidence showed Recent research found music training enhances
a significant, reliable, consistant association an individual’s ability to recognise emotion in
between taking music lessons and intellectual sound. Interpreting emotion in speech enables
abilities (Ray, 2006). more effective communication. The authors of
the study also noted that the sound elements
The Australian Government’s National Review that are processed more efficiently by those
of School Music Education concluded that music who have learned music, are the very same
“uniquely contributes to the emotional, physical, ones that children with language disorders, such
social and cognitive growth of all students” and as dyslexia, have problems encoding. This led
facilitates the “transmission of cultural heritage them to suggest that children with language
and values; and, student’s creativity and capacity processing disorders could benefit from musical
for self-expression and satisfaction” (Pascoe et experiences. (Strait et al, 2009).
al 2005, p.5). This is because learning music
is a unique and complex process, offering all Neuroscientists using brain imaging now
the modalities of learning: visual perception, recognise that experience affects the physical
auditory skills, motor activity and coordination, structure of the brain (Ray, 2006). A recent
and cognition (Bridges 1994, p14). Music forms study using brain imaging found that “music
natural connections to other curriculum areas training over only 15 months in early childhood
enabling a multitude of learning to occur at leads to structual brain changes which diverge
the same moment, streamlining teaching and from typical brain development” (Hyde, 2009).
synthesising learning. Music involves several These physical changes represent increased
‘intelligences’ as described by Gardner (Gardner, connections in the brain, providing a stronger
1993 & Gardner,1983 p.122-127). Because it foundation for learning. The stronger the
is fun, children participate happily, experience foundation for learning, the more likelihood there
success, and gain confidence as learners. is of positive outcomes for children later in life
(DEEWR, 2009). There is also growing evidence
Along with skills that have been often associated that suggests opportunities for learning could be
with learning music (improved maths, reading impaired, or even lost, if not developed during
skills and fine motor coordination), one of the this critical period. For example, researchers
most significant findings for early childhood have found babies who are born with perfect
educators is that learning music enhances pitch. Without developing this amazing musical
language ability. Young children learning music skill, it is lost (Saffran & Griepentrog, 2001).
have been found to have enhanced verbal ability,
non-verbal reasoning (Forgeard et al, 2008), Music education is worth pursuing in its own right,
and verbal memory (Ho, Chan, & Cheung, if only for the lifetime of satisfaction, pleasure
2003). “Language skills are a strong and early and fulfilment it brings. Making music builds
predictor of school success. Children with low team skills and improves organisation, teaches
language skills at school entry are unlikely the value of effort, practice, risk taking and
to have the process reversed by the school discipline. Like all performing arts, music builds
system” (Mustard, 2007; McCain, 2007). This a regard for excellence. Children who are given
alone is a compelling argument for mandating the opportunity to learn music in early childhood
a music program for all children, especially in will have a much higher chance of music literacy
early childhood. These findings suggest music in later life, as the foundations for learning will
could also be an important intervention for pre- be in place. Research suggests that music not

only develops positive behaviours, but can be (Pascoe et al, 2005). Music educator and
used as a positive force for changing negative researcher, John Feierabend, found for example,
behaviour. Music training given to socially and that unaccompanied singing, as advocated
academically underachieving adolescents, who by Kodály, is the best way to develop in-tune
could not fit into a normal education setting, singing in children. Young children pay more
resulted in significant gains in self regulation, attention to the unaccompanied voice (Ilari &
social interaction, attitudes to school and Sundara, 2009). If teachers have no confidence
work, academic progress, music skills and self in their ability to sing, or keep the beat, to
awareness (McIntyre, 2007). identify the highs and lows in music or to clap
the rhythm of a nursery rhyme, they will avoid
There are a number of different approaches to interacting in this way with children. Putting on a
music education. In a study of the effect of music CD is no substitute for interacting with children,
on overall intellectual ability, young children given as young children’s learning occurs in large part
music lessons using a Kodály-based method through “high-quality emotional and instructional
outperformed those learning instrumental music, interactions” with educators (Mashburn, 2008).
with both methods significantly increasing overall
intelligence when compared to control groups To sum up, national and international studies
(Ray, 2006). show the importance of music education, and
national commissioned reports state the same.
The Kodály approach in schools is based on In an ideal world a quality developmental music
whole class physical, imaginative and social program would be mandatory for all learners
play, such as playing singing games, tapping the regardless of socio-economic circumstances
beat, moving imaginatively to music, and playing or location. Educators attending TAFE and
listening games. In the process of playing, University would be given both the theoretical
children develop a shared repertoire of music understanding of the foundations for music
and rhymes, which can be used as a foundation literacy and the practical skills to deliver quality
for further exploration. New experiences are music experiences to all children.
presented sequentially by educators in response
to children’s musical development, their interests
and abilities. Rich tasks, such as a performance References
for parents, make learning real and meaningful Bridges, D. (1994). Music, Young Children & You: A
and give children lifelong access to music. This parent-teacher guide to music for 0-5 year olds.
developmental approach allows children to Sydney: Hale & Iremonger Pty Ltd, 1994.
‘discover’ patterns, similarities and differences, DEEWR. (2009). Investing in the Early Years – A
and step by step, build skills and develop National Early Childhood Development Strategy: An
concepts. The ultimate goal is music literacy, that Initiative of the Council of Australian Governments.
Canberra:Australian Government. Retrieved 2009,
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as evidenced with research this approach does Workplace Relations. http://www.deewr.gov.au/
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The National Review into Music Education also Forgeard, M., Winner, E., Norton, A., Schlaug, G.
found that a majority of educators and parents (2008). Practicing a musical instrument in childhood
agree that music should be an essential part of is associated with enhanced verbal ability and
nonverbal reasoning. Retrieved 13 June 2010, from
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of all learners, regardless of socio-economic Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
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play-based music education does not require Practice. New York: Basic Books.
expensive instruments or specialised instruction. Gaser, C. & Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain structures differ
However it does require educators to have a between musicians and nonmusicians. Journal of
thorough knowledge of children’s development, Neuroscience 23 (27), 9240-9245.
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FROM THE ARCHIVES
Outcomes of a Developmental Music Program

by Doreen Bridges
A paper presented by Dr. Bridges at the Fourth International Kodály Symposium, held 8th-
11th August 1979, at N.S.W. State Conservatorium of Music, Sydney.
A
developmental music program based child’s musical growth will be stunted, or at best
on the methodology and teachings of lopsided.
Zoltán Kodály has been operating for
over seven years in certain primary schools in As long ago as 1948 Mursell stated in his
the Metropolitan West Region of the New South book Education for Musical Growth that the
Wales Department of Education. Although I developmental approach must focus on the
have had no connection with the project, I have “essence”, or what Bruner later called the
watched it over the years with very close interest “structure” of a discipline, that is, the inter-
as an unbiased outsider with a background relationship of its basic elements concepts,
of music education, teacher education, and and skills, to provide a framework for defining
research. I am therefore honoured that I have learning objectives step by step and planning
been given the task of reporting on the outcomes on a logical continuum for the achievement
of the project and the implications for music of these objectives. Necessarily, then, a
education arising from results of the research developmental music program must be highly
which has now been carried out. structured so that no vital steps are omitted,
and the musical experiences provide a
In all of the research projects, achievements of proper balance between the auditory, visual,
children in the developmental music program kinaesthetic, and motor modes of learning. The
have been compared with those of their principles of developmental music teaching,
peers in schools where music is not taught beginning in the kindergarten, were put into
developmentally. It is therefore necessary to be practice in Hungary after World War II under the
very clear about the nature of developmental leadership of Zoltán Kodály, the great Hungarian
music teaching and the factors which differentiate composer and teacher. The methodology he
the program under discussion from other kinds and his colleagues developed was the basis of
of music teaching in schools outside those in the the experimental music project in New South
program. Wales. In acknowledging our debt to Kodály
and the many Hungarian teachers who have
Developmental theories of education emphasize helped our teachers, we should not fall into the
planning for guided growth through a continuity error of attributing to Kodály the invention of
of cumulative, sequential experiences organized the method which bears his name. His famous
and continually re-cycled according to the pupil and colleague, Erzsebet Szonyi, has made
stages of children’s cognitive development. Most this very clear. In her book Kodály’s Principles
educators are conversant with the work of Piaget in Practice (1973) she states that the system of
and Bruner, both of whom have explained how music education developed by Kodály had its
human intelligence moves through progressively roots in other European pedagogical systems,
higher stages and modes of learning. particularly those of Curwen in England, Galin
Developmental music teaching starts with the and Cheve in France, and Jaques-Dalcroze in
premise that children’s earliest learning derives Switzerland. Just as Kodály built on the work
from motor responses to sense impressions. of others before him and added the necessary
As the child moves towards representing his structure, sequential organization, and
perceptual organization through imagery, the materials based on Hungarian culture, so the
interaction of seeing, hearing and moving developmental program we are discussing here
becomes increasingly important. Music learning has been derived from the Kodály system and
cannot properly develop without adequate is strongly identified with it, but has developed
perceptual motor experiences as a basis for some differences because of our different
concept development. In the absence of such language and culture.
experiences, especially in early childhood
which is the optimum period for learning, a Integral to such a program is the careful selection

FROM THE ARCHIVES
of musical materials to which the learning of several years, mostly in their own time, to
experiences are related – the repertoire of songs develop their latent musical abilities and teaching
and singing games which children perform, and expertise so that they could keep ahead of the
later, other music which they learn to play on children. In addition they received on-the-job
instruments or become very familiar with through assistance through demonstrations and advice
other forms of involvement, for example, dance. from a small team of resource teachers who
The outcome of developmental music teaching regularly visited their classrooms. The continuity
is musical literacy, which children acquire at of teaching could never have been maintained
the same time and in many of the same ways without a fifth condition – the co-operation of
as they are learning to read and write their own school principals and regional education officers
language during the first years at school. For in matters affecting teacher placement and the
these children, being musically literate means grouping of pupils as they progressed from
that they can hear in their minds the notes they year to year. Finally, the program had to be co-
see, and conversely, represent by imagery or ordinated in all the participating schools. In this
through symbols the sounds they hear. instance, of course, the contribution of the co-
ordinator was unique, as she had initiated and
Musical literacy in this sense is not a primary goal supervised the project, designed the curriculum,
in most of the music teaching which takes place trained the teachers, and maintained liaison with
in schools outside those in the program. When school staff.
children in such schools learn to play recorders
or other instruments from notation, they normally Conditions such as those outlined above are
learn little more than where to place their fingers not normally present in the primary school
and how long to keep them there. Seldom are system in public education. Although specialist
they encouraged to prehear the sounds before assistance is provided more generously in other
they play them, nor to sing from the notes. This states than in New South Wales, music teaching
note reading is largely a mechanical process in in elementary education is in general sporadic
which the ear plays little part. Perhaps the best and haphazard, and depends on attitudes of
way of looking at other differences between the school principals and the musical capabilities
developmental music program and the music and enthusiasm of individual classroom
teaching which occurs generally in primary teachers. Despite pockets of excellence, the
schools is to examine the conditions which were majority of teachers lack the skill and confidence
necessary for the operation of this program, and to teach music successfully, and avoid it if
to compare them with conditions for music in possible. There is no continuity at all, either in
schools outside those in the program. the teaching program or in inservice education
of teachers. Children (and teachers too) may
The first requirement was continuity – from day have a good program one year and nothing at
to day, week to week and year to year – and all the next. Objectives, if any, are very hazy;
classroom teachers’ acceptance of music as product (i.e. choral or instrumental performance)
an integral part of the daily schedule. Second is seen as more important than process, and
was the provision of a sequential curriculum music is generally regarded as relaxation and
with very clear objectives for each step, as well entertainment which children cannot enjoy if they
as curriculum materials designed to employ all are required to think. There is little understanding
modes of learning and to cater for individual by teachers of the processes involved in learning
differences, so that every child could succeed music, a mistaken belief that “structure” is
at his own level of progress. Third was the inimical to spontaneity and creativity, and strong
commitment of classroom teachers who resistance to the development of musical literacy
integrated music teaching with normal classroom as a goal in general education. As the recent
practice and used all their teaching skills to report on Education and the Arts (1977) states,
secure the involvement of all children in the class. “there is a persistent myth that only children
Because the use of classroom teachers was with musical aptitude can be involved in .... a
essential for the success of the project, the fourth (music) program and that they are in a minority in
condition was the on-going in-service music schools” (Appendix F). This myth has now been
education of the teachers who had volunteered dispelled. In the Kodály-based program, music
to participate in the program. Like the majority of was taught successfully to all children in each
teachers in the primary school system, most of class, and not to a selected few.
these teachers had little or no musical knowledge
and many thought themselves unable to sing. This long introduction is necessary to an
All undertook inservice courses over a period understanding of the outcomes of the

FROM THE ARCHIVES
developmental music program. Many of these TOLA 6 a more advanced version of the TOLA 4,
outcomes are observable and cannot be administered in Year 6. It contains three subtests
quantified. Visitors to classes in the project – vocabulary, problem solving in a mathematical
have seen for themselves the unselfconscious framework, and analogies.
involvement of children in a total educational
experience and have noted their performance Primary Evaluation Project (PEP) Tests
skills, both singing and playing, their aural developed by the ACER for the NSW Department
awareness, their spontaneity, their ability to carry of Education. Those used were:
out relatively complex musical tasks, their peer
group relationships, social interaction, personal Reading Test – a multiple choice comprehension
adequacy, and classroom behaviour. They test.
have seen music expertly taught, not by music Mathematics Test M1 – counting, numeration and
specialists but by classroom teachers; they place value.
have suspected, from evidence of work hanging Mathematics Test M3 – operations on counting.
on classroom walls and from observation of Mathematics Test M5 – problems.
children’s powers of concentration that they are Mathematics Test M7 – shapes.
functioning well in other curriculum areas. But
these are value judgements. Only by empirical The two additional tests which were administered
research is it possible to ascertain the truth. were:
Research studies carried out in the early days of Paragraph Understanding Test
the scheme have been fully reported elsewhere, Spelling Test (50 items)
in the publications of The Kodály Education
Institute of Australia, and in the Report and Scores were obtained on eleven measures in
Evaluation (Hoermann and Herbert, 1979), so all for 237 children in the music program and
it is necessary only to summarize them here. 251 in the control group. A multi-variate analysis
Many people will be aware of the investigations of the results showed an across-the-board
conducted by Gwynneth Herbert in 1973 and superiority of the music group over the control
1974. Her first study indicated that the perceptual group, significant at the 1% level. On every
functioning of six-year-old children in their one of the eleven tests children from the music
second year of the music program appeared program gained higher average scores. On five
to be superior to that of a matched group of of these the difference was significant at the 5%
children who had not received the music training. level, and on four at the 1% level. It appears,
In a second study she found a lower incidence of therefore, that the Kodály-based music program
poor readers in a sample of children in the third must have considerably affected children’s
year of the Kodály program as compared with a performance particularly on these four tests -
control group from schools outside the program. paragraph understanding, the PEP reading test,
Further research on the educational outcomes and the PEP mathematics tests dealing with the
of the developmental music program had to positional value of numerals and with geometric
wait until some of the classes had been carried shapes (Table 1, page 49).
through to Year 6, when children completed
their primary schooling. The Department of More detailed analysis of scores on these four
Education has just recently released the results tests showed that students in the music program
of a research project comparing the educational obtained more high scores and fewer low scores,
achievements of Year 6 children from three particularly in reading. The occurrence of reading
schools which had used the Developmental problems among the music students was one
Music Program with a sample of children from third of that among control group children. (See
three other schools, matched for size and socio- Tables 2 and 3, page 49).
economic status. The six schools had used
a number of standardized psychological and What explanations are there for these
educational tests as a matter of routine. These results? Herbert’s earlier research showed
tests were as follows: that the perceptual functioning necessary
for the development of reading, writing and
TOLA 4 (Test of Learning Ability). Australian number skills in children’s formative years was
Council for Educational Research: a cognitive undoubtedly advantaged by the music program.
test, similar to traditional IQ tests, which had Certainly the processes involved in reading –
been administered to students when they were auditory and visual discrimination, patterning,
in Year 4. sequencing, recall, lateral eye movements, ...the

FROM THE ARCHIVES
Test Mean Score Mean Score S.D. F Ratio Result

Music Control
Group Group
TOLA 4 40.2 37.9 10.8 5.68 Sig.at 5%
TOLA 6
subtest 1 16.3 15.7 6.8 1.05 Not sig.
subtest 2 11.9 11.1 4.5 3.58 Not sig.
subtest 3 10.5 9.4 4.8 5.98 Sig. at 5%
Paragraph 23.7 21.8 4.6 19.81 Sig. at 1%
understanding
Spelling 33.4 31.3 9.3 6.43 Sig. at 5%
PEP Tests:
Reading 31.1 27.6 9.5 16.62 Sig. at 1%
M1 39.0 36.5 7.7 12.26 Sig. at 1%
M3 29.6 27.7 9.1 5.28 Sig. at 5%
M5 24.8 23.4 6.4 6.32 Sig. at 5%
M7 19.7 16.7 4.4 57.13 Sig. at 1%
Table 1: Results for music and control groups in educational tests (df for F ratios are 1 and 486)
0-9 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24 25 – 29 30 – 34 Total*
Music 3 5 39 126 105 20 298
Group
Control 8 16 64 120 102 9 319
Group
Table 2. Distribution of scores in Paragraph Understanding Test.
0 – 14 15 – 24 25 – 34 35 – 44 45 – 49 Total*
Music 11 72 128 95 15 301
Group
Control 40 79 113 80 10 322
Group
Table 3. Distribution of scores in the P.E.P. Reading Test.
Note: Totals (*) for Tables 1, 2 and 3 are descrepant because scores on all the tests were not
available for all children in the two samples. The results reported in Table 1 apply only to children for
whom scores were available on all eleven measures, i.e. 237 and 251.
matching of sound with symbol – are common to particularly listening and moving, which are so
music reading, while many basic mathematical often comparatively neglected. The program
concepts – numeration, sets, measurement, developed perceptions, concepts and skills
proportion – are inherent in the comprehension which applied in the total learning situation
of rhythm in music. and thus maximized children’s ability to learn,
whether music, number, language, or anything
But it is not merely a matter of transfer of skills else. Objectives for the music program came
acquired through music to skills necessary for from all three domains – cognitive, affective,
reading comprehension and mathematics. This and psycho-motor so that music catered for
explanation is altogether too simplistic. Children children’s mental, physical and emotional
in the music program did of course transfer growth on a continuum. The development of
and apply their musical learnings in different musical skills could be logically interwoven with
musical contexts, and this enhanced their the development of reading and number skills,
musical growth. But examination of the content especially during the child’s formative years,
and practice of the music program supports because teachers used their classroom expertise
Herbert’s earlier conclusions that children’s total to integrate the learning experiences. In fact,
functioning was advantaged because the music many teachers have commented that teaching
program emphasized all modes of learning, the developmental music program increased

FROM THE ARCHIVES
their general teaching competence. music program again achieved significantly

higher scores than children following the
The intellectual achievements of the Year 6 Education Department syllabus. However, the
children in the music program may have been fact that they had to be administered individually
due primarily to the solid foundations to which precluded their use with a large sample.
music teaching contributed so much during the
optimum learning period of early childhood. On The most recently available group tests designed
the other hand, we need to know to what extent for upper primary and lower secondary school
the continuation of the music program throughout children are those which comprise the Music
the primary school promoted the continuing Evaluation Kit (Australian Council for Education
development of auditory skills, attentive Research, 1977). Although these criterion-
listening habits and concentration, and thus, has referenced tests have some limitations, and
Herbert has put it, could have “provided a more some items may be open to criticism on grounds
favourable situation for teacher and learner” of difficulty or lack of clarity, nevertheless they
(Herbert, “Education Through Music”, The Slow offered a way of comparing the developed
Learning Child 21, 1). Additionally, we need more auditory abilities of children from inside and
information about the musical achievements of outside the music program, as five of the tests
the children, apart from what teachers report or assumed no specific knowledge of music. These
what we ourselves observe. covered recognition of patterns, and auditory
discrimination of tone colour, pitch, volume, and
One of the problems of empirical evaluation of length of sounds.
aural abilities and musical skills is the paucity
of suitable standardized tests designed for In June, 1979, the five tests mentioned above,
children of primary school age. One of the most together with the test concerned with elementary
commonly used is the Bentley Test, though its knowledge of musical signs and symbols, were
scope is so limited as to be of questionable value administered to experimental and control groups
in determining the outcomes of a music program. of Year 5 children in the Metropolitan West
Its intention is rather to indicate whether children Region. The experimental group consisted of
have sufficient powers of auditory, discrimination four classes of children from two schools using
to enable them to benefit from music teaching, the music program, one in a high and one in a
the assumption being that auditory discrimination medium are of socio-economic status. The four
is inherent rather than acquired. Nevertheless control group classes came from two schools
some use was made of this test with Year 4 matched for SES. One of these schools was
children in the developmental music program noted for a particularly strong music program,
during 1976, in an investigation by S.E. Wilkins both inside and outside the classroom. The
entitled “Music Education and Cumulative other school was typical of the majority of
Sequential Learning” (unpublished B.A. thesis, primary schools in that there existed voluntary
Department of Education, University of Sydney choirs and recorder groups, but little classroom
1976). music. Although intact classes were used for
the investigation, children who had been in
Comparing a sample of 70 Year 4 children in the the Kodály program for less than two years
Kodály-based program with 94 Year 4 children were excluded. The experimental group then
following the Education Department’s syllabus, consisted of 89 subjects, 12 of whom had
Wilkins found that children in the developmental entered the program in Year 2 or Year 3, and the
program scored significantly higher on the remainder in Kindergarten or Year 1. In order
Bentley tests of pitch discrimination, tonal to ascertain whether there was any significant
memory and chord analysis, while no significant difference between groups which had been in
difference in mean scores on Bentley’s rhythm the music program for an average of either 3 or
memory test was found between the two groups. 5 years, it was necessary to increase the size
(This test proved to be a great deal easier than of the 3-year sample. Accordingly, a school was
the others). Wilkins administered also a more found where the present Year 5 children had
complex battery of tests which she herself been in the Kodály program from Kindergarten to
developed in order to measure subjects’ abilities Year 2, but not during Years 3, 4 and 5. However,
to perceive, memorise and reproduce “musically the shift in population had been such that only
meaningful rhythmic and melodic phrases” 10 of these children were still at the school.
and also to improvise endings to incomplete They were tested with the Music Evaluation Kit
melodies. On these tests, which did not require but scores on all six of the tests administered
specific knowledge of music, children from the were available for only six subjects. The size

FROM THE ARCHIVES
No of Pitch Length Volume Tone Patterns Symbols

years Colour
0 12.91 12.92 15.25 11.65 14.25 11.34
(N = 93) SD 2.63 2.97 2.66 1.96 2.77 3.19
3 15.11 15.16 16.66 12.16 15.94 14.75

(N = 18) SD 2.63 2.77 2.40 1.94 1.89 3.26
5 15.89 14.38 16.42 11.72 15.24 14.22

(N = 77) SD 1.95 2.87 1.96 2.17 2.25 3.34
F Ratio 34.16 7.70 6.22 0.47 5.30 13.60
Result: (df Sig. Sig. Sig. Not Sig. Sig. Sig.
2 & 185)
.01 .01 .01 .01 .01
Table 4. Results of Music Evaluation Kit tests for groups according to number of years
in Kodály program (Group means and S.D. for each 20-item test).
Year 7 Year 5 Year 5

(no Kodaly) (no Kodaly) (Kodaly)
Pitch 12.7 12.9 15.5
Length 13.6 12.9 14.8
Volume 16.0 15.2 16.5
Tone Colour 12.5 11.6 11.9
Patterns 15.1 14.2 15.5
Symbols 13.2 11.3 14.5
Table 5. Mean scores on MEK tests for three different groups.
of the three-year sample was thus increased to music, but much wider research is necessary to
18. (This third school was in an area of medium follow up the indications from the present study.
SES). The number in the control group (0 years One of the most meaningful results of the testing
in the Kodály program) was 93. was the one obtained by comparing the mean
scores of children who had experienced three or
Results, expressed as group means for each more years in the developmental music program
variable, are shown in Table 4. with scores of those in the control group. The
statistically significant superiority of the Kodály
On a multivariate analysis (df 12 and 360) the groups on all except one of the six tests was
F ratio for overall discrimination between the most evident in the test of Pitch Discrimination
groups was 6.02, again significant at the 1% level. as can be seen from Table 4 above. A one-way
There was no significant difference between the ANOVA (df 1 and 221) produced an F ratio of
3-year and 5-year Kodály groups, but as the 72.12, a highly significant result with the chance
disparity in sample sizes could have affected this factor/considerably less than one in a hundred.
finding, a second one-way ANOVA was carried This is not surprising in view of the emphasis the
out. Scores of the 18 subjects in the 3 year group Kodály-based program gives to the perception,
were compared with scores of an equal number, recall and identification of pitch relationships,
randomly selected by taking every fifth score and to singing in tune.
from the alphabetical list of subjects in the five-
year group. The obtained F ratio was 0.01, which Although much more detailed analysis of these
confirmed that there was no significant difference results remains to be carried out, there are
between the two groups. This finding suggests already some interesting findings in addition to
that there may be a critical learning period for those reported above. Differences in the socio-

FROM THE ARCHIVES
economic status of schools in the investigation music program, its success can be evaluated
did not affect the scores of children in the music only through the achievements and attitudes of
program, but SES was a significant factor in the its participants. It has been made abundantly
results of children in the control group. Another evident in a number of reports and investigations
finding shows that, compared with the average (e.g. Bartle 1968, The Arts in Schools 1974,
scores on the Music Evaluation Kit tests for a Education and the Arts 1977, and AMEL
representative sample of Year 7 children who Conference Reports 1978-79) that existing
had just entered high school, scores of the structures for implementing music teaching in
Year 5 control group are, as might be expected, Australian primary schools are inadequate. This
slightly lower. But average scores of the Year inadequacy may very well be camouflaged by the
5 children in the Kodály-based program were excellent choirs and instrumental groups which
higher on every test except the one concerned cater for the selected few but present a positive
with the discrimination of tone colour, in which public image. The fact remains that the vast
experience and maturation appear to be factors. majority of children do not have the opportunity
(See Table 5, page 51). of developing basic musical concepts and skills
at the age when these are most easily acquired.
This evidence would appear to confirm the fact The developmental music project has shown
that auditory discrimination is trainable and that music teaching based on sound educational
that the children in the developmental music principles and a thorough understanding of the
program were able to achieve a level of auditory learning process in music is within the reach
discrimination superior to that of their peers of classroom teachers of the early grades, that
and of children two years older. If it is true, as it can advantage the total functioning of all
many researchers in the field claim, that auditory children, irrespective of particular talents and
discrimination, memory and imagery are the abilities, and that it can lay secure foundations
most important factors in musicality, then the for subsequent growth. Above all, the program
developmental music program has proved that, has proved the truth of Kodály’s famous dictum –
given the opportunity, almost every child can “Music is for everyone”.
become musical, that is, develop his potential
to respond to music and to make music. The This article first appeared in the Journal of the Kodály
children in the music program were unselected, Education Institute of Australia – Vol 5 No. 1 1980.
and graded only according to age, not according Reprinted with permission.
to intelligence.
Perhaps an even more important outcome is the

proof that, given the proper training and some
support in the field, most classroom teachers
can teach music as effectively as they teach any
other subject, at least in the first few years of a
child’s formal education. The issue of teacher
competence and commitment is the crux of the
whole program, and there is a lesson in this for
institutions concerned with teacher education.
There is a general lack of recognition that
learning music is just as developmental a process
for adults as it is for children. Music courses for
classroom teachers reflect the priority given to
music in schools and are usually too short and
superficial to remedy the musical deficiencies
of students who have passed through the
school system and who re-enter it as teachers
to perpetuate their own musical inadequacies in
the next generation.
The musical and educational outcomes of

the developmental music project based on
the Kodály concept of music education have
important implications for music teaching in
general education. Whatever the nature of a

FROM THE ARCHIVES
ZOLTÁN KODÁLY AS EDUCATOR: THE EFFECTS OF THE

KODÁLY PEDAGOGY ON TEACHER AND STUDENT
by Sr. Mary Alice Hein, MA
A paper presented by Sr Mary Alice Hein at the Fourth International Kodály Symposium,
held 8th-11th August 1979, at N.S.W. State Conservatorium of Music, Sydney
INTRODUCTION
In the field of music education, Kodály stands
as one of the great seminal figures of our
century. His life spanning over sixty years of this
twentieth century was devoted to advocating
the central role of music in education, stating
numerous times that music is unconditionally
necessary to the development of a human being.
Kodály’s originality is evident from the rapid
spread of his educational philosophy to countries
in every continent of our world. Numerous
books, articles, and papers have been written
on his work and influence in English, German,
Japanese, Russian, Spanish, Italian, French,
Polish and Czechoslovakian. Conferences,
local, regional, national and international have
been held. Papers and books will continue to
be written, conferences will continue to be held
as we explore all of the implications of this
great man’s philosophy for the education of our
children in our various countries.
The purpose of this paper, however, is not to

eulogize, however hitting that may be, but rather Sr Mary Alice Hein
to try to look at Kodály’s contribution to education
in perhaps a somewhat different context based The Evaluation: Phase 1
on the type of evaluation we are now in the Because of the basic Kodály philosophy which
process of conducting in our Kodály Pilot Project stresses specific styles and modes of teaching
in the San José Unified School District, a large behaviour and interaction our first emphasis
urban school district in California. has been a qualitative rather than a quantitative
approach to evaluation. The focus has been
Very briefly, the Kodály Pilot Project consists of on the structure of the relationship between
six selected elementary schools out of a total of teachers and the students in the classroom.
37 elementary schools in the district. Essentially Central to this qualitative approach to the
it is a daily music program taught by music analysis of interaction in the classroom and its
teachers who received their Master of Music consequent results in cognitive and emotional
Education Degree with Kodály Emphasis or the development is the assumption that the structure
Kodály Certificate from Holy Names College. of the teacher-student role interaction provides
The entire project is directed by Holy Names the basic context for learning and growth of
College with consistent and regular supervision the program participants. Current literature in
given by the college faculty. Two schools have learning and human development emphasizes
just completed their third year of the project that an appreciation of the educational process
while four are completing their second year. is important to understand its successes and
Approximately 2,000 children are receiving its failures. Furthermore, there is a growing
Kodály musical training.
1 Randolfo R. Pozos, M.A. “The Kodály Music Train-
ing program in the San José Unified School District:
The following excerpts are taken from the Program Evaluation Report;” 1979. Kodály Program, Holy
evaluation consultant’s report.1 Names College, Oakland, California, U.S.A. 94619.

FROM THE ARCHIVES
awareness based on long-standing research The vast majority of those who were polled
that intellectual content or meaning cannot have very favourable impressions of the Kodály
be separated from the context which makes music program. Classroom teachers, principals
it intelligible (Goodenough 1964, Kapp 1979). and parents who generally do not favour special
The apparent cross culture success of Kodály programs of this type rated the program highly.
musical training lends itself to this type of They noted its success in music, particularly in
qualitative evaluation because of the qualitative the reading of musical notation, improvement
concerns for cultural preservation and child in singing and spontaneous class performance
development which motivated Kodály. Essentially outside the music period. They described ways in
the evaluation is a qualitative analysis of the which the program has helped children to read,
educational process. write and comprehend and has assisted them
in listening skills, memorization, self-discipline,
The first phase of the evaluation was conducted self-presentation, self-esteem and improved
in the spring of 1978. Prior to this time, special interpersonal communication. In general, they
attention was given to insuring that all segments felt that the music class seemed to help those
of the district observed the pilot project. Periodic children with weak auditory memories, those
visits were scheduled for the superintendent who are poor readers and seemed to give the
and the associate superintendent in charge self-confidence needed to attempt learning
of instruction. Principals visited the classes activities. The principals and classroom teachers
regularly and classroom teachers remained felt in particular that the attitude of cooperation
in the classroom during the music lesson. and peer assistance in the program, which
Special demonstrations were held for the eliminated ridicule, greatly improved the
parents, who were encouraged to visit the confidence and creativity of the children. This, in
music classes during the day. In addition, on- turn, promoted greater and freer participation in
site demonstrations were held for principals and the classroom and school activities outside the
teachers of all the elementary schools in the music period. Many commented on the lack of
district. This orientation of the district to the pilot self consciousness which the children exhibited
project was a necessary preliminary step to the and their willingness to stand up and perform
evaluation, which required that all involved in the for others. The emphasis on individual singing
pilot project be as informed as possible about appears to have a direct effect on successful
what was actually happening in the music class. recitation in the class.
The stage was set, so to speak, for the first The one page questionnaire for parents
phase of the evaluation which sought to elicit the which elicited their impressions had the high
reflections and impressions of administrators, percentage of 73.3% return. However, since
classroom teachers, parents and students. some families had more than one child in the
All of the principals and classroom teachers program and since no duplicate questionnaires
in the participating schools were interviewed were received, the return rate was in fact
in person by graduate students in the Kodály greater. Briefly, the more specific responses of
Master’s program at Holy Names College. At the parents’ questionnaire showed that well over
the same time, children from each classroom 90% were aware of the Kodály program and
were randomly selected for personal interviews. said that their child had mentioned the class,
All of the interviews were conducted by the particularly that their child was enjoying the
graduate students, an evaluation consultant music class. Again, over 90% reported that their
and the evaluation director. A brief one-page children sing at home. This amount of singing
questionnaire was sent home to all of the parents seems to be unusual, since many of the parents
via the students. had previously and spontaneously mentioned
this activity to the classroom teachers as unusual
The benefits for the emotionally handicapped and apparently linked to the Kodály music class.
students were noted by both teachers and Although control data are lacking in order to
administrators. This is especially remarkable compare how much other students sing at home,
since the program was not designed for teaching it is evident that songs from the program are
handicapped students. The apparent success of echoing through the neighbourhoods. Almost
the program for the participating students who 90% of the parents noted that their children
represented different ethnic and socio-economic have tried to teach the songs to other members
groups indicates that its basic methods closely of the family. This seems to reflect the deep
touch and motivate the whole person to grow involvement the children have with music and
and develop. their self confidence in performing for critical

FROM THE ARCHIVES
audiences. their development. According to their teachers

and parents and in their own words and songs,
The patterns of response in this data are most the students affirm this conclusion. Although
interesting. Generally there is a high degree of control data and quantitative measures such
parental satisfaction with the program. Parents as test scores were not used in this phase of
indicate that their children are singing and the evaluation, the satisfaction of all concerned
enjoying music. These observations correspond indicated that the program enriches and
with the reflections of the classroom teachers reinforces the quality of the educational process
and principals about the effectiveness of the and appears to be strongly related to the
program. The response of the parents regarding acquisition of basic learning skills.
the influence of the program on basic learning
skills is especially interesting because substantial The positive factor in this phase of the evaluation
numbers of parents noted the beneficial effects was the opportunity for all to participate actively
of the program in other areas. The support of the in the evaluation by sharing their perceptions
parents for the program has been commented of the Kodály Program. The overwhelmingly
upon by the principals in conversations with unanimous perceptions of administrators,
the Kodály staff as an unusual phenomenon. In classroom teachers, parents and students serve
the past, both parents and classroom teachers to substantiate the perceived success of the
have been openly critical of special programs Kodály Music Program.
which they felt did not assist the children in basic
learning skills. The Evaluation: Phase 2
The second phase of the evaluation just
The children participating in the Kodály Pilot completed focused more directly on an analysis
Project were in grades kindergarten through of the interaction between the teacher and
fourth. One boy and one girl were selected at the student in the Kodály music classes for as
random from each classroom. In the bilingual mentioned earlier, our primary assumption was
classrooms, two boys and two girls were selected that the structure of the student teacher role
randomly in order to insure that mono-lingual interaction provides the basic context for the
Spanish and Portuguese speaking children would learning and growth of the program participants.
be interviewed. Although the data received from The data from our first phase of the evaluation
the children must be evaluated very carefully due provided us with a picture of a successful
to the age of these students, nevertheless the program. The goal of the second phase was to
students are an important source of information, make a qualitative analysis of the educational
since they are not only the consumers of the process; to try to determine just what was
program’s services, but also because of their happening in the music class that could account
candour and the insights which their impressions for perceived success of the program. For such
convey. While acquiescence on the part of successful communication to occur we made the
those interviewed is a research problem for assumption that there must be something special
any age group, those who are experienced in in the way in which the Kodály teacher and the
working with young children can testify to their students relate to each other. We know that the
candour and often stubborn independence. As Kodály pedagogy offers a particular pattern of
might have been expected, the students’ data interaction which may be described as having
tended to confirm the views of the classroom the following characteristics:
teachers, the principals and the parents. Over
90% said they like to sing and they also like to 1. A consistent respect for the spontaneity and
sing at home. This is amazingly close to the positive motivation of the student is always
parents’ questionnaire. Almost 100% said they assumed.
like to sing songs at school. Even if considerable 2. Learning and human development occur
allowance is made for acquiescence bias, these spontaneously.
data speak very highly for the program and the 3. Honesty is highly valued. Bad singing is never
quality of instruction. Almost all of the children called good singing. Incorrect answers are never
responded that music made them feel happy. called correct.
One discriminating second grade girl said that it 4. Clear demands are made by the teachers and
depended on the mood of the song. the students. There are no mixed messages
or hidden agendas. Simultaneously with the
Several conclusions: The children enjoy the demand come the technical resources and the
Kodály music program and it is improving their necessary inter-personal support to meet the
overall educational experience and enhancing demand.

FROM THE ARCHIVES
5. Learning is enjoyable, collective and program’s success and provides the theoretical
complementary. It is not individual, idiosyncratic basis for this second phase of the evaluation.
nor competitive-symmetrical. For example, musical concepts and skills are
6. Distinctions such as mind-body and nurture- introduced and perfected by combinations of
nature are not made. Truth is whole, integrative, rhythmic and singing activities and singing
supporting and challenging. games and folk dances. The author prescinds
7. The complex integration of the person which is here from the basic tenet that only the best
required for learning the communication that is examples of folk music, leading to art music are
music requires and motivates the basic learning the musical materials used with the children.
skills of reading, writing and computation.
The pedagogy presupposes and requires the use
The analysis of the pedagogy was done with of these types of social interactions which are
both the graduate students who were doing based on the complementary mode of learning
their practice teaching in the laboratory schools and cognitive development. The pedagogy also
connected with the College and the Kodály assumes that the child’s natural developmental
teachers in the San José Unified School District. needs provide the most significant motivation for
learning.
It would be well to mention here that the
evaluation director, Randolfo Pozos, for both The element of respect is perhaps one of the
the first and second phase is an anthropologist. most striking features of the pedagogy. There
He observed all phases of the Kodály music is a basic assumption that music and singing
education program involving the training of the are a normal part of being a child and an adult.
graduate students and teaching being carried Correspondingly, there is an emphasis on
on in the San José Unified School District. His structuring success and minimizing the risk of
observations began in January, 1978 and were failure. The skills and concepts are presented in
completed in May, 1979 with attendance being a logical progression, beginning with the most
concentrated at certain times and infrequent basic. Specific lessons are devoted exclusively
at other times. Interviews and informal to “making conscious” what the learner has
conversations with the program faculty, graduate already accomplished and experienced with the
students, Kodály teachers, administrators, teacher being in control – not as an inhibitor, but
classroom teachers, parents and children were as a facilitator.
extensive.
The teacher as facilitator is a demanding role in
The evaluator was impressed by the precise the Kodály pedagogy. Each lesson is elaborately
pedagogical rituals which Kodály graduate structured and ritualized. The student teachers
students learned and demonstrated under spend large amounts of time and psychic
watchful eyes. He noted however, that both energy in learning these rituals. A successful
in the classrooms of the San José Unified and “make conscious” lesson must be done in
of Holy Names College there was a blend of certain prescribed ways. The proper use of body
discipline and spontaneity, a certain sense of language including hand and facial gestures,
intellectual latitude and a very clear sense of the use of certain terms and words in precise
orthodoxy. Although the classroom environment ways and specific contexts, along with the
for the small children and student teachers was correct arrangement of the room and furniture,
supportive, there were, nevertheless, very clear are all closely watched by the master teacher.
and challenging expectations or performance. Correspondingly, there is not a slavish repetition
of ritual, but a conscious sense of purpose about
What occurs in both settings seems to be clearly each lesson.
described in the work of Gregory Bateson, and
anthropologist, in his discussion of collective and The techniques or rituals are precise ways of
individual modes of learning (Bateson 1972). For achieving each objective. In essence, despite
Bateson, the structure of interaction involved in its ritualistic trappings, the Kodály pedagogy
learning is either symmetrical or asymmetrical. is pragmatic. That which accomplishes the
A mode of learning either emphasizes the organized discipline and specific objectives of
individual in a competitive or symmetrical the lesson is accepted. The techniques which do
relationship. The Kodály pedagogy appears not serve these ends are rejected.
primarily to emphasize the complementarity of
human relationships, behaviour and ideas. This An analysis of a “Make Conscious” lesson
emphasis seems to be the major factor in the The “make conscious” concept is a distinctive

FROM THE ARCHIVES
feature of the Kodály pedagogy. The “make At this point the class is relaxed and attentive.
conscious” lesson plan or strategy which is the The students will now begin to make the
subject of this particular analysis was chosen transition from experience to reflex awareness or
because it demonstrates the core insight of consciousness. The teacher then places paper
the Kodály pedagogy and because it is a good stars on the board and will keep the beat while
representation of a specific Kodály lesson. the class sings “Starlight.” The teacher’s voice,
hands and total body movement are carefully
The strategy begins with a concrete behavioural coordinated. The notes are sung clearly and
objective. “The student can identify one sound precisely without losing the melodic phrasing.
on the beat.” The next division, “Musical
Experience” which is subdivided into “Readiness” Individual students are selected to sing the first
and “Conscious Knowledge”, states the basic phase and keep the beat the way the teacher did.
behavioural abilities and perceptual experiences As usual, the children imitate very well and begin
which the child must have before they are to act out their experience of the beat. However,
ready to begin mastering the objective. These this still is in the twilight between experience and
requirements include the ability to experimentally consciousness.
distinguish between beat and rhythm and
high and low pitch. Previous lessons have all The move toward conscious understanding is
developed these required skills in a careful now initiated by the teacher with a very simple
sequence. question, “How many beats went by in the first
phase?” Guessing is avoided by repeating the
The next heading “Materials” carefully lists all of phrase while at the same time experiencing
the songs or work items which are required for the beat. The four-beat pattern thus becomes
the lesson. Detailed preparation is a hallmark obvious. The students have moved from
of the Kodály pedagogy along with the notion experience to consciousness. Learning has
the learning occurs in a developmental stream. occurred. The learning of the beat is now clearly
There are no shortcuts. Either the student is made conscious by the next activity which is
ready for the lesson or he or she is not. The highly abstract. The beat is named “Ta”. The
precise behavioural requirements help the teacher again points out the stars but uses
teacher pinpoint the child’s particular phase of “Ta-Ta-Ta-Ta” to keep the beat. The specific
musical development. experience of the four-beat pattern has now
become a generalized abstract concept firmly
The lesson begins with the teacher greeting rooted in the class’s experience.
the children in song and thereby initiating
the complementarity which will suffuse the To further amplify and demonstrate the concept,
interaction. The children, who are standing, the children learn a precise universal notation
return the greeting in unison. Many times this for communicating the four-beat pattern. Simple
is followed by individual greetings for certain popsicle sticks are arranged in a series: I I I I .
students and they respond by singing alone. The students space them evenly on their desks
In classes with bilingual children, songs and or tables and make sure they are parallel. The
greetings in the child’s first language (Spanish or class sings the text and the “ta’s” or duration
Portuguese in San José) have been incorporated. syllables and keep the beat by pointing to their
This simple gesture immediately communicates sticks as they sing. At this point the children are
acceptance to the child and a respect for his or counting, writing and reading.
her home. English-speaking students receive
exposure to other languages and cultures and This brings us to the reinforcement section. The
experience music as a universal language. This teacher then holds up a flash card with the four-
activity has a special meaning since the teacher beat notation I I I I and the students say “Ta-
picks names of individuals which illustrate four Ta-Ta-Ta”.
quarter bears, e.g. “Hello Mary”, “Hello Bryant.”
The lesson is concluded by the assessment
Those greetings are then quickly followed by a section which is used not only to recapitulate
series of songs which the children already know the lesson to assess the students’ mastery of
and which contain the four beat initial rhythm the objective but also to introduce new songs
patterns, thus reviewing their experience of and to encourage the students’ next phase of
one sound on the beat. Great care is taken to development. The students learn new songs with
insure that everyone sings the correct pitch and the initial four-beat rhythm pattern and construct
interprets the mood of the song. the pattern with their sticks.’ This concept is

FROM THE ARCHIVES
further reinforced in subsequent lessons. have experienced the learning of games and
songs and now the elements of that experience
The class is formally concluded by a singing of are directed toward the learning of music and
farewell greetings which brings the activity to singing. The students are able to respond to the
a close. The children are relaxed and ready to teacher’s requirements and validate the teacher
return to their other subjects. in the process. At this point the circle is complete.
Interpersonal communion has been established
Although this brief description is clearly and the classroom becomes a place of mutually
generalized and idealized, it nevertheless supportive and related ideas and individuals.
conveys the basic structure of the class session
and describes the pedagogy in actual operation. This success spiral can also occur in other areas
Although the ‘make conscious’ lessons do not of the lives of both the teachers and the students.
comprise the total program, the other lessons For the children, such a complementary mode
tend to reflect the emphasis on the transition of interaction and learning can dissipate
from experience to consciousness. Basically, the pathological stress. Children who were shy and
other sessions tend to emphasize developing withdrawn or aggressive have become more
the requisite skills necessary for the “making outgoing and communicative and less disruptive.
conscious” activities and reinforcing in different The expectations of the teacher and the
contexts the elements or concepts that have pedagogy itself create a beneficial or “eustress”
already been made conscious. which we all experienced as the challenge and
enjoyment of paying and performing (Sely 1978).
The success spiral
The highly elaborate ritual training which the The fact that large numbers of children, over
graduate students receive is useful because 90%, sing and conduct music lessons on the
it gives them a means of being successful playground and/or at home for their peers,
teachers. This success improves their self image siblings and parents indicates that pedagogy
and interaction skills. At this point they are then has become a basic part of their epistemology.
ready and poised to learn. Their mastery of To learn how to sing is to learn how to enter into
the techniques or rituals gives them a clearly communion with others. It is demanding and
defined experience of the relationship between enjoyable and it is fulfilling.
discipline and creativity for the teacher as a
facilitator. Consequently, the success spiral THE CHILDREN
begins. Success in teaching improves self- The implications are not lost on the children
image and interaction skills which encourage or the regular classroom teachers who have
the complementary mode of learning and in observed them during the music classes. If the
turn, promote the mastery of music concepts classroom teachers attempt to maintain the
and singing and performing skills. In the process success spiral, the results in terms of learning
memorization, conceptualization and synthetic basic skills can be remarkable. However, if the
intellectual skills are fostered. Concomitant with classroom teacher still clings to a competitive,
these skills the teacher develops a different, symmetrical epistemology, the children readily
complementary epistemology. Music and notice the difference. In fact, in one school some
education take on entirely new dimensions. of the children were perplexed by the notion that
the Kodály specialist was also a “teacher”. The
The same process occurs with the small jarring differences in the social role presentation
children in the classroom. They are given tasks of the teachers which the children observed,
which relate to their social experience of play. indicates that questions of pedagogy are far
Their simultaneous physical and psychological from academic. At stake here is not merely which
development is recognized by the principles method is better for conveying and achieving
of pedagogy. The discipline and precision basic music literacy for elementary school
of their neighbourhood games, along with children. Rather, the entire cognitive orientation
the sophisticated psychosocial meaning and of the child and his or her concomitant social
motivation, is brought into the classroom. Their behaviour and notion of self-actualization can be
complementary mode of learning does not seriously influenced by the pedagogy.
suffer a jarring discontinuity brought about by
their initiation into a competitive or symmetrical SEEING AND HEARING
pedagogy. The success which the newly-trained Kodály
teachers experience has had a significant effect.
The stage is set for success. The students Most generally, the graduate students complete

FROM THE ARCHIVES
their training with greater expectations for their children with learning’s most fundamental skill,
students. They are armed with an arsenal of i.e. learning how to learn, it causes the teacher
strategies for achieving a carefully developed to be transformed from an imparter of technical
and articulated series of learning outcomes. Very skills and knowledge into a role model of self-
basically, the graduate students seem to come actualized learning. In the process, however, the
away with a clearer sense of what exactly they children learn complex musical skills at which
want to achieve and how to achieve it. One of their instrumental teachers later marvel.
the Kodály specialists succinctly summarized the
program’s basic agenda in these words, “What Their transformation is very similar to that
we are trying to do in the program is to train advocated by Freire in his Pedagogy of the
the children to ‘see’ with their ears and ‘hear’ Oppressed, when he recommends a conversion
with their eyes.” Elaborating further, the Kodály from the “banking” concept of education –
specialist explained that the children should with its competitive, symmetrical orientation
be able to visualize and write the patterns of – to an education for critical consciousness
sound which they experience and also be able and liberation – with its asymmetrical,
to convert the actual experience into musical complementary epistemology. Consequently,
notation. correctly implementing the pedagogy achieves a
liberation of self-actualization of both the teacher
The goal is hardly modest for any pedagogy. and the student due to the basic developmental
Perhaps, however, its simplicity and its profundity agenda and the complementary relationships
provide the basic theme of all Kodály instruction; which are required. The overall satisfaction of
it seems to be the fundamental criterion. This the Kodály specialists as music teachers seems
concept appears to provide the central focus to bear this out. The pedagogy, then, requires
and direction of all the learning activities. As an abandonment of pathologically structured
a consequence, the pedagogy requires an competitive relationships and also requires
experiential or phenomenological approach. developmentally structured relationships which
By beginning with the most fundamental are the precondition for any learning in the true
experiences of beat, rhythm and pitch, the sense.
teacher neither lectures nor demonstrates in
the conventional sense. The children are led This article first appeared in the International Kodály
on an elaborate journey of discovery in which Society Bulletin Vol 5, No 1, 1980, pp. 40-47.
they “make conscious” what they have learned Reprinted with permission.
experientially. Not only does this provide the
IKS BULLETIN ARCHIVES CD

A CD (in searchable PDF form) is now available with the first 30 years of
International Kodály Society Bulletin publications (1976 – 2005).
This CD is an invaluable source of articles and research data. Drawn from 59 Bulletin
publications, the 455 articles include photographs and general information about the
International Kodály Society.
The materials are available in “Bulletin-form” (as an exact reproduction of the hard copy
publication) and as “individual articles” per publication. Research can be done in every
possible way: names of authors, subjects, titles, etc. Furthermore there is an excel file with an
alphabetical list of the authors and the titles of their contributions, a read-me.doc and a file with
the Hungarian font, necessary for certain search commands.
This new IKS publication is particularly valuable

for researchers and libraries.
Cost to full members is US$ 10 + postage costs
and for non-members US$ 50 + postage costs.

MEMBER ACTIVITIES
Clockwise from top

All students and staff of the 2010 Summer School, Brisbane. Courtesy of James Cuskelly; Paul Jarman,
composer in residence, with students at Sandgate State School, Brisbane. Courtesy of Debbie O’Shea; Massed
choir, Mackay Q’ld KMEIA Choral Festival. Courtesy of Ian Hamilton; Young Voices of Melbourne with Malcolm
Dalglish, composer & hammer dulcimer player from Bloomington, Indiana. Courtesy of Mark O’Leary

Kodály news
National Council in pursuing postgraduate studies may receive

News credit for the three summer schools completed
From Gail Godfrey, in the Brisbane Summer School. Interested
President of KMEIA applicants require undergraduate qualifications
in music and/or music education and it should
KMEIA remains as one be noted that existing piano skills are considered
of Australia’s largest a distinct advantage. Successful applicants who
and most active professional organisations have completed the three Brisbane summers
for music educators. The National Council would be able to complete the Masters degree
has been busy with developing and updating with just one semester in Hungary (Kecskemét
policies and partnerships; and our state Branch or Budapest). International recognition of our
Committees provide members with opportunities training courses is encouraging news for KMEIA
for professional development - mentoring and its membership. Participants can gain the
colleagues, developing new resources and AKC with specialization in Early Childhood,
providing friendly support. And of course in 2010, Primary or Secondary strands.
the Victorian KMEIA Committee is working hard
to provide the KMEIA National Conference in James Cuskelly has advised that he received
Melbourne from 26-29 September 2010. official notice from the Australian Catholic
University that the three year Queensland
I offer my congratulations to the 23 teachers who Summer School program is now accredited for
were awarded the Australian Kodály Certificate half of the Masters degree at ACU. National
during 2009. Tess Laird’s report on the AKC will Council has also been pursuing university
provide further information about the wonderful partnerships in Australia. Following early
professional capital developed by those who negotiations through Associate Professor
achieve the award of this certificate. Terrence Hays of the University of New England,
we hope that negotiations in the near future will
Congratulations to the new Western Australia secure recognition of the AKC as equivalent to
Branch of KMEIA. Council has been working with a Graduate Certificate, which will also enable
the WA teachers for this 2010 development. I am recipients to apply for Post Graduate studies at
deeply grateful for the efforts of Jason Boron the University.
and Wendy Cara-Dugmore and others, who
have worked diligently and with great energy to
bring the dream of a Western Australian KMEIA
Branch to fruition.
It is now easier to access accredited KMEIA

lecturers. The National Council Education
Committee has updated the list of course
providers and accredited lecturers to teach the
content for the Australian Kodaly Certificate.
Please contact Tess Laird (tk.laird@bigpond.net.
au) for the list.
KMEIA National Council is impressed by

international recognition of the Australian
Kodály Certificate. The AKC course is now in
the process of being recognized by the Franz
Liszt Academy in Budapest as contributing
towards postgraduate credit with that institution.
A special guest at this year’s Summer School
in Q’ld (conducted by Dr James Cuskelly), was
Dr Laszlo Nemes, Director of the Zoltán Kodály
Pedagogical Institute in Kecskemét, and head
of the Pedagogy Department at the Franz Liszt
Academy in Budapest. Dr Nemes was impressed
by the standards achieved by students finalising
their AKC studies at the Summer School. He do-re-mi mother and child. Photo courtesy of Ruth
advised that Australians who were interested Thompson.

Kodály News
Update on do-re-mi Australian Kodaly Certificate

from Gail Godfrey, (AKC) Update
do-re-mi from Tess Laird, Convenor of the KMEIA
National Coordinator Education Committee
do-re-mi is the national There are many wonderful music teachers using
organisation of self- Kodaly philosophy in Australia, including some
employed early childhood who have completed the rigorous AKC course.
Kodaly trained teachers The Australian Kodaly Certificate in Music
who are formally Education (AKC) is a unique course of
affiliated with KMEIA but professional development designed to equip
who also relate to their studio and classroom teachers with the skills
State Branch. Enthusiastic coordinators David and resources they need to deliver a sequential,
Hawkins and Julie Logan in NSW, and David aural-based music program. Participants choose
O’Keefe, Kathryn Yarrow, Bernadette Barr and Early Childhood, Primary or Secondary streams,
Caryn Eastman in Queensland support 25 active and a Colourstrings stream is in development.
teachers in Queensland (30 including non-
teaching) and 17 in NSW. The course has three levels, usually
completed over three years. Participants
Do-re-mi’s new website www.doremi.com. study Musicianship, Methodology, Teaching
au has led to a steady stream of enquiries for Techniques, Materials, Choral and Ensemble
class locations and teacher training from around Techniques, and they complete extension
Australia. To meet these demands Q’ld and studies as set by course providers. The full
NSW are considering additional training courses course is provided by Sound Thinking Australia
during the second semester of each year to in Queensland, and the NSW Branch of KMEIA.
complement the Summer School in Q’ld and the Musicianship and Methodology components can
Autumn and Spring courses in NSW. be also be undertaken through KMEIA Victoria.
The expansion of do-re-mi to include classes for The AKC course is recognised by the Australian
8 years is occurring with the curriculum for this Catholic University, as well as by the Kodály
new area in development. Pedagogical Institute in Kecskemét, and the
Liszt Academy in Budapest, for credit towards
Staff training for childcare centre owners a Masters degree. Current negotiations with
is a growing area of do-re-mi activity in the University of New England are expected to
Queensland. Owners and Directors are growing secure recognition of the AKC as equivalent to a
in awareness - increasing their understanding Graduate Certificate, which will provide access
of the developmental opportunities that music to Masters level studies at UNE.
education provides, and the joy and happy
atmosphere that ensues. Staff members are KMEIA is very proud to have offered these
prepared to be nudged from their comfort zone courses over many years, and over 130
into the world of music education which can be Australian Kodaly Certificates will have been
quite a challenging experience for staff working awarded by the end of 2010. So far in 2010 there
in centres. Teacher-training programs consisting have been 13 graduates – five in each of the
of two hours per week for up to six weeks with primary and secondary streams, and three in the
continual follow-up and mentoring for a further Early Childhood stream in Queensland. We look
six months. The staff development testimonials forward to congratulating more graduates of the
are being recorded to guide future projects. Primary and Early Childhood streams in NSW
after they complete their courses in August 2010.
It takes a significant amount of personal

commitment in time, effort and finances to
complete these courses so AKC graduates
are regarded as our treasures on the frontline
of music education. If you are interested in
completing these studies please contact Tess
Laird, Convenor of the KMEIA National Council
Education Committee for further information. (tk.
laird@bigpond.net.au)

KODÁLY NEWS
IKS NEWS unison and arranged versions of the materials.

James Cuskelly, Australian on the With songs from a wide range of cultural
IKS Board of Directors contexts, these publications are excellent
resources for classroom teachers and choral
The Board of the International conductors alike. I would also commend the
Kodály Society remains very active IKS Bulletin Archives (1976-2005) to you. This
in promoting the work of Zoltán Kodály. Foremost resource is a compilation of 25 years of IKS
at present are preparations for the 20th IKS Bulletins and is an invaluable resource. These
Symposium which will be held in Pyeongtaek publications are available directly from the IKS
City (near Seoul) Korea, June 25 – July 01, 2011. Office or enquiries can be made in Australia to
The theme of the Symposium, “Music, a common michael@soundthinkingaustralia.com
language in multicultural education”, has great
relevance for Australian educators. Traditionally, I would also encourage you to consider becoming
Australians are very well represented at IKS a member of the IKS. The international society
Symposia and this is an excellent opportunity exists to promote the musical, educational and
to attend a Symposium in our region. Australian cultural concepts associated with Kodály, and
music teachers have a wealth of experience receives its funding primarily from membership
related to this theme so this Symposium is an subscriptions. Australia has a proud record in
excellent opportunity to share their experiences, terms of membership and I urge you to support
reflections and ideas. The Australian perspective the ongoing work of the Society.
is always highly valued and it is hoped that many
will be able to attend this conference. For information about the Symposium, IKS
publications and membership, see the IKS
The IKS office also produces high quality website www.iks.org.hu
publications. Those of you familiar with the first
IKS collection of folksongs will be delighted
to know that a second folksong publication is
currently being developed. These collections
contain the original folksong as well as an
arrangement of that folksong, a guide to the
pronunciation and English translations of each of
the inclusions, and a CD recording of both the
Favourite Music Games

A collection of 70 mainly traditional songs,
marking 30 years of Kodály in South Australia
and to complement “Catch a Song”.
Written by Margaret Lange and Yvonne

Tysoe, illustrated by Robyn Quigley, it
includes a simple CD produced by KMEIA
SA committee for those unable to read print
music.
The book is organised into three sections:

early childhood, primary and middle school.
Each song is accompanied by a game or
music activity presented sequentially to
reflect a developmental music program.
Favourite Music Games: Members $A40

(+postage and handling) available at SA
workshops or email marglange2@bigpond.
com

KODÁLY NEWS
The 2010 Sound Thinking Australia experience which he brings to our summer. Dr
Summer School Music Program Nemés has been central to our negotiations with
James Cuskelly the International Institute for recognition of the
Summer School as a pathway for post-graduate
With 206 participants and 12 courses on offer, credit.
the 2010 January Summer School program was
vibrant and exciting, and many commented on In Brisbane, we are used to working with teachers
the palpable buzz which characterised the entire of the highest calibre and the vocal program
two weeks. The music education programs – is no exception. With 35 auditioned singers,
early childhood, primary and secondary in levels Joseph Ward O.B.E., Margaret Schindler and
1, 2 and 3 – attracted 112 participants of whom 15 Shaun Brown prepared nearly 3 hours of opera
were finishing their Australian Kodály Certificate, excerpts. Concerts occurred throughout the
and the choral sections of the final concert were course but the final performance, directed by
testament to the outstanding quality achieved. internationally acclaimed conductor Richard
Lewis, was particularly outstanding. Paul Sabey,
Participants returning for a second or third the Director of Mountview Academy of Theatre
summer program reported finding ways to use Arts in London for the last 12 years, directed the
this approach in their schools and with their Music Theatre Program. Working with nearly 30
students. It is clear that the value of this program young singers and actors, Paul brought great
is not just the content but also the emphasis that depth of experience, resulting in an impressive
is placed on the adaptation of the approach to and dynamic final performance. The students
the specific context. While there is always the clearly loved the work and many reported that
danger that the core of any philosophy may the experience was ‘awesome’.
be lost with such continual adaptation, the
continued reflection on core tenets ensures that Given the fundamental aim of the Summer School
the fundamental ideas of Kodály’s approach to is to provide meaningful ongoing professional
music education are maintained. The inclusion development for music educators, core activities
of international Kodály master teachers also for music educators continue to be musicianship,
serves to ensure that the integrity of the program methodology and practicum, materials and
is maintained. conducting. Feedback from participants
indicates that, despite the challenges, the
The inclusion of a Performance Program in Summer School was “extremely helpful” and a
the Summer School gives this Kodály training “wonderful experience”. One respondent said,
program a unique character and adds richness “Excellent program. Very challenging, but worth
and excitement to the course. The Performance it.” Many spoke of the supportive environment
Program included Music Theatre (for high school and the excellence of the teaching faculty. For
students), the Opera program (auditioned and many, this was their first summer but there was
cast according to selected repertoire) and the also a large cohort of returnees. “Once again, a
Children’s Choir. There were several lunchtime very positive experience. A great deal to digest
concerts throughout the course but the final and to go on with. Looking forward to next year.”
concert was particularly notable. The general feeling of the summer was neatly
captured by one person who simply said, “Learnt
A particular highlight of this year’s program was heaps, had fun.”
the contribution from Dr László Nemés, Director
of the International Kodály Institute in Hungary. The present political climate, with its focus on
Everyone who worked with him spoke of his accountability in terms of quality teaching and
outstanding qualities as a teacher including at the learning, highlights the importance of in-service
highest conducting and musicianship levels. Dr training which is practice-driven, reflective and
Nemés himself was impressed by the very high reflexive, but which is also challenging and
musical standards exhibited in class and also by supportive of educators. I am always moved
the spirit of co-operation and the willingness to to hear teachers talk of their desire to improve
learn. For the Children’s Choir László formed the their own practice so that they are able to
15 children into a cohesive group, establishing enhance student learning, and I am struck by the
a beautiful choral sound and teaching them transformative power of education delivered by
some quite challenging repertoire - all in just talented and skilled practitioners.
90 minutes a day for 10 days. László has been
Assistant Director of the Radio Children’s Choir
in Budapest for the last 12 years and it is this rich

Sound Thinking Australia
and
The Cuskelly College of Music
invite you to be part of the
Summer School
Music Program
02 – 14 January 2011
• EARLY CHILDHOOD MUSIC • CHILDREN’S CHORAL PROGRAM
• PRIMARY CLASSROOM MUSIC • SECONDARY STUDENT PROGRAM
• SECONDARY CLASSROOM MUSIC • VOCAL STUDIES PROGRAM
International guest lecturers:

• Ms Jane Eaglen (Opera Program)
• Dr Nemés Laszlo (Musicianship, Conducting, Children’s Choir
• Mr Pete Churchill (Jazz Program)
• Mr Paul Sabey (Music Theatre Program)
• Mr Richard Lewis (Repetiteur, Conductor).
Earlybird registration closes Friday, November 05 2010

Standard registration closes Friday, December 10 2010
For more information see www.soundthinkingaustralia.com

and follow the links to the Summer School Music Program

Summer School Music Program
Initially run in conjunction with Holy Names College (California), and then held at the
University of Queensland, in 2011 the Summer School Music Program will be run
jointly through Sound Thinking Australia and The Cuskelly College of Music. Directed
by Dr James Cuskelly, the program is fully accredited with KMEIA and participants
who successfully complete all three summer courses are eligible to apply for the
Australia Kodály Certificate. Importantly, this program is endorsed as a training
program by the Zoltan Kodály Pedagogical Institute (Kecskemet, Hungary) and
students may use this program as a pathway for credit and further study in Hungary.
Educators: Courses in Early Childhood Education, for Primary and Secondary

teachers, for classroom music specialists and for studio teachers.
Students: Secondary students (years 10-12) and tertiary students are encouraged
to participate in the Student Stream course - musicianship, choir, conducting, and
the Music Theatre Performance Course. This program includes Music Theatre
performance program with Mr Paul Sabey (former director of Mountview Music
Theatre College, London) and Jazz program with Mr Pete Churchill (Professor of
Jazz, Guildhall School of Music, London).
Children’s Choir: Dr Laszlo Nemés (International Kodály Institute, Kecskemet,

Hungary) is offering a Children’s Choir (children 9 yrs and older), each day from
10.30 – 12.00.
Singers: World renowned Wagnerian soprano, Mr Jane Eaglen, joins the Vocal
Program. This program is designed to extend the capabilities and experiences of
aspiring singers. Led by Joseph Ward O.B.E, the vocal program also features opera
and lieder specialists, Shaun Brown and Margaret Schindler.
Colourstrings Training Program: Following extensive training in Finland with the

founders of the Colourstrings program, Géza and Csaba Szilvay, and years of
practical teaching experience here in Australia, Dr David Banney is offering the
first level of the program in the Summer School Music Program. This program also
includes the Colourstrings Children’s Camp, suitable for all young string players.
Involvement in the Summer School Music Program may assist participants to obtain:
• Accreditation with the Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia (KMEIA)
• Articulation for postgraduate study at the International Kodály Institute (Hungary)
• Articulation for postgraduate study at Australian Catholic University
• Personal development for assessment or for audit (non-assessed, non-credit)
• Credit towards other studies – check with your institution for the possibility of credit.
Dr James Cuskelly has been involved in the Australian Kodály Summer Training
Programs since their inception. As a Director on the Board of the International Kodály
Society, James is well known as a global leader in terms of the Kodály philosophy
of music education. He is deeply committed to music education and teacher training
and has a distinguished track record in organising and delivering courses of the
highest professional standing.

CONTRIBUTORS
Dr Doreen Bridges, BMus and PhD and a life Philippines attended the anniversary celebration.
member of KMEIA, is now retired but retains
her musical interests, especially early childhood Aleta King currently lectures and tutors in Aural
music education. The first person to receive Musicianship at the School of Music, University
an Australian PhD on a music education topic, of Queensland. Aleta also enjoys a diverse
she is a life member of ASME and of the A&NZ and active musical life as an experienced
Association for Research in Music Education choral director, musicianship educator and
and in 1984 was awarded an AM for services to church musician. Aleta is an elected KMEIA
music education. She collaborated with Deanna National Council member and IKS alternate
Hoermann to re-write the latter’s Developmental auditor. Generous funding from the IKS Sarolta
Music Program Stages 1-3 and to produce Catch Kodály Scholarship, Hungarian Government
a Song (1984-1987, Educational Supplies) and Scholarship and Kodály Institute Foundation
is the author of Music, Young Children and You, Scholarship enabled Aleta to study music
written for parents and for early childhood pedagogy and choral conducting at the Kodály
student-teachers (1994, Hale & Iremonger). Institute, Hungary (2002-04).
Ruani Dias-Jayasinha BMus BA is currently Associate Professor Robin Stevens is a

studying Early Childhood Music Education Principal Fellow in the Faculty of the VCA and
under the tutelage of Ms Judy Johnson with the Music at The University of Melbourne and was
intention of completing her Kodaly certification formerly Associate Professor of Music Education
in 2010. She is currently welcoming more work at Deakin University. Reflecting his interest in the
with younger children and widening her teaching history of music education, Robin has undertaken
experience as her work has been with secondary biographical and other historical research that
music students and adults over the past 15 has been published in national and international
years. She is currently the Choir Director and journals. He has contributed historical entries
Voice teacher at Mount St Michael’s College, to The Oxford Companion to Australian Music
Ashgrove and has her own private teaching and is co-editor with Gordon Cox of a book
studio in Brisbane’s northern suburbs. entitled The Origins and Foundations of Music
Education: Cross-Cultural Historical Studies of
Dr Scott Harrison is a Senior Lecturer in Music Music in Compulsory Schooling (Continuum
and Music Education at Griffith University. A International Publishing, London, 2010).
graduate of Queensland Conservatorium and
the University of Queensland, Dr Harrison has Yvonne Tysoe graduated as a teacher at
experience in teaching singing and music in Armidale and studied further at Sydney
primary, secondary and tertiary environments. University before moving to South Australia,
Performance interests and experience include where she ‘upgraded’ to a DipT. After many
opera and music theatre as both singer and years as a classroom teacher she found herself
musical director. His teaching areas focus reinvented as a music specialist and discovered
on teacher education, research design and Kodály. From a classroom teacher’s perspective,
gender. His major research areas are music she was impressed by the broader value of
and wellbeing, vocal education, music training teaching music and joined KMEIA SA committee
and masculinities and music. He is author of to help promote music in schools. For the last ten
Masculinities and Music and Male Voices. years Yvonne has been editor of Kodály SA, the
South Australian newsletter. Other publications
Sister Mary Alice Hein MA, faculty member at include The Kodály SA Annual and co-authorship
Holy Names University in Oakland, California, of Favourite Music Games.
founded the Kodály Center in 1969. She was a
Board Member of the International Kodály Society Dr Colin Weightman holds a BSc (Hons),
for eight years after its establishment following DipEd (Flinders), BD (Melbourne College of
the First Kodály International Symposium held Divinity), and PhD (UQ). He is a private tutor in
at the University in 1973. A Fulbright scholar, mathematics, physics, chemistry, essay writing
Sister Mary Alice authored The Legacy of and other subjects. He is a freelance scholar
Zoltán Kodály, an Oral History Perspective, having studied in the fields of mathematics,
and numerous articles. The Kodály Center physics, science, education, theology, philosophy
celebrated its 40th Anniversary in the summer and religion, and is in the process of writing a
of 2008. Many graduates of the program who book on music and religion. His major research
currently teach throughout the United States, interest is in the inter-connections between
Canada, Australia, Japan, Taiwan, Brazil and the diverse areas of scholarship.

Notes for Contributors 2011
The Australian Kodály Journal publishes articles Illustrations and photos
advancing knowledge and understanding of music Photos and diagrams are referred to as ‘Figures’ and
teaching and learning. The journal’s particular focus is should be referred to as such in the manuscript. All
increasing knowledge of the Kodály approach to music illustrations and photos should be supplied in JPEG
education in the Australian context. format scanned at a resolution of 300 dpi.
The journal acts as a forum for musicians and music Copyright

educators to share their views on topics of interest Authors are responsible for compiling and ensuring
to members of the Kodály Music Education Institute that any material that has influenced the research or
of Australia (KMEIA). The Australian Kodály Journal writing has been properly cited and credited both in
provides material that is intended to inspire, challenge, the text and in the list of references. The Editor should
demand thought, and inform members about practices, be advised at the time of submitting the article, if any
materials or issues that they might not ordinarily access material has been used elsewhere.
in their own professional activities, with clear, engaging
and readable language. The journal is another arm of
KMEIA’s commitment to professional development. Title page
The title page should include:
Articles for publication may include original quantitative • the title of the article
or qualitative research studies, reviews of literature • the author’s name, current position and institution
on relevant topics, studies that enlarge understanding • current email, postal address, and phone numbers for
of the Kodály concept, articles that share practical contact
experience, and reviews of publications of interest to
• a brief biography of no more than 100 words
Institute members.
• an exclusivity statement: “This article is submitted
exclusively to the Australian Kodaly Journal and,
The Australian Kodály Journal is a refereed publication if accepted for publication, it is agreed that it will
of the Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia become the copyright of the Kodaly Music Education
(KMEIA). Institute of Australia”.
Requirements for submitted Submission process

manuscripts: Articles should be sent electronically to the Editor at
journal@kodaly.org.au. The article should be in Word
Style guide document format and sent as an attachment.
All articles should conform to the Publications Manual
of the American Psychological Association, 5th Edition, The title page needs to be separate from the manuscript
2001. (APA) Other styles may be agreed with the to preserve anonymity in the review process.
editor. Styles should be consistent within the article. The manuscript should not identify the author or their
institution.
Abstract
The manuscript should include an abstract of no more The article should not be under consideration for
than 150 words. publication elsewhere.
Language Review process

Writing should be clear, jargon-free and well-organised The Editor will acknowledge submissions on receipt.
for clear communication. Sub-headings are useful in a The editor prepares them for anonymous review by
long article. Language should be gender neutral, and members of the editorial panel. To preserve anonymity
avoid stereotyping. in the review process the title page is not sent to
reviewers.
Presentation
The type size of the font should be no smaller than The review panel will consider the appropriateness
11pts, and be 1.5 spaced. Tables and figures should of the paper for our members, and its overall merit.
be no smaller than 8 pts. Figures and tables should be They may accept the article as is, or suggest changes/
submitted as separate files. Quotations over 40 words amendments.
in the text should be indented.
Length
Articles would usually be in the range of 2000 to 5000
words.

The Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia Inc
© KMEIA 2010

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What is the purpose of the Australian Kodaly Journal?

What is the purpose of the Australian Kodaly Journal?

What topics are covered in the articles in this issue of the journal?

What topics are covered in the articles in this issue of the journal?

The Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia Inc

kmeia journal 2010.indd 1

Kmeia National Council Importantly, a new initiative, From the Archives,

kmeia journal 2010.indd 2 8/07/10 2:26 PM

5 A message from the IKS president KMEIA National Council News

31 Reflections of a choral conductor: The

37 30 Years of Pilgrimage: Australians at

REFEREED PAPER: SHARING

FROM THE ARCHIVE Favourite Music Games 62

AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010 3

kmeia journal 2010.indd 3 8/07/10 2:26 PM

A MESSAGE FROM THE KMEIA PRESIDENT

that KMEIA continues to flourish and can offer

In fact to work contentedly in any worth-while

When Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was only five

Projects, courses and new initiatives occur Gail Godfrey,

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A MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE

Isn’t it interesting that in the many discussions

But, when it came down to realizing the

kmeia journal 2010.indd 5 8/07/10 2:26 PM

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‘Where do you think we come from?’:

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kmeia journal 2010.indd 8 8/07/10 2:26 PM

Although Curwen borrowed and adapted several

Figure 4 – Curwen’s Sol-fa hand signs for pitch

Curwen then adopted French time names –

Curwen also devised a system of finger-signs for

kmeia journal 2010.indd 9 8/07/10 2:26 PM

Figure 5 – Table of Curwen’s French time names.

Curwen through his utilising of the movable doh

Curwen originally used his adaptation of Glover’s

Pitch was notated using the first letters of the

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Figure 7 – An example of Tonic Sol-fa notation.

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Tonic Sol-fa today – The Kodály approach

Exceptions to this decline were in sub-Saharan

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14 AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010

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About Purely Pentatonic

AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010 15

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• Large range of classroom educational materials: text books,

p (07) 3201 2301 f (07) 3201 2302

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MUSIC TEACHERS: who are they anyway?

Being a music teacher requires a range of

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20 AUSTRALIAN KODÁLY JOURNAL 2010