Hinduism and Sikhism

UNIT 2 PHILOSOPHY OF HINDUISM

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of Hindu Philosophy
2.3 Vedic Hindu Metaphysics
2.4 Hindu Religious Concepts and Practices
2.5 Vedic Hindu Ethics
2.6 Supreme Goals of Life (Purusarthas)
2.7 Social Stratification (Varnashrama dharma)
2.8 Concept of Rta
2.9 Doctrine of Karma
2.10 Ways to Liberative Knowledge
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Key Words
2.13 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
An ancient saying depicts a person, unaware of the golden treasure lying
underground, walking up and down the floor several times, and brooding over
his wretched state of living. Being Indians, much more as students of philosophy,
we are to be aware of this treasure of our land. The present unit on the
philosophy of Hinduism initiates the students to the precious nature of this
treasure, and motivates them to unearth the hidden riches of the religious, spiritual,
and philosophical heritage of Hinduism.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
India is the birth place of many religions and religious sects. The word ‘Hindu’
is not of Hindu origin. It is not found in any standard Sanskrit dictionary. The
Persians used to refer to the people who lived on the other side of the Indus
(Sindu) river, as Hindu. Hinduism is more of an umbrella, sheltering many different
religious traditions which originated in very ancient times and in various parts
of the subcontinent. Some Hindu thinkers suggest that the Vedas provide the
bond that holds the Hindus together.

2.2 SOURCES OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY

Scriptures are the codified expressions of religious, mystical experiences of great
souls. Scriptures ‘make the unknown known.’ The Hindu Scriptures are divided
into two distinct categories Surti and Smrti (Revealed Texts - Surti – what
is heard, and Remembered Texts Smrti– what is remembered). The four Vedas
and 108 Upanisads come under the Surti category. The Bhagavat Gita, 18
Puranas, Manu Smrti, Dharma sastras, artha sastra, kama sutra, tantras,
and many others, come under the Smrti Category. The distinction between Surti
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and Smrti is important for the two following reasons: 1. In case of conflicting
views, Surti’s views will hold good. 2. Without requiring any change in the Philosophy of Hinduism
Surti, the Smrtis preserve the authority admitting changes in it.

2.3 VEDIC HINDU METAPHYSICS

Vedic Hindu Concept of God
The Vedas are pantheistic. The names ‘isvara’ and ‘isa’ are not found in the
Rg veda, although the verb form is frequently used to express the power of
the gods. Though the noun form, ‘isvara’ is found in the Atharvana Veda, it
certainly does not have the connotations of later times. Certain Upanisads begin
to put the concept of the Lord in the foreground and the Svetasvatara Upanisad
gives it still greater prominence. The Personal Lord is finally and fully disclosed
in the Gita. In the Vedas, the concept of the Lord is not fully expressed in
generic terms such as pati, prabhu, adhipathi, etc. The term ‘lord’ does not
refer to one particular God, but each time refers to the different Vedic gods,
Indra, Varuna, Agni, Soma, etc.
Concept of Atman-Brahman
Behind all the temporal flux of the world of experience of the senses is a subtle,
pervasive, timeless, and unchanging reality. It is identical to the essence of the
human being as well. The early Vedic Upanisads call this unified and imperishable
world-soul as Brahman or Atman, the former as Godhead and the latter as
the ‘self’ residing at the deepest level of one’s person. The theistic Upanisads
teach that this Brahman is a single deity, Isvara or isa – lord. This could be
identified with that of Siva or Vishnu of sectarian communities. The ultimate
reality is unmanifested yet vital. Brahman is described as life-giving breath, pure
consciousness, bliss, and eternal. It is the infinite subject by whom all objects
are known, the ‘inner guide’ of all that is. There are difficulties in comprehending
this hidden reality that either transcends or simply cannot be known through
the structures of time, space, and causation. The Upanisads hold that through
disciplined practices of meditation and the cultivation of extraordinary knowledge,
it can in fact be discerned. Such discernment releases one from the apparent
cycles of life and death caused by one’s ignorance of the fact that the essential
self does not die.
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman
The ultimate reality is acknowledged in the Upanisads as both immanent and
transcendent in nature. Brahman is both cosmic (saguna –‘with characteristics’)
and acosmic (nirguna – ‘without characteristics). Saguna Brahman is understood
to be the finest essence of all things in the world. Brahman is the substance
of the universe. This does not mean that Brahman is the material stuff of the
world which can be perceived sensually. Rather it is that hidden and subtle
reality which allows all things to exist in the first place. Nirguna Brahman cannot
be described through definitive or positive statements, since Brahman transcends
the limitations of language. It is not subject to categorization, and therefore,
can neither be perceived nor conceived. Thus, one seeking knowledge of saguna
Brahman was to comprehend the unity of all things in the world constructed
on the essence of Brahman. And the one seeking for an understanding of nirguna
Brahman was to ‘deconstruct’ the phenomenal world as it were, in order to
comprehend the imperishable self that lies behind the world of life and death.
The process of knowing this aspect of Brahman is negative theology, via negative,
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Hinduism and Sikhism ‘neti-neti’ ‘not this’ ‘not this’. Brahman can be best described only as ‘this
is not Brahman,’ ‘that is not Brahman.’ A positive description of Brahman would
not fully comprehend the ultimate reality.
Mahavakya – Great pronouncements
The essential oneness of the individual self and the absolute self is called jiva-
isvara aikyam. The scriptures say that jiva, the consciousness in the microcosm
,and isvara, the consciousness in the macrocosm, are one and the same. The
differences we perceive belong to the reflecting medium. There is no difference
in the essential consciousness at all. In the scriptures there are many statements
which reveal this oneness and these statements are called Mahavakya s.
Mahavakya is a Vedic statement which reveals the essential oneness of jiva
and isvara. There are many Mahavakya s occurring in the Vedas, but generally
one Mahavakya is chosen from each Veda as a sample: 1. Prajnanam
brahma – Aitareya Upanisad. 2. Aham Brahmasmi – Bhadaranyaka Upanisad.
3. Tat tvam asi – Chandogya Upanisad.4. Ayam Atma brahma – Mandukya
Upanisad.

2.4 HINDU RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS AND

PRACTICES
Transmigration of soul:
The doctrine of Karma and transmigration of soul are closely bound together.
The soul is not born with a body, nor does it perish therewith. It is unformed,
constant, eternal, and primeval. What happens at death is only the decay of
the body. The soul migrates from life to life, being conditioned by the cause
of ignorance. ‘Verily one becomes good by good works and evil by evil works.’
At death, the soul shuffles off its present body and enters a new one, like a
caterpillar which having come and reached the end of a blade of grass draws
itself together and takes a leap to another blade. The process is comparable
to a goldsmith who makes new and more beautiful forms like that of Brahman.
The kind of form the soul takes depends on its previous karma. ‘As is his
resolve, such is the action he performs. What action he performs that he procures
for himself ‘( Brha. Upan 3 :4). Transmigration of the soul into a sub-human
species is also held possible. When one dies he may even go to another region
before he takes another birth in this world. After the death of the body the
life of the individual is continued in another body and so on in indefinite series.
According to this theory, the soul though pure and blessed in itself, gets entangled
in the Samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth). It is because of the karma that
it passes through innumerable births (transmigration) before it regains its original
state. The purpose and mechanism of rebirth is elaborated in the Chandogya
Upanishad. According to the Chandogya Upanishad ,a man after his death
reaches the moon with the merit he has acquired during his life. He remains
there as long as there is a residue of his good works. Then he returns again
to space, and from space he goes to mist and cloud, etc. After having become
cloud, he rains down. Then he is born as rice, trees, beans, etc. If someone
eats him as food ,he develops further and finally those who are of pleasant
conduct enter either the womb of a Brahmin ,or a Kshatriya, or a Vaisya
and those who are of stinking conduct, enter either the womb of a dog or
of swine, or of an outcaste (Chandala).
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Sin and forgiveness Philosophy of Hinduism

The seers of the Vedic period possessed a peculiar awareness of sin and guilt.
There are three basic insights, like three seeds, which later may be developed
into complete theories. Firstly, there is a series of words indicating an external
cause for all sorts of violence, harming, hurting, and afflicting. Here the cause
of evil comes from the outside; it encroaches upon us and hinders the happy
and smooth development of our being. The evil is transcendent. Secondly, another
set of words seem to denote an internal source; these words speak of anxiety,
narrowness, lack of expansion, and a feeling of imprisonment within oneself.
Here the cause is within and seems to be inherent in our own nature. We cannot
blame others but only ourselves. We would like to be different and yet we
are not. Evil here is immanent. Thirdly, a set of words, most of them compounds,
seems to suggest that evil springs from maladjustment and malfunctioning of a
system that otherwise is far from being bad. These words postulate a kind of
factual ambivalence in almost any human value, which can turn out to be either
negative and mischievous, or positive and beneficial. Evil here depends on the
direction that events and values take, and on the use we or others make of
the data. The Vedas employ a term for grace, which implies pure and simple
forgiveness. The gods are requested to forgive man’s real sins and also his
constitutional shortcomings. Man is never worthy of grace from the divine.
Mrdika, though occurring only nine times in the Rg veda, denotes the grace
that elevates man and wipes away all his stains. We have here a forgiveness
that comes, unpredictably and undeservedly, from the divine.

2.5 VEDIC HINDU ETHICS

Stages of Life (Asrama Dharma) Asrama dharma stands for individual
development in society, and economic aspect of society. The term ‘Asrama’
means ‘a’ – all around or intensive and ‘srama’- means to exert oneself. It
stands for labour. Asrama thus means an all-round training and development
of the individual. It also means a stage, a way in the journey of life. According
to Vedic thought, life is divided into four stages or Ashramas. The four stages
are brahmacarya: studenthood, grahastha – householder, vanaprastha – stage
of detachment, and sannyasa – stage of renunciation.
Brahmacarya is a life of willing abstention, based on self control and austerity
or tapas. Brahmacari means student. The first stage of a student begins
with the Upanayana ceremony, and then the boy is entrusted to the care of
his teacher with whom he lives, and his student life continues with the teacher.
The life of the student afterwards becomes simple and hardy. This simple and
hardy life is intended to make him strong and healthy, and independent of all
soft and luxurious living. His life is based on self-control, self-restraint, and
austerity. During this stage the individual develops a deep insight into the realities
of life. His abode is with that of the teacher in asrams or gurukulas. A
gurukula is an institution of education. It has two distinct purposes: 1. To
transmit the heritage to the next generation, and 2. To train the individual to
lead a life of discipline. Great stress is laid on chastity and purity during youth,
in order to have vigour, strength of manhood, freedom from disease, healthy
children, and a long life. Thus the very name of the student, the Brahmacari,
becomes synonymous with one who is under a vow of celibacy. After completing
the days in study and strict chastity during the student period, the student has
to present his teacher with a gift, according to his ability. Then he returns home
to enter the household life. 19
Hinduism and Sikhism Grihasta is the second stage of life, the married life of a householder, where
a person strives towards the first three purusarthas: dharma, artha, and kama.
In this stage he has to take a wife and carry out the responsibilities of a man.
After marriage, great temperance in sexual relations is enjoinEd. Marital relation
is only permissible on any one of ten nights in a month. Women were to be
honored and loved by their fathers, brothers, husbands, and brothers- in-law.
When the husband and wife are content with each other, their happiness is certain.
As all creatures live supported by air, so too the other stages of life exist
supported by the householder. Hence the householder is the best of the orders.
The general virtues of a householder are hospitality, industry, truth, honesty,
liberality, charity, and purity of food and life. He may enjoy wealth and luxury,
provided he gives alms. Any householder must duly offer five great sacrifices
daily.
Vanaprastha: The householder at this stage of life quits the household life by
way of overcoming the bodily needs and emotional attachments to the members
of his family. It is a stage of detaching oneself from the responsibilities of family
life, and handing them over to the next generation. It is a voluntary withdrawal,
or voluntary retirement. The generation gap between father and son is solved
by this stage. This stage solves the problem of unemployment and also the
problem of social disorganization. A man who has entered this stage, instead
of living for his family, should live for the betterment of society and must undertake
the work of educating the people of the neighbourhood. The rule of his life
is to do sacrifice, study and practice austerity, and show kindness to all. Here
he engages in Veda study and remains always a giver and not a receiver, and
he becomes compassionate to all beings. This simple ascetic life leads a forest-
dweller to the last stage ? Sannyasa
Sannyasa or complete renunciation: The achievement of the fourth purusartha
i.e. moksa, is attained at this stage. It is characterized by renunciation and
service. Every narrow relationship is renounced. The person has no Varna,
and he changes his name and residence. He is called vairagi, a man with
no colour and no denominations. A sanyasin serves humanity as a whole. The
sannyasi is the one who renounces everything. He gives away all his property
and he no longer offers sacrifices. He lives alone, with a tree for shelter, and
spends his life in deep contemplation and meditation. The life of the sannyasi
who freed himself from all human ties, and stripped himself of all that ministers
to physical comfort and well-being, has always seemed to be the highest. A
true sannyasi should not wish for life or death. He must rejoice in the Supreme
Self, sitting indifferent, and refraining from sensual delights. He must wander
the earth, aiming at liberation. He must meditate constantly on transmigration
and suffering, and on the Supreme Self, in order to trace the Jivatma through
its many births and to rest in Brahman alone. Thus by doing this he reaches
Brahman.
In these modern days these four ashramas cannot be completely revived in
their letter, but they can be revived in their spirit, to the great improvement
of modern life. Today the bramacari life or period is passed or spent in school
or college, instead of the ashrama of the guru. The grihasta ideal is commenced
at marriage. It is very largely followed in its sense of duty and responsibility,
in its discharge of religious obligations, in its balanced ordering of life, and in
its recognition of all claims and debts. Today the third ashrama cannot be lived
in the forest by many, and the fourth ashrama is beyond the reach of most.
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Yet, the idea of gradual withdrawal from worldly life, the idea of meditation, Philosophy of Hinduism
study and worship, and the main duties of life can be carried out well.
Finally, a life,which is well ordered from the beginning to the end, is very much
implied in the phrase ‘the four ashramas’.

2.6 SUPREME GOALS OF LIFE (PURUSARTHAS)

The ancient seers laid down four supreme ends of life or Purusarthas, which
give meaning to human life. Pursusartha means ‘what is sought by human
beings.’ They are dharma (righteousness/ religious, moral merit), artha (pursuit
of wealth), kama (pursuit of pleasure), and moksa (liberation)
Dharma (justice, righteousness): The term ‘dharma’ gathered more and more
meaning down the ages, and became a term of complex and varied meanings.
For dharma, the dictionary suggests terms like virtue, righteousness, duty, right,
morality, justice, the good, the characteristics, tradition, ordinance, law, etc. But
dharma is essentially a human value, operating in the universe of human ideals.
The Brahadaranyaka Upanishad identifies ‘dharma’ with truth. That which
is justice is truth. And justice and truth are the same (1.4.14). Sankara in his
own way interrelates the three concepts rta, satya, and dharma. He says ‘rta’
is the mental perception of truth, Satya is the expression of truth in words as
perceived by the mind, and dharma is the observance of truth in the conduct
of life. And thus, dharma is the way of life embodying the truth perceivEd.
This is the supreme end in this world. It brings material property (artha) and
fulfillment of desires (kama), and liberation (moksa). The essence of dharma
is that one should do to others what one would like others to do to oneself.
Dharma controls instincts, impulses, desires, and emotions with the help of
reason. Dharma is usually distinguished into sadharana dharma and varnashrama
dharma. Sadharana dharma refers to the duties of universal scope and validity.
There are ten cardinal virtues known as sadharana dharma according to Manu:
endurance, patience, self-control, integrity, purity, restraint of senses, wisdom,
learning, truth, and absence of anger or non-violence. The varnasrama dharma
refers to the duties of persons according to the castes and the stages of life.
Thus ‘dharma’ is considered to be a means for attaining personality integration
in the spiritual level or liberation.
Artha (Wealth): The term ‘artha’ generally indicates the attainment of riches
and worldly prosperity, advantage, profit, and wealth. It means the whole range
of tangible objects that can be possessed, enjoyed, or lost and which we require
in our daily life for the upkeep of a household, raising of a family, and discharge
of religious duties. It helps in the satisfaction of material, biological, and economic
desires, for according to the sages, lack of wealth weakens the person and
leads him to adopting illegal and immoral ways to obtain satisfaction. By the
term ‘artha’, Kautilya in his book Artha Sastra IV 9 means both the economic
and political aspects of man’s life in the society. The materialistic aspects of
life have great significance, because the absence of the economic well-being
of man is a great hindrance to the pursuit of personality integration and a good
life. Absence of economic well-being may also lead a man to adopt or to do
immoral deeds to satisfy himself. The Mahabharata stresses the great importance
of wealth, saying that poverty is a state of sinfulness. All kinds of meritorious
acts flow from the possession of great wealth. From wealth springs all religious
acts, pleasures, and heaven itself. From wealth one’s merit increases, but the
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Hinduism and Sikhism man who has no wealth has neither this world nor the next. The man who
has no wealth does not succeed in performing religious acts. Kautilya in the
Artha Sastra recommends that the state should punish those who renounce
the world without having first satisfied the claims of society and family. Kautilya
would not even allow ascetics to enter into the villages of the kingdom, for
fear that they may cause disturbance in the economic activities of the villagers.
They say virtues themselves are impractical without wealth. Without wealth neither
virtue nor desire can be won.
Kama (Satisfaction of desires): Kama is a comprehensive term, which includes
all desires: desires ranging from the cravings of the flesh and the yearnings of
the spirit. Every man has got certain physical and emotional desires and their
fulfillment gives happiness. Man should only gradually overcome the insistent
cravings of the flesh. In the process of fulfilling the desires, dharma has to
be maintained and there should be proper means for the satisfaction of the
desires. There is always a clear emphasis on the enjoyment of secular pleasures
along with the emphasis on the realization of spiritual values. Vatsyayana in his
book Kama Sutra, gives a great treatise on erotic enjoyment. It deals with
the various aspects of sex life and the natural strivings of the human heart.
However, Vatsyayana suggests that the satisfactions of sexual desires are to be
followed with moderation and caution. The uniqueness of the concept of kama
and enjoyment is that all of them were to be related to the spiritual goal of
human existence, and so the Indian ethics insisted on a regulated enjoyment.
Moksha (Liberation): In every school of philosophy in India the first three
purusharthas are treated as the instrumental values, which directly or indirectly
promote the parama purushartha ? the highest values of human life, namely,
moksha. Moksha is also known by other names such as mukti, apavarya,
kaivalya, and nirvana. The concept moksha has a negative as well as a positive
side. In its negative aspect it signifies complete freedom from sorrow and in
its positive aspect it stands for plenary happiness or bliss. In the Vedic age
the idea of mukti was not in evidence. What the Vedic man sought was length
of days on earth, and life in heaven in the company of the gods. But it was
in the Upanishads for the first time, that we find the full-fledged doctrine of
mukti or liberation. This liberation is intimately bound with the karma samsara,
the doctrine of transmigration. Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted
the theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived as
liberation from the cycle of births and deaths.
As an ideal, moksha is pursued by an individual as a personal value. It is a
spiritual perfection understood by the intellect, loved by the will, and actualized
in daily life. It is understood as jivanmukti in the Advaita Vedanta. The man
who has attained liberation in this life is called jivanmukta. Different schools
propose different ways to attain moksha. The Advaita Vedanta of Sankara
holds that knowledge or jnana is the means of attaining moksha. Here moksha
refers not to a new state to be attained, but is the realization of what has always
been, namely, the realization of the Universal Self (Brahman), in one’s own
self (Atman). For this, no morality is needed. The dualistic and pluralistic systems
insist that the bondage of the individual can be removed by the bhakthi marga
or path of devotion to God. There is another way promoted by the Gita to
attain the ultimate realization in life and liberation from the cycle of births and
deaths, which is known as Karma Yoga (Path of activity). The Gita has
described this way as the method of disinterested action (nishkama karma).
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To attain moksha one has to be freed from the bondage of one’s own actions. Philosophy of Hinduism
So the Gita suggests the golden rule that actions should be done with the spirit
of non-attachment to their fruits.

2.7 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION (VARNASHRAMA

DHARMA)
The Vedic scheme of life is known as varnasrama vyavasha. Varna-dharma
stands for social stratification. It is meant for the maintenance of social order,
social progress, and social harmony, along with personal harmony and personal
progress. The Rg Veda uses the term ‘varna’ to mean skin colour. Here
the division of human beings is made into Aryans and Dasas. Those who are
fair in colour are Aryans and those dark skinned are dasas. The term Varna
is derived from the root vr which means to choose or select. Varna indicates
a particular group or class in a society, classified as brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya,
and sudra. In purusa-sukta (Rg X.90) the term vana is used to indicate
the four functions in human society, in general. In purusa-sukta we come across
the terms brahmin, rajanya, vaisya, and sudra. But these terms are used
only to indicate the four functions of society in general and not as the four
varnas. According to purusa-sukta ,the whole universe is the manifestation
of the universal self called purusa. The brahmin is the mouth; the rajanya
is made of the arms; the vaisya is the thighs; and the sudra is the feet. The
mouth being the seat of speech stands for learning; arms for strength; thighs
for productive work; feet for other works of labour. So the four terms stand
for the four functions rather than the four varnas.
Caturvarnyam is mentioned in the Gita (catvarah varnah caturvarnyam).
The classification is made from three standpoints, namely, birth, character, and
profession.
Category Brahmanas Ksatriyas Vaisyas Sudras

By Birth Born of Born of Born of Born of

brahmanas ksatriyas vaisyas sudras

By character Contemplative Selflessly Selfishly Idle, dull

active active

By occupation Scriptural Administration Commerce Unskilled

education and and and labour
priesthood defence agriculture
Varna based on jati or birth has become oppressive and exploitative today
as the caste system. Varna is based on one’s character, svabhava or guna
as Vedic psychology is at the root of Vedic sociology. According to Vedic
psychology the human mind has three qualities, or propensities, or temperaments.
They indicate the innate nature of the individual. They are: sattva ? non-active,
quality of purity, goodness, wisdom, and knowledge; rajas ? active; tamas
? inactive. So varna is the process of selection by the individual for the
development of his mind. It stands for the psychological frame, bent, and
direction of the human mind. The four varnas are the four basic natures of
the human being. It refers to the four orders of the society. It is an all embracing
classification of the human beings on the basis of propensities (pravrittis ? 23
Hinduism and Sikhism enjoyment for life). It does not stand for the professions of life (vrittis). One
can change one’s profession but not one’s innate nature. When varna is
interpreted as a profession and not as a propensity, the jati or caste system
comes in. Vedic sociology speaks of a varna system and not a jati system.
Social stratification by ability or talent is varna. No varna is superior or inferior
as it depends on one’s qualities. Hence it stands for the spirit of egalitarianism.
The duties of each varna are as follows: Brahmins – teaching and studying
the Vedas, sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, and giving and
accepting alms; ksatriyas – to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer
sacrifices, and to study the Vedas but not to teach; vaisyas – to tend cattle,
to bestow gifts, to engage in different professions, to trade, to lend money,
to cultivate land ,and to study the Vedas; sudras – to serve the above three
varnas. The first three varnas are ordained to study the Vedas. So they have
upanayana, i.e. the rite to study the Vedas. They are called dvijas or twice
born, who are trained in Vedic learning. Since they are not mentally equipped,
the sudras are prohibited from studying the Vedas. Therefore they are denied
upanayana. Yet they are not deprived of the fruits of Vedic knowledge. A
sudra is eligible for Vedic knowledge through secondary sources like the
Puranas and the itihasas. Though the first three varnas can study the Vedas,
only brahmins are ordained to teach the Vedas. The other two may study,
but cannot teach the Vedas. A sudra’s son in whom the propensities of a brahmin
are found is a brahmin and not a sudra. A brahmin’s son in whom the
propensities of a sudra are found is a sudra and not a brahmin. That is, anyone
can attain brahminhood. Some examples are: Valmiki, Vyasa, Vasistha, and
Narada. All were children of sudras. Similarly, Visvamitra , though born a
prince, became a brahmin rishi.

2.8 CONCEPT OF RTA

Rta is generally translated as ‘Cosmic Order.’ This cosmic order is to be
understood not as a fixed physical or mathematical law, but as a ‘sacrificial
order. Cosmic order is maintained by sacrificial order. It is through Rta that
Varuna governs the universe. Rta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is
the ‘supreme’. Rta is the ‘law’ or universal order embodied in sacrifice. It is
the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything and
also possesses its own internal coherence, a unifying force that could be said
to be the very soul of sacrifice. Rta is the actual functioning, or rather, the
proper rhythm of the sacrifice. By sacrifice, gods and humans collaborate, not
only among themselves but also for the maintenance and very existence of the
universe. Reality subsists, thanks to sacrifice.

2.9 DOCTRINE OF KARMA

The doctrine of karma may be stated as whatever a man suffers or enjoys
is the fruit of his own deed, a harvest sprung from his own actions, or good
or bad committed in his previous life. Every deed leads to double result (phala)
– pain or pleasure, according to the nature of one’s deEd. Moral progress
therefore depends on how we direct and regulate our tendencies to actions.
Everything that happens in the moral realm is pre-ordainEd. It gives the idea
of Moral Retribution. ‘Whatever we knowingly do, will sooner or later bring
us the result we merit. There is no escape, ‘what we sow, we must reap.’
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The events of life are determined by an antecedent cause. The Law of Karma Philosophy of Hinduism
is not mechanical, but is essentially ethical. Moral education is to choose the
order, order of karma. The Mahabharata says, consequences of what a man
does will seek him, later, surely as a calf does its mother in a herd of cows.
Karma is of four categories: 1) Sanchita Karma or the accumulated past actions
2) Prarabdha Karma which is a part of Sanchita Karma, and this results
in the present birth itself. This is also called pre-destination 3) Kriyamana Karma
or present willful actions or free will 4) Agami Karma or the immediate results
caused by our present actions. The theory of transmigration is a necessary
corollary of karma.

2.10 WAYS TO LIBERATIVE KNOWLEDGE

Vedic scriptural study can give us the direct knowledge involving oneself in three
stages: sravanam, mananam, and nididdhyasanam.
Sravanam: It means enquiry into the scriptures with the help of a guru.
Sravanam is not passive hearing. It requires the full participation of the student
and he has to travel along with the teacher. The teacher is trying to communicate
something which is not an object, but which is one’s own true nature. In other
words, consistent and systematic study of the scriptures for a length of time
under the guidance of a competent guru is sravanam. In other words, looking
into the scriptural mirror which the teacher shows me is sravanam. Initially
when I start doing sravanam I have lots of doubts but I should never ask
questions. I will have to be patient. Whatever question comes up should be
kept in mind or written in a book with the hope that all the questions will be
answered as I understand more and more; as the teaching opens up new vistas;
as the unfolding starts revealing new information. The student should have faith
in the scriptures and the teacher for this. Therefore, no questions are allowEd.
Just receive the whole vision comprehensively. Let all the questions be there.
Then having done comprehensive listening for a length of time and having got
all the aspects of the teaching, look back at your questions. A painter cannot
paint the whole picture in one stroke. The painting unfolds gradually. Until
the painting is over, don’t disturb the painter. Similarly sravanam should be
done for a length of time, setting aside all our doubts. Thereafter the teacher
say, ‘now come on, see if you accept the teaching; see if you are convinced’
Mananam: After sravanam, the student can come out with any number of
questions. All the doubts are let loose and all of them are attacked. This
is called mananam. This continues until I am convinced. There should not
be any doubt or question. Once I have done sravanam and mananam
satisfactorily, I feel convinced that I can be independent. But as I have been
addicted to dependence for so long, I find it difficult to be independent. I
have to try to give up all dependencies just as a person addicted to smoking
tries to give it up. I can help him by telling him that he can live without smoking.
Similarly, we have to learn to come out of all dependences.
Nididhyasanam: The person addicted to smoking is slightly nervous about
quitting it, as he has been addicted to it for years. Hence, there is a doubt
if he can live without it. There are withdrawal symptoms and he has to train
himself to handle them. This is the discovery of true independence. This third
stage is called nididhyasanam and through it the person learns to drop
dependences and be independent. Initially there is fear, and there are also
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Hinduism and Sikhism withdrawal symptoms. But later he finds that he can be happy without people
around. He discovers he can live alone too. In short, nididhyasanam helps
in converting knowledge into emotional strength. Thus through sravanam,
mananam, and nididhyasanam, a person becomes jivanmuktah, a liberated
person.

2.11 LET US SUM UP

This unit has largely focused its attention on the general religious philosophy
of Hinduism from the Vedic perspective. Since we have other units dealing with
the philosophy of various traditions in India, we do not intend to repeat them
here. The metaphysical thinking of Vedic Hinduism is centered around the concept
of the self as individual and supreme. The ethical concepts are derived from
the scriptures, primary and secondary texts. For liberation, knowledge is said
to be important.

2.12 KEY WORDS

Purusarthas : Supreme goals of human life such as wealth, pleasure,
virtue, and liberation
Rta : Concept of order and regulation in the cosmos.
Sravanam : Knowledge obtained by listening to the teachings.
Nididhyasanam : Contemplative knowledge.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Anand M. Saxena, Hinduism: A religion for the modern age. Delhi: Konark,
2007.
Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State in the Global Age. Delhi: Institute of Social
Science, 2007.
Antony Kolencherry, Universality of Modern Hinduism. Bangalore: Asian
Trading Corporation, 1984.
Arvind Sharma, Ed. Why I am a Believer: Personal Reflections on Nine World
Religions. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2009.
Heredia, Rudolf. Changing Gods: Rethinking Conversion in India, New Delhi:
Penguin Books, 2007.
K. Satchidananda Murty, Preface, Hinduism and its Development. New Delhi:
D.K. Printworld, 2007.
Kisanlal Sharma, Why?: Hindu Customs, Rituals and Rites. Delhi: Manoj
Publications, 2009.
Klaus K. Klostermaier, Hinduism: A Beginner’s Guide. Oxford: Oneworld,
2009.
M.L. Ahuja, Gurus: Ancient, Medieval and Modern. New Delhi: Rupa &
Co., 2009.

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Savarkar, V. D. Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? Bombay: Veer Savarkar Philosophy of Hinduism
Prakashan, 1989.
Swami Tattvavidananda Saraswati, Essentials of Hinduism. Secunderabad:
Brahma vidya Kuteer, 2003.
Swami Tejomayananda, Hindu Culture: An Introduction. Mumbai: Central
Chinmaya Mission Trust, 2004.
Swamini Pramananda Saraswati, Vedic Dharma and Culture. Coimbatore:
Surti Seva Trust, 2004.

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