2 Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
2 Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
2 Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar
INTERMEDIATE
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
--
Seiichi Makino
and
Michio Tsutsui
TheJapanTimes
Copyright O 1995 by Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in Japan
This is a dictionary of intermediate Japanese grammar, a companion volume
to A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar published in 1986 by the same
While DBJG was designed primarily for students and teachers of
beginning-level Japanese, this volume is designed for students and teachers
of intermediate-level Japanese. After examining relevant textbooks, some
references on sentence patterns, and authentic sources used in intermediate
and advanced Japanese courses, we have chosen approximately 200 entries
which we believe to be the most important grammatical items for intermediate
Japanese learners.
The format of this dictionary is the same as that of A Dictionary of Basic
Japanese Grammar. For the convenience of readers who have not used DBJG,
we have repeated from that text the sections To the Reader and Grammatical
Terms. In this volume, however, we have modified To the Reader slightly and
have added some entries to Grammatical Terms. Along with the Japanese
index, there is an English index that lists the English equivalents for each entry.
One difference between the two volumes is that no romanization has been
provided for example sentences in A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese
Grammar. Instead, furigana (hiragana over kanji) is used.
Needless to say we owe a great deal to our predecessors, whose works are
listed in the references. Without their linguistic insights we could never have
written this dictionary. We would like to thank our colleagues, friends, and
spouses, who have kindly answered our persistent questions and shared their
language intuition. However, for fear of omission, we would rather not attempt
a comprehensive listing of names. Even so, we want to mention three individ-
uals who made this publication possible, first, Ms. Chiaki Sekido from the
Japan Times, who edited our manuscript most conscientiously and effectively,
and helped us invaluably with her comments and suggestions. Also, our thanks
go to Ms. Came1 Dowd and Ms. Sharon Tsutsui, who edited our English to
make it more readable.
We sincerely hope that this dictionary will be useful in furthering ow
readers' understanding of Japanese.
Spring of 1995
Seiichi Makino
Michio Tsutsui
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ..........................................................................
To the Reader ..................................................................
List of Abbreviations ..........................................................
List of Symbols ................................................................
Grammatical Terms ............................................................
Special Topics in Intermediate Japanese Grammar ........................
1. Discourse Grammar ...................................................
(1) Mechanism of Cohesion: Inter-sentential Reference ........
(2) Phenomena of Tense and Formality Switchings .............
2. Newspaper Grammar ..................................................
3. Conversational Strategies .............................................
4. Toward Better Reading Comprehension: Analyzing Sentences
Accurately .......................................................... 1551
s . .
@ [usage restriction]: <s> or <w> is provided when the entry item is used
only in spoken Japanese or only in written Japanese and formal
speeches, respectively.
[meaning I function]: The general meaning or function of the entry item
is given in the box below the entry name.
[English counterpart(s)]: English expressions equivalent to the entry
item are given to the right of the box.
[related expression(s)]: Items which are semantically related to the
entry item are listed as [REL. aaa, bbb, ccc]. Expressions in plain type
like aaa are explained in the entry under [Related ~x~ression(s)]
(0) .
Expressions in bold type like bbb contain comparisons to the
entry item under elated Expression(s)] for bbb.
+ ~ Sentence@):
e ~ Key sentences present typical sentence patterns in
frames according to sentence structure. The recurrent elements are
printed in red.
Formation: The word formation rules I connection forms for each item
are provided with examples. The recurrent elements are printed in red.
Example(@: Example sentences are provided for each entry.
Note(s): Notes contain important points concerning the use of the item.
e elated ~x~ression(s)] : Expressions which are semantically close to
the entry item are compared and their differences are explained.
(+aaa (DBJG: 000-000)) in Formation, Notes, and e elated Expres-
sion(~)]indicates that the item which was referred to (i.e., aaa) is explained
on pp. 000-000 of the companion volume: A Dictionary of Basic Japanese
Grammar.
D. Appendixes contains information such as katakana word transcription
rules, compound verbs, compound particles, conjunctions, prefixes and
suffixes, counters, cooccurrence, and functional expressions and grammar
patterns.
E. Indexes provides both a Japanese index and an English index. The
Japanese index includes the main entries, the items explained in e elated
~x~ression(s)], and the items covered in A Dictionary of Basic Japanese
Grammar. The English index includes English counterparts of the main
entry items.
List of Abbreviations
e = Refer to.
?=The degree of unacceptability is indicated by the number of question
marks, three being the highest.
* =ungrammatical or unacceptable (in other words, no native speaker would
accept the asterisked sentence.)
(A 1B} C = AC or BC (e.g. {V 1Adj(i)]inf = Vinf or Adj(i)inf)
0 =zero (in other words, nothing should be used at a place where 0 occurs.
Thus, Adj(na) (0 1datta} kamoshirenai is either Adj(na) kamoshirenai or
Adj(na) datta kamoshirenai.)
Grammatical Terms
The following are brief explanations of some grammatical terms used in this
dictionary.
Agent One who initiates and /or completes an action or an event. The
agent is not always in the subject position. Compare the positions of the agent
Bill in (a) and (b).
(a) ell.b;t~-.tfBb=f.,
(Bill hit Martha.)
(b) T--tfGie)bb:LT.fLl&
(Martha was hit by Bill.)
Compound Particle A particle which consists of more than one word but
functions like a single particle. For example, the compound particle to shite
wa consists of the particle to, the te-form of sum and the particle wa, but it is
used like a single particle to mean 'for.' (cf. Double Particle)
(c) $ ~ ~ ~ f i ~ % ~ k f i f % 7 f c % ~ b @ T ? ~ b 1 ~
(If Mr. Yamada calls me, please let me know.)
Although direct objects are marked by the particle o, nouns or noun phrases
marked by o are not always direct objects, as shown in (f) and (g).
(+02 (DBJG: 349-51); o4 (DBJG: 352-54)
f w d r ( E*'IC< khi
(f) E*ii--&lia>~~ A qEf t v 2 ,
(Hanako was glad that Ichiro entered college.)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
t P : i i L
(g) b A ii+aE@%m%%b~~b~fz~
(At that time Tom was walking in the park.)
(a) L I I B i i E j f P S j b ~ k Z ~ k o
(Yamada said that he had a headache.)
(b) LLIBC~~~PWL\~TO%B%IVI~~
(Yamada didn't go to school, because he had a headache.)
%L 12B &wF
bfiL KIZL-
(d) ~;C~I~~W~P,LT~,,
(My mother is scared of dogs, you know.)
tbf8 -PLL.P t+ B ~ > A
(e) h & C L t f 0 ~ T ~ 7 R i B t b k L 1 z 0
(My friend got his purse stolen on the train.)
Formal I Informal Forms Verb 1adjective(i/ na) 1copula forms that are
used in formal and informal situations are formal forms and informal forms,
respectively. A formal situation is a situation in which relationship between
the speaker and the hearer(s) is formal, and an informal situation is a situation
in which the human relationship is informal. The formal and informal forms
of verbs I adjectives(i / na) and copula can be exemplified by the following
chart:
Gr. 11 Gr. 2 Verbs Gr. 1 and Gr. 2 Verbs are Japanese verb groups: If
a verb's informal, negative, nonpast form has the [a] sound before nai as in
(a), the verb belongs to Group 1, and if not, as in (b), it belongs to Group
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
2. There are only two irregular verbs (i.e., kuru 'come' and sun, 'do') that
belong to neither the Gr. 1 nor to the Gr. 2.
Hearer The person who receives a spoken or written message. In this dic-
tionary the term "hearer" is used in a broader sense to mean the person to
whom the speaker or the writer communicates.
(a) A: YAQ&#W& L ~ A T - + ; ~ % ~
(What kind of dictionary do you want?)
B: $ 5 bl(nW&~b>,L-r-+',
(I want a small one.)
Indirect Object The indirect object of a verb is the recipient of the direct
object of the main verb, and is marked by the particle ni. In (a), for example,
the indirect object is Midori,a recipient of a scarf, which is the direct object of
the verb yatta. It can be inanimate, as in (b). The main verbs which involve
the indirect object are typically donative verbs (as in (a) and (b)).
w3Ji
(a) -,%b;t&P~lG:X7~--7%-?97:~
(Ichiro gave a scarf to Midori.)
fiuu.3 **?Lo3 3 it3 L cv ~l d w
(b) 6LW;thM
! W~~:~AO;E&%%$R~:~
(The typhoon brought great damage to the Kyushu area.)
Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require a direct object. The
action or state identified by the intransitive verb is related only to the subject
of the sentence. For example, the verb hashitta 'ran' in (a) is an intransitive
verb because the action of running is related only to the subject.
(cf. Transitive Verb)
(a) & & E ~ L C & % ~ ~ ,
(Mr. Suzuki ran.)
Intransitive verbs typically indicate movement (such as iku 'go,' kuru 'come,'
aruku 'walk,' tobu 'fly,' noru 'get onto'), spontaneous change (such as naru
'become,' kawaru 'change,' tokeru 'melt,' fukuramu 'swell,' hajimaru
'begin'), human emotion (such as yorokobu 'rejoice,' kanashimu 'feel sad,'
omou 'feel'), and birth /death (such as umareru 'be born,' shinu 'die').
(+Appendix 3 (DBJG: 585-88)
Na-type adjectives are very similar to nouns. Some na-type adjectives can be
used as real nouns as shown in (b). All na-type adjectives behave as nouns
when they are used before the copula da, as shown in (c).
(b) Z i b a % & L~ ~
(Health is important, you know.)
cf. ?%&&A
(a healthy person)
LL*? bt
Z%~Gi,EkL3-tf-A0
(I'll never forget your kindness.)
cf. QYl&A
(a kind person)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
The nominalized sentence can be used in any position where an ordinary noun
or a noun phrase I clause can be used.
Predicate The part of a sentence which makes a statement about the sub-
ject. The core of the predicate consists either of a verb, an adjective, or a noun
followed by a form of the copula da. Optionally, objects and other adjectival
and I or adverbial modifiers may be present. In (a), (b) and (c) the predicates
are printed in bold type.
(a) ~ <G i * i ~ o
8 % AIL&
(Mr. Matsumoto sees movies often.)
(b) WO%I~X
% X P A ~ GkV,
&
(My house is newer than Mr. Smith's.)
1: IIL z- 1E<rv
(c) 7 3 2 CL El *%a)r;l.TdO
Y
(John is a student of Japanese language.)
ence)
Prenominal Form The verb I adjective form which precedes a noun and
modifies it. The bold-faced verbs and adjectives in (a), (b), (c) and (d) are
prenorninal forms.
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(a)
h f .L
$L / SAEKF
(the newspaper I read)
(b) %L\ /~ % i P d &
(a big house / a house which used to be big)
(c) Gw&%f:7k%&7
(a magnificent building / a building which used to be magnificent)
(d) )3L\L;f3Q / ) 3 ~ \ L ? j E 7 T f ; ? - - +
(a delicious-looking cake / a cake which looked delicious)
(a) b (get to know); kt;bh (die); %'a b (begin); $@rfb (get married);
p@b (stop s.t.); fkb (resemble)
(b) 7k 2 rf (drop); B T b (pluck off); if z, wck); kD (jump); Olit)
With the auxiliary verb iru, the punctual verbs in (a) express a state after an
action was taken, and those as in (b) express either a repeated action or a state
after an action was taken. (+Appendix 2 (DBJG: 582-84)
(b) %~'~-&&:wr;;kf:,
(Mary was praised by her teacher.)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(c) ?>2-b&?ikLl/>j?,
(Nancy is pretty.)
(d) F P ~ J L ~ ~ ~ ,
(The door opened.)
?(* *t
(e) # t f F - ~ & & ,
(lit. One table exists. (= There is a table.))
(f) Z.nz%l/>,
(The sky is blue.)
Suru-verb A verb which is composed of a noun and sum (Exs.(a) and (b))
or a single 'word and suru (Ex.(c)). Nouns preceding suru are mostly Chinese-
origin words. Sum-verbs conjugate in the same way as sum.
late)
*
-L L r l
(a) f% B 5 (to study); #I!&b* (to clean); &hda L j-5 (to stay up
s.0. go,' korosu 'kill,' miseru 'show,' nakasu 'make s.0. cry,' noseru 'put,
place'), exchange (such as ageru 'give,' m o w 'receive,' kureru 'give'), crea-
tion (such as tsukum 'make,' kaku 'write,' kangaeru 'think'), communication
(such as hanasu 'speak,' oshieru 'teach,' tsutaeru 'convey a message') and
others. Note that some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Japanese.
*LL <a*
(a) %LCiZWi4&o
(lit. With me a car exists. (= I have a car.))
(b) ~ G ~ & & F L \ ~ ,
(lit. To me money is necessary. (= I need money.))
3 * i L'< *
(c) X ~ X 2 t v C m ~ ~ ~ f l 5 3 ~ ~ 6 ~
(lit. To Mr. Smith Chinese is understandable. (= Mr. Smith under-
stands Chinese.))
(d) % L W ~ ~ ~ ~ 5 ~ i i . a ~
(lit. To me French is a bit possible. (= I can speak French a little.))
ti Sri
(e) % ? 2 t v C i ~ 3 X ~ & 2 t v ~ : 4 3 ~ , ,
(Mr. Kinoshita met his father in Tokyo.)
3
( f ) %Lb:biWWWLX&fi>3t:0
(lit. To me the bell wasn't audible. (= I wasn't able to hear the bell.))
b. I:*&
(g) Z~~c;CiF3*t-LL-n~W,k.?&tk0
(lit. From here Mt. Fuji is visible. (= We can see Mt. Fuji from here.))
bkLk3 Ld.L+tL
(h) %L iBCih@%&V % L fc0
(We rode a bullet train.)
( i ) % L C ~ @ K & T L I\ ~ /~,
(It seems that I resemble my mother.)
Verbal A sentence element which indicates the action or state of the sub-
ject. A verbal is either a verb, an adjective, or a noun followed by a copula, as
in (a) - (c).
bLL S d% l: *h.lri
(a)
:Ld%
%L Ci+%MSB 7': < 2 AM %! L tc,
(I
studied many kanji this term.)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
(b) Z D & @ C ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ L L \ ,
(This exam is very difficult.)
Note that Japanese Wh-words are not always found in sentence-initial position;
they are frequently found after a topic noun phrase, as shown in (b) and (c)
below.
105
(b) E%ElO,C-Y4 -c:c&%fl%a Lk*,
(lit. To yesterday's party, who came there? (=Who came to yester-
day's party?))
cf. %d'E%Elm-Y4 - m a LTZ*,
(Who came to yesterday's party?)
(c) ~aB LM,
I~%TI~W
(lit. In Japan what did you do? (=What did you do in Japan?))
cf. mBEl$TL3 L k &
(What did you do in Japan?)
1. Discourse Grammar
%jtl L T b ' 6 0
L PtH4
(&BE3, PS%% 2 %!a
)
(This is a story about a child named Seibei and gourds. After this inci-
dent, the tie between Seibei and gourds was severed. However, he
soon found something to substitute for gourds-painting. He is now as
devoted to it as he once was to gourds. (Shiga Naoya: Seibei and the
Gourds))
As seen in (I), various kinds of elements can appear as anaphors, including
pronouns, repeated nouns, and related nouns. In addition, anaphors are ellipted
in some situations.
A. Pronouns
Pronouns can be classified into two groups: personal pronouns (e.g., watashi
'I,' kanojo 'she,' kare-ra 'they') and demonstrative pronouns (e.g., kore 'this,'
sore-ra 'those,' soko 'thatlthe place').
Anaphoric personal pronouns are limited to third-person pronouns, including
kare 'he,' kanojo 'she,' and their plural forms. (1) presents an example of kare.
Among demonstrative pronouns, only the so- and ko- series can be
anaphoric. (1) gives examples of sore and (2) an example of kore.*
B. Repeated Nouns
An anaphoric noun is, in many instances, a repetition of its antecedent.
Proper nouns
If an antecedent is a proper noun, the most direct way to refer to the same
entity in a later sentence is to repeat the same proper noun. For example, in
(I), Seibei is repeated in the second sentence.
Common nouns
When an antecedent is a common noun, the same noun may appear as an
anaphor in certain situations. For example, if an antecedent refers to generic
entities, the same noun can be repeated with no modifier (e.g., hy6tan 'gourds'
in the second and third sentences in (1)). If an antecedent refers to a specific
entity, on the other hand, the same noun may appear in later sentences either
with or without a demonstrative adjective (i.e., sono 'thatlthe' or kono 'this').
A demonstrative adjective is necessary if the referent would be otherwise inter-
preted as non-anaphoric because of a lack of sufficient context to interpret it as
anaphoric. For example, in (3) the apato 'apartment' in the second sentence
does not refer to the same apartment mentioned in the first sentence, while in
(4) sono apeto 'that apartment' does refer to the same apartment mentioned in
the first sentence.
(3) i$"d
$2 1. ' ~ a ) 7 1 t -b g j k , .j3 + , $ $ P J ~ -b g w f : ,
(Isaw an apartment in Boston yesterday. John also saw an apartment
today.)
C, Related Nouns
Anaphoric reference often occurs with nouns (or noun phrases) which are not
the same as but are related to their antecedents. There are three situations in
which "related nouns" appear as anaphors:
(a) Situations where an anaphor and its antecedent refer to the same entity
(direct anaphora);
6) Situations where an anaphor refers to part of its antecedent's referent
(semi-direct anaphora); and
(c) Situations where an anaphor refers to an entity inferred from previous
context (indirect anaphora).
Direct anaphora
In direct anaphora, reference can be made by nouns which refer to larger cate-
gories than their antecedents refer to. For example, in (7) the hana 'flower' in
the second sentence refers to the sakura 'cherry (blossoms)' in the first sen-
tence. In this case, a demonstrative adjective is mandatory.
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(Cherry blossoms are the symbol of Japan. They (lit. These flowers)
are loved by everyone.)
Additional examples of direct anaphora can be seen in (8) and (9).
25:' C
7~ 9 - b 1:- k 0
fib,
@El ~11~8;3'%itaT&j:, LCE%'GL%LO&&@~~O~
(Yamada came to see me yesterday. This guy was one of my class-
mates in my high school days.)
Semi-direct anaphora
In semi-direct anaphora, an anaphoric noun refers to part (or an element) of its
antecedent's referent. For example, in (lo), the yuka 'floor' in the second sen-
tence refers to the floor of the apartment mentioned in the first sentence. In
this case, the anaphor does not require a demonstrative adjective.
** ST
(10) @EI s x b ' J O ~ I ~E ~- ~ t at=&
j : LLQK+,-;,
~ f:;3'~1~\7/\"-- b
723 ?zo
(Yesterday I saw an apartment in Boston. Although there were some
scratches on the floor, it was a good apartment.)
Indirect anaphora
In indirect anaphora, there is no explicit antecedent. The referent of an
anaphor is inferred from a previous sentence(s). For example, in (ll), the
gen'in 'cause' in the second sentence does not refer to anything which is
directly mentioned in the first sentence. Rather, it refers to something which is
inferred from that sentence. In this case, the anaphor does not require a
demonstrative adjective.
(11) @&+y'=i' ,,
y&P&$Jp& j:, g g ; 3 ' + ~ ~ & q k > ~
(Yesterday there was a fire at an elementary school in Kobe. The
police are investigating the cause now.)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
A. Tense Switching
Usually a series of past events are narrated in the past tenses. But primarily in
written Japanese discourse that narrates a past event, past tenses often switch
to nonpast tenses. The following is a passage from a famous novel called
Yama no Oto 'The Sound of the Mountain' by Yasunari Kawabata. Everything
that is being described in this passage concerns past events. So the English
native readerlwriter, for example, expects the author to use nothing but the past
tense.
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
LG&~f:a)TC;fGL.\fi'kI;hkLf<~
[14] L ~ ~ L % & G = L L I ~ ) @;i
~&
-Cb\f<o
([I] It is ten days before the month of August, but insects are already
crying. [2] The sound of night dew dropping from a leave to another
is audible. .[3] All of a sudden Shingo heard the sound of the mountain.
[4] There is no wind. [5] The moon is almost a full moon and bright,
yet the moist night air blurs the outline of the tree tops of the small
mountain. [6] But the trees are not moving in the wind. [7] At the so-
called inner part of the valley of Kamakura, some nights Shingo is able
to hear the sound of waves, so he suspected that it was the sound of the
sea, but it turned out to be the sound of the mountain. [8] It is like the
distant sound of the wind, but it had deep power like that of the earth
rumbling. [9] He feels as if it were in his head, so he thought it was his
ears ringing and he shook his head. [lo] The sound stopped. [ l l ]
After the sound stopped Shingo was overtaken by fear for the first
time. [12] A chill ran through his spine as if the hour of his death had
been proclaimed. [13] Shingo had tried to figure out objectively if it
was the sound of the wind or the sound of waves or ringing in his ears,
and he thought it was possible that there wasn't any sound. [14] But
there was no doubt that he had heard the sound of the mountain.)
Logically speaking, the author could have written every sentence in the past
tense. Nevertheless, the author sometimes used the past tense and sometimes
the nonpast tense. In this passage, 5 sentences (i.e., Sentences 1,2,4,5,6) out
of 14 sentences are in the nonpast tense shown by the double underline. (In the
translation the original nonpast predicate is translated using the nonpast tense
and italicized.) In other words, a switch from the past tense to the nonpast has 1
occurred in those 5 sentences.
An examination of the 5 sentences in the nonpast tense reveals that these
sentences describe a circumstance that surrounds Shingo, the main character of
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
the story. The rest of the sentences (i.e., sentences 3,7-14) describe in the past
tense whatever Shingo did or felt in the given circumstances. To put it in gen-
eral terms, tense switching is a strategy available to the writer to differentiate a
stage and a set of chronological events that occur within that stage. The stage
is certainly important in that it defines a space in which a drama develops, but
it is less important than the drama itself. So, important, dramatic information
is described in the past tense, whereas relatively unimportant circumstantial
information is described in the nonpast tense. The use of such nonpast tenses
has an effect of creating a vivid sense of immediateness for the reader.
A principle that appears to govern Tense Switching goes as follows:
Principle of Tense Switching
A part of a past event (often a state rather than an action) can be described
using the nonpast tense, if the writer perceives it to be relatively unimportant
circumstantial information that has no direct bearing upon the major story line.
B. Formality Switching
By formality switching is meant switching from formal style to informal style
or less frequently switching from informal style to formal style. The latter, i.e.,
switching from informal style to formal style, occurs in spoken Japanese. The
informal style is a suitable style to be used when the speaker / writer wants to
express his feeling, his knowledge or his conviction in a straightforward man-
ner. So, in a formal setting which requires the speaker / writer to use the for-
mal style, the style can switch from formal to informal as shown in the fol-
lowing examples (2a, b, c).
I: liL <I: %L,:<~L W. Lri
(2) a. ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ~ C ~ ~ H A D ~ G
tvh,
-
(Japan is giving foreigners an impression of a country very much
closed. Foreigners are called "gaijin," that is to say, outsiders and
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
they are always treated like guests. And they cannot make good
friends easily. Association with colleagues is tough. There is also
a limit to their promotion. Anyway, Japan has to become a soci-
ety more open to foreigners.)
1: lM&t&
b. 8*ii!$%-h"$Gb3T3L;ta0 El$h-h"3~%~%titLf;&?$,
ljbalf-3 <9
- A B,
8 m i i ~ lt1L-C, -w~l;l&a%&-h"?-=$a~
-
l r r i IT3
$fibE
b.5
g ~ ~ a2, Z
-h"&;3>s0 -h"k~:a&~
- 1?7Y1b, EbaZ t-h"ttZ%Gb>fv
-
TTLo
(There are not many crimes committed in Japan, you know. When
a Japanese is about to commit a crime there are at least two factors
that will deter him from committing it, aside from punishments.
The faces of his wife and children come to his mind. He thinks of
his company. That's why he cannot do evil things, you know.)
L A~ i
RD~~L.>QZQ G: 17 a*fv-n.,
*4Wi6 w
(mn& ~QZGL.-W-CI)
(How are you living your life these days when life is difficult in all
sorts of ways? The difficulty of living has not just started now.
From ancient times, human life must have been full of difficulties
at least for those who dealt with it seriously. (. . . omitted. . .) Our
lives are truly insignificant, such tiny things, and each one of us is
truly miserable, mundane and sometimes unbearably ugly. But
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
2. Newspaper Grammar
Japanese newspapers use certain sentence forms, phrases, and words which are
not common to other writing.
(1) Headlines
B. Ellipsis of no
The noun connector no is often dropped in long noun compounds (particularly,
in those which contain more than one no).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
E. Tense
In headlines past events are represented using the nonpast tense (e.g., (la),
(lc)). Because the nonpast tense also represents future events, whether an
event is a future one or a past one is known from other headline elements (e.g.,
(2a), (3a)) or from the text (e.g., (lb), (3b)).
F. Abbreviations
a. Country names
Country names are often abbreviated.
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
Examples:
:e Z ^I.L.%
(5) H (Japan); 8 (America); 8 (Great Britain); (France); &
(Germany); k (Italy); $D(Canada); (Australia); '$ (China);
8 (Taiwan); % (Korea); i% *L
7 (South Africa)
b. Groups, companies, institutions
The complete names of groups, companies, and institutions are often
abbreviated.
c. Special abbreviations
Some English acronyms and letters are commonly used in headlines to
save space.
Examples:
(2) Bodies
A. Suru-verbs
The conjugated part of a suru-verb connective form (i.e., +hi) is often dropped.
-sun, or -shita of a suru-verb in sentence-final position is also dropped in some
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
situations.
Examples:
B. Da after nouns
Da after nouns is often dropped, the result being a noun-ending sentence.
Examples:
:<
9 a. ~h4 t
HH 6 L r i 6 L P L r i
p e ~ i t ~ + - ~ w , r
s~~?;~ot.;
Q7t:b,d5( Cw Z t 3 1 J ~ i hL$<
UB+*ZZA
I:*? ;b;<L*
+H$'I~_~vz z L - T % & L ~ ~ , 1993+m~
*.t a
on Y~~~;%H-F
0 :iefbi l t ~ .do? e-2
L 57 a & m
t< 627
a ~ ~ - h %LJ -dC L J ~ O # ~ ~ ~ ( E ) ~
(S$$~iW%7i312.26.9198 VJ)
("A Survey of Problematic Behaviors by K-12 Students" released
by the Ministry of Education on December 25 has revealed that
the number of cases of school violence which took place at high
schools across the country in 1990 reached 1,419, involving 490
schools. Both figures are the worst on record. One of the charac-
teristics is that there is a sharp rise in violence towards teachers.)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
3. Conversational Strategies
In order to become proficient in advanced Japanese conversation it is necessary
to be able to use conversational strategies. They include (A) Aizuchi ('back-
channel' responses), (B) Fillers, (C) Rephrasing, (D) Topic Shift and Topic
Recovery and (E) Avoidance of Decisive Expressions, among others.
B. Fillers
While aizuchi is a strategy available for the hearer, a filler is a strategy avail-
able for the speaker.
First, the particle ne in (5) and (6) is a typical filler that indicates the
speaker's attempt to involve the hearer. (5) is an example of informal speech,
and (6) is an example of formal speech in which ne is preceded by desu. This
use of desu ne is most commonly used in business Japanese.
DtliL.t
1.~&4&7%
(5) i + ~ i i a , 11 f i i ~ 1 1 ; - ~-~ -%=~~
$?&~~
: -b
-@, 7~3-=fi
/v l 5 ,
(lit. Yesterday, y'know, Tom suddenly came here from the States,
y'know, and stayed overnight at my house.)
(This is the new software I mentioned the other day, and if you have
time I'd appreciate it if you could use it on an experimental basis.)
However, too many ne's in a single sentence makes the sentence very awk-
ward, as shown in (7).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
9I:A7?lo
(???Today, y'know, I, y'know, went to Narita Airport, y'know, by car,
y'know, to pick up my friend, y'know.)
Secondly, the filler and is used to signal the speaker's hesitation about
saying something embarrassing, as in (8a). In (8b) and is used to signal the
speaker's search for the right word or phrase. Too many and's in a single
sentence sounds very awkward as shown in (8c).
(8) a. A: Y j LI:AT-.fjS.,
(What happened?)
B: &
,* E+&;klil~b9I:ATt,
(Uhh . . . , I forgot my wallet, you know.)
b. YZI?-3i$, & ,* fldbcAI:%b20
(Where is it? Eh . . . I mean the book I bought yesterday.)
c *&DiA28tEl, & D i , gl)i,
& a ? , '$&~.B?IT%-c,
$3
A L,S 9 CZ, &a,
S,
LT, &a, %!J b LIZ,
(Ah, uh, yesterday, y'know, my mother, y'know, came from
Kyoto, y'know, talked with me after a long while, y'know, and
went home, y'know.)
Thirdly, the phrase 'nan to iu X deshita ka' 'What was X called?' in (9)
becomes 'nan te iu X datta kke' in informal speech. The phrase can be used
whenever the speaker has forgotten an exact name.
(The recent tendency in world ideology is, how shall I put it? Bor-
derless thinking.)
Sixthly, the interjection ma is used primarily to avoid making a definite
statement, as shown below.
Cb+< df<irrti
(12) a. A: Z OAf C2f &%$hi.P O ('6 b\T?75',
(What's the student population at this college?)
L.$*,L z *AKA.
B: 36, - - Z 5 T - A C L ; b ~ T L h i d . ,
(Somewhere around 15,000, I suppose.)
b. A: %!tl2~%&Tti5..
(Have you been in good health lately?)
B: 36, ?-iT t b 0
(I guess so.)
:I ItL LI <
c. s$gct.,
36 Sh
36, l l i ~ ~ h g d : : * i ~ ' , M,~zlfhari
it, C:~;L\~S'
%t
p
3T&b~Ttb0
(I can eat practically all Japanese food, but natto (=fermented
soybeans) has too strong a smell for me and I don't like it.)
C. Rephrasing
Just as native speakers of Japanese know how to rephrase words using other
explanatory expressions when they cannot recall the most suitable words,
intermediate learners of Japanese, too, should start to learn how to rephrase
words they don't know or cannot remember. By doing so embarassing pauses
can be avoided. A common way to rephrase a noun is by means of a noun
modification, as shown in (13a, b).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(13) a. [The speaker A cannot remember / doesn't know the word geta,
traditional footwear in Japan.]
(You know the stuff Japanese people put on when they wear
kimono-what do they call it?)
B: hh, pgozIIf:ila,
(Oh, you mean geta?)
b. [The speaker cannot remember 1 doesn't know the word genkan,
Japanese version of a foyer.]
H$ogTii, 256, 4EJIIz9f:&e9
126, zl:&a%l:iit
Q$L<II z 5 , ~ T Z I ; ~f :$,E ~ ~ i : ~ - - ~ ~ - j - d : i l a ,
(In a Japanese house, ah, what do you call it? The place where
people take off their shoes before entering the house, that's an
interesting space, you know.)
When a word that needs rephrasing is a verb or an adjective, the speaker can
rephrase it by using more basic words or phrases, as shown in (14a, b).
(14) a. [The speaker cannot remember / doesn't know the verb hdsdsuru
'to broadcast'.]
79.7~ ~ & $ G ; ~ : ~ H R L g,
wi:f l f r
~oFM? + &6~0&j ,G&'if
:~,
a /uTt7F,
(Is this FM classic music program broad, broad, ah, can we hear
it every day at the same time?)
b. [The speaker cannot remember / doesn't know the na-adjective
nihonteki(na) 'Japan-like.']
5
bjoH&;t: H*A, H*A, H $ A ~ ~~.\mawdi,
bL il
13 atilao
(That lady has a Japanese, Japanese, Japanese-like atmosphere,
doesn't she?)
When the speaker wants to get the word which he cannot remember / does-
n't know, he can use - koto / hito / yosu, etc. o nan to iimasu ka, as shown in
(15a, b).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(15) a. [The speaker cannot remember 1doesn't know the verb nesugosu
'oversleep' .]
A: @, +& b & aT&&zkL?mksbla*7k
(What do you say when you sleep longer than you planned
in the morning?)
When the speaker wants to get back to the former topic, he can signal his
desire to recover the old topic. Some of the standard ways to signal it are as
follows:
(17) a. 5 7 3 X 7 7%- 7 :f F S [highly informal]
C
(A while ago I / you said X, but)
b. S9$OSTT7F/ 593OXO~&T-$7F
(Let me get back to the topic 1 X that we were talking about a
while ago.)
C. El2t.$kEif 7: Z t Tt7F [very formal, polite]
BE r O k T T l f P [formal, polite]
(Regarding what I told you a while ago)
WI
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
sions.)
(20) a. El$-AGi.kfiZQBbf& Ir 8 b lZ T,
(I think that Japanese avoid using decisive expressions.)
b. n $ - A l A w ~ g c t ak,g,blaj- I~W,
(I think that Japanese avoid using decisive expressions, but. . .)
C. El$-AbkkfiZQBIf&a> {-Chi. / h = l Q b ~ 2 ~ k E b ~ 2 T o
(I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expres-
sions.)
d. El$Alkl%Qbf& {TI& / C.el h b \ + k . E , b l 2 T
/ If r 1 ,
(I wonder if Japanese wouldn't avoid using decisive expressions,
but. . .)
e. El$Abk%fBQjBIf &a)Tti.hbl+Ir,R;h;kZj- {$/ If rl,
(It seems to me that Japanese will avoid using decisive expres-
sions, but. . .)
f. %Lb:GkH$AGi.kfiZQBGf&a)TGkfsb~~k.~,;h;k&a)TT$,
b ~ + $ h 6 a > T L ~ i+,
(It seems to me that Japanese will avoid using decisive expres-
sions, but what would you say?)
In (19) and (20), in which the same core statement is made, the longer the
sentence is, the less decisive the expression is 1 tends to be. When a Japanese
speaker opposes what his superior has said his expression definitely has to
avoid straightforward expressions. There are some set phrases that can be pre-
fixed to the speaker's statement of an opposing view, as shown in (21).
(21) a. +
% 5 h &, [informal]
(Well, I doubt it. (lit. I wonder if that is so.))
b. ?-?LT~ blbl(Tj-) bfr0
(That's fine, too, but. . .)
c. ?-;kIk+-5 {Tj-/f?}IfFo
(That's true, but. . .)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
<<
g. E u m t w a ;t~ ~l t k a b l A - r w 0
(I don't have any particular intention to disagree with you,
but. . .)
h. && Q%T1 i TliiJTT$... [highly formal and polite]
(lit. Sorry to return words to you, but. . .)
tH
i. @ 2 & G : k ; ~L 9 6 3 9 I?kCk,F,bl3T jSP, LeL...[formal,
polite]
(What you have said is indeed correct, but. . .)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(1) Basics
A. Structure of Simple Sentences
Before tackling complex sentence structures, it is essential to understand the
basic structure of Japanese sentences. First, let us consider the following
sentence.
bLL ai4tbP3
(1) $LG;f~t$@Ega>7,\"-
I.T P ~ v e j i - ~ b s f i ,
(Last night I was watching TV in my friend's apartment.)
(1) is a simple sentence (i.e., a sentence with a single verbal). The structure
of this sentence can be diagramed as follows.
(2) Pre-verbal element Verbal
$L GA [Subject (Topic)]
%@ [Time]
E - C b ~ k
71 - 1- T [Location]
P 1/ v B [Direct object]
I
(Conj .)
(Sentential
adverbial)
(Sentential
topic)
B. Key Elements
The key elements of sentences are verbals, NPs, pre-verbal adverbials, and
sentence-initials.
1. Verbals
In sentence-final position various forms of verbs, adjectives, and NPs with a
copula appear. They are sometimes followed by auxiliaries and/or sentence
particles. (4) provides some examples.
*In terms of position, NP-(Prt.)-wa normally appears before other pre-verbal elements
and sometimes even before a sentence-initial element. However, when NP-(Prt.)-wa
is the sentence subject, direct object, etc., we consider this element to be pre-verbal
rather than sentence-initial because, unlike other sentence-initial elements, NP-(Prt.)-
wa modifies the verbal. (See 4.3. Sentential topic.)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(He cried.)
b. %L& eo
V Aux.
(I want to go, too.)
c. gL.W-
- - tPo
Adj(i) Prt.
(Is (it) cheap?)
d. m 1 3 f 2 ;la,
Adj(na) Aux. Prt.
(It seems convenient, doesn't it?)
7 m C L ++A*b,
2. NPs
As seen in (3), NPs appear as either pre-verbal elements (with a particle) or
verbal elements (with a copula). There are varieties of NP structures, as seen
below. Long and complex sentences often include large NPs composed of NPs
with different types of structures; therefore, understanding these structural vari-
ations is essential for accurate sentence structure analysis.
*When certain auxiliaries follow an NP with a copula, the copula drops, as in (i).
(i) E ~ C ~~ B~ h k ~ ~ l i ~ ,
N Aux.
(She might be a teacher.)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
<
0% (an ordinary house)*; 2 T@$Ufb7)f- b (a cheap and conven-
ient apartment)
*There are a handful of adjectives that have prenorninal forms ending with no rather
than i (i-adjectives) or na (na-adjectives). More examples:
LS 3d'
(i) 38 < 0 (distant); h< 0 (nearby); % < 0 (many); (constant); %$$o) (the
newest)
[581
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
*In Japanese, restrictive relative clauses and non-restrictive relative clauses are not dis-
tinguished by form. For example, the noun phrase in (i) is ambiguous.
(i) L <'W<EI $A
((1) the Japanese, who work hard; (2) Japanese people who work hard)
A proper context is necessary to make this phrase unambiguous.
b. 3 W 4 7 9 7 f -3(9)
(plates, knives, and forks (among others))
( d y a (DBJG: 536-38))
c. %~bkfiSL&kfi
(tempura, sashimi, and so on)
d. 7%')?1, F 4 7 , 7 4 ) X Q P
(America, Germany, France, etc.)
e. fi>js.@$(js.)
(a pen or a pencil)
?+A;< Z friZ< 2
f. H W wn,
E @jZm, 3 f:lkP HZ
(Japanese, Korean, or Chinese)
3. Pre-verbal adverbials
There are several kinds of words and phrases which function as pre-verbal
adverbials.*
3.6. Quotation + 2 **
(20) a. rm~iu&x
((say) "Good morning")
[611
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
b. %~~lk(k?i)
((think) that s.t. is difficult)
(eto3 (DBJG: 478-80))
3.7. Noun 1 Verb + Compound particle (pre-verbal form)
(21) a. ~ ~ ~ 3 1 % i = g ($&)
b l - c
((talk) about Japanese culture)
B t i < Or< t i t 5
b. ( % Q ) k6GL3;kT(ZEllKBPgi?&o)
(As one grows old, (one's memory fails.))
3.8. Vte
L.3 V t
3.9. Vmasu + 1:
(23) (&sc:)A~~G:
(5kf:)
((came) to see (s.o.'s friend))
( 6 ni5 (DBJG: 297-99))
4. Sentence-initial elements
Sentence-initial elements modify the clause which follows. They include sen-
tence-initial conjunctions, sentence adverbials, sentential topics, and sentence-
initial clauses. Sentence-initial clauses are elements of complex sentences.
(See E. Complex Sentences.)
mon element, the element usually appears only once. In (27d), for example,
the sentence-initial dependent clause and the following clause (in this case, the
main clause) share the same subject watashi 'I.' Thus, watashi appears only
once (in this case, as the topic).
*If two verbals are connected through a "BUT-relation," the connective forms are not
used, as in (i).
(i) a. $~1dgk%&3~:.t-h'$$~f~f3~~6733~~~
(I like fish but I don't like vegetables.)
b. ~0@g1%Qb'lf?LYBfh?Pt?73~E$~lEo
(This dictionary is cheap but pretty useful.)
**As seen in (29), there are two kinds of connective forms. In general, the first kin(
(i.e., te-forms) are used when the first verbal is strongly related to or dependent on thl
second verbal. In (i), for example, the first verbal yasukute '(it is) cheap' gives thl
reason why the speaker feels that the apartment is good (the second verbal). In thi
case, the te-form is used. (eVmasu)
D. Compound Sentences
If a sentence involves two (or more) simple sentences (i.e., clauses) and these
sentences are conjoined by means of coordinate conjunctions such as ga 'but'
or continuative forms of verbs, adjectives or the copula such as Vte, Adj.te and
Cop.te to mean 'and,' the whole is called a "compound sentence." The clauses
in a compound sentence are connected through the AND-relation or the BUT-
relation. (3 1) provides examples.
Z*) z <C L d.LZ< C L
(31) a. 7 ;/';;/UCi+ HAT+.&3/UCi$$E!Al?,
(Mr. Wong is Chinese and Mr. Kim is Korean.)
d. **I
b. A h h a 7 7 >xWB%-i?aiSr@,I&B-@tsbl,
(My wife can speak French but I cannot.)
When the clauses in a compound sentence have an element in common (e.g.,
the subject, the direct object, the verbal), the element usually appears only
once. For example, in (28a-c) the subjects are shared and in (31b) the direct
object is shared. (32) provides an example of a shared verbal.
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
* *.b%L?*<< ?A.
(32) Y32lk@@If9, - f ~ ~ - l 3 . ~ ~ 1 f ~ ~ ~ ~ T
(John is majoring in mechanical engineering and Nancy in electrical
engineering.)
E. Complex Sentences
If a sentence involves a clause which is dependent on another element or
clause in the sentence, the sentence is called a "complex sentence." (34) pro-
vides complex sentences which include different kinds of dependent clauses
(or subordinate clauses).
(34) a. Relative clauses (See 2.2.5. Relative clause + Noun):
Z t ~ & E + f l @ q 7:?-=F720 (= (10a))
(This is a cake which Tomoko made.)
b. Internal sentences before " 2 b l 5 Noun" (See 2.2.6. NounISen-
tence 2 b l j Noun):
s$ecihblabla%%7'?2bli%2liBL 8 b (=(lib)) < ~
(The idea that Japanese is an ambiguous language is not uncom-
mon.)
c. Internal sentences before Compound particles (pre-nominal
form) (See 2.2.4. {NounNerb} + Compound particle (pre-nomi-
nal form) + Noun):
93-;/;;fIX.fiQ4EI%62 k&%Ub1;h;J1gI:,(=(12b))
(I didn't know that Mr. Jones was coming today.)
*The adverbial forms of auxiliary adjectives preceded by clauses are sometimes classi-
fied as conjunctions (e.g., yani).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
NP-Prt.
Conj.
Adverbial
{V/Adj/NP[s] + Cop.](+Aux)(+Prt.)
Topic Adverbial
[SI
...
[S]: Clause
NP[s]: NP containing [S]
Adv[s]: Adverbial containing [S]
That is, a sentence which contains at least one of the elements containing [S]
in (35) is a complex sentence.
F. Missing Elements
Such sentence elements as illustrated in (35) are not always explicitly present.
In fact, sentence element ellipsis is very common in Japanese. When clauses
have shared elements (e.g., subjects), the shared element is usually ellipted in
the second (and following) clause(s). Sentence elements are also dropped
when they have been mentioned in a previous sentence, are contextually
known, or situationally known, or when they indicate a generic agent such as
"they" and "we." (36) provides examples.
@ E I X T F - - + Q & ~ k o[ji-kLd;f;l
tT6kjb>L$7fiO
(I had a steak yesterday. [It] was very good.)
C. Contextually known:
Yr->j5' [$LC:]+-&% -Fa? r+-Q < kL2,
(Jane gave [me] some home-made cookies.)
d. Situationally known:
(2) Guidelines
With the basics of Japanese sentence structure presented above, the reader
should be able to grasp the structure of a given sentence by following the
guidelines illustrated below.
Vocabulary notes:
77 ;i. b B "Planet B"
-& a little more than -
m'i* a to fly
!kg Mars
El circling orbit
$OS-$
6 to arrive
- b:hk 0 over
@8l] observation
~ v a to continue
38 schedule
*The connective form Vte with the preceding W(s) often functions as an adverbial to
represent manner or reason. In this case, Vte does not mark a clause break. In (i), for
example, - o mochiite is better interpreted as 'by using. . .' than as 'use. . . and,' as
the English equivalent shows. Compare this Vte with the Vte in (38).
~ 2 t3z i v h i i n
(i)
~ * ii w
wW E WZS,
LL
z ~ E T z F ~ ! ~ ~ > 3Trz0' G ~ T
rL 15 rh L
Vocabula~ynotes:
-3 on the other hand
if 71. .z1/ 3 1. o 3 2 opto-electronics
ZkL3T uptonow
BE progress
& to look back; to examine
357 7 41q-BE optic fiber communication
$EBB thrust
Guideline 2: Identify the skeleton of each clause.
For each clause, identify the skeleton, i.e., the major elements, such as the sub-
ject, the direct object, and the verbal, elements which tell "who did what,"
"what is what," etc. Note that major elements are sometimes shared with
another clause or are not present explicitly (See (1) F. Missing Elements).
In the following examples, the major elements are underlined and missing
elements are supplied in parentheses. (Dotted underlining indicates elements
to be examined in the following step, Guideline 3. These elements include
constructions such as "NP[S]-Prt. + Verbal" (e.g., [S] koto ga wakatta 'it was
understood that [S]'), "Adv[S] + Verbal" (e.g., [S] to ieru 'it can be said that
[S]'), and "NP[S] + Cop." (e.g., [S] yotei da 'it is scheduled that [S]'))
By identifying the skeleton of each clause in a sentence, the idea of the whole
sentence becomes clear. For example, (40) conveys the idea that "a British
astronomy group announced something, but it was a miscalculation and akhe
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(Planet B is scheduled [to travel for a little more than a year, reach
Mars' circling orbit in October 1997, and continue its observation for
over two years.])
It should be noted that in this example, the scope of yotei 'schedule' extends
beyond the immediate clause break.
*In (43), the scope of koto can extend from "wakusei wan or from "kore wa."
[721
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(53) A modifies B
2 0 7 7 b9r7kZ.L~T B 2 T T 3 b l
(by means of this software) (please learn)
*Sa)mkK 4sts
(for the creation of documents) (necessary)
4\37ts 3&w7@i+
(necessary) (basic operation)
w=MttB B2TT??b>
(basic operation [Direct Object]) (please learn)
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
Note here that ni yotte is a form which modifies verbs; thus, in (52), it modi-
fies oboete kudasai. (See Appendix 3 Compound Particles.)
(54) indicates the scope of sdsa and (55) provides the English equivalent of
(52).
(55) With this software, please learn the basic operation necessary for cre-
ating documents.
Compare (52) with (56), where sofutowea is followed by ni yoru rather than
(57) illustrates the modification relations among the sentence ele-
ni yotte.
ments.
(57) A modifies
Z077 b 3 r 7 K k 6 *fa+&
(by means of this software) (creation of documents)
*fDl+& c= !Pi!.Wh
(for the creation of documents) (necessary)
m='N%l+
(necessary) (basic operation)
3&*0#i$Q %L-cTSb>
(basic operation [Direct Object]) (please learn)
Note here that ni yoru is a form which modifies nouns (or noun phrases); thus,
in (56), it modifies bunsho no sakusei.
(58) indicates the scope of sdsa and (59) provides the English equivalent of
(56).
SPECIAL TOPICS IN INTERMEDIATE JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(59) please learn the basic operation necessary for creating documents
with this software.
&own in the above examples, misunderstanding a modified element can
lead to an entirely wrong interpretation.
A DICTIONARY
OF
INTERMEDIATE
JAPANESE
GRAMMAR
(Main Entries)
Seiichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui
o+#E%)
EI*wZ$&wQ
because of too much -; because
that involves excessive action - -
too much; so that -
(REL. sugiru]
+Key Sentences
(A)
4~02eiim~&3
P
~m
Q%&?!L
*LIZ$
<G ~ T L ~ ~ I : ,
(The last meeting ended up having little content because it focused too
much on formalities.)
2. Adj(i) and Adj(na) cannot precede amari, as seen in (2) and (3).
(2) $LC&I ~ ~ L ~ U * ~ hLaLv % \ I% ~ j h ; 3 . ~ ~ : ,
(I was so sad that I couldn't even cry (lit. even tears didn't come
out).)
However, there are some differences between arnari and sugiru. First, arnari
is always a part of an adverbial clause or phrase which expresses a cause.
Sugiru, however, does not always express cause and can be in the predicate
of a main clause. Second, arnari is used only when the verb or noun repre-
sents a psychological action or state. Thus, the following sentences are unac-
ceptable.
[21 *V$E - I L B ~ C &~ I~+ZB R
d r ih/;P bv:
~ W ,
(Yesterday I drank too much beer and I have a headache today.)
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
1 Topic I
I I
(The harder you study Japanese, the more interesting it will become.)
1 - 4 3 x;Sr$cfh128L\G2tr' gLbl,
1 (At a party the more the merrier.)
-
1. The construction of ba - hod0 is very close in meaning to the more -,
the more - construction in English.
2. Other conditionals tara and to cannot be used in this construction.
Thus, the following use of to and tara are ungrammatical.
-
not only but also
which is used to connect two [REL. - bakari d e (wa) naku -
nouns or two sentences, the first of (mo); - dake de (wa) naku -
which is s.t. normally expected (mo); dokoroka]
and the second of which is s.t. nor-
+Key Sentences
E I ~ K T C3g
~ 12+11751 AA sft BBB&,A,TWZ,,
1 (In Japan not only children but even adults are reading comic books.) I
$
{+
ei$
f / %-h.f?9 f:l If$.b f~ (not only {is /was) s.t. / s.0. quiet)
(84/ %4f?9
f:] If 2' 4 f i (not only {is / was] S.O. a teacher)
fit< + k ~ % ^fL$ 1 3
(a) 7%'1 75Tdi75?%Cffiri, dl, 8&,B @ k S ; i E I l Z Q % %LT
bl6,
(In America not only college students but even junior and senior high
school students are studying Japanese.)
a$?
(b) & o g o i f B E I & R b l I f f i ri, f i , ii hbl/vTT,
(My room in the dorm is not just small; it doesn't even have a window.)
(c) l'kG&ZHjST%M)Gb~df2~0d.,W E % $ ? k 3 W G b l 0
(It's not just kanji that Tom cannot read; he cannot read even hiragana.)
(d) Xd&h<&a>jSTkW2 7 k I f j 3 . 9 d., ? @ B t & D h ; k $ 3 $ T - r t 0
(My father not only loves to eat, he also loves to cook.)
amm
1. Before bakari ka comes s.t. / S.O.normally expected and after bakari ka
comes s.t. / S.O.normally unexpected. If the order of the two is reversed
an unacceptable sentence like the following results.
I. The phrases bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) and dake de (wa) naku - (mo)
are very similar to bakari ka - (sae). Among those three constructions
bakari ka - (sae) expresses the highest degree of unexpectedness
between the content of S, and Sz. If such unexpectedness is missing, the
bakari ka - (sae) construction sounds awkward. Examples follow.
[1] a. &a>Ad&.B5&
{ E I f /lifi>bGl]T(lb)Q<x;l."-';r&d:{
&&ao
(He is not only good scholastically; he is also good at
sports.)
b. ??zo$l&.~~b'lifi'~Ih'f~tbC:Sx~&,
-
(+dake de (wa) naku (mo) (DBJG: 97-100))
11. S1 dokoroka Sz, a construction indicating that s.0. / s.t. is very far from
a h (un)desirable state, is quite different from SI bakari ka SZ,when S1is
affirmative and Sz is negative or when S1is negative and S2 is affirma-
tive. Examples follow.
bit, k'
[3] %&.EI$z~'s*&
{ZL3fi' /*lffi>blfi>l,-E&BS&Lf:L
275'69ash,
(I am far from being able to speak Japanese; I haven't studied it
at all.)
- bakari ka - (sae) / bekida 11
bekida 4 3 fi aux.
should; ought to
speaker's judgment that s.o.1s.t. [REL. hazu; hoga ii; mono da;
should do s.t. or should be in some -nakereba naranai]
+ ~ e ySentences
Vinf .nonpast
(Dl
(El
Relative Clause Noun
@Jx
t l$!3%TT(&)d$7 2
(You should look after yourself. (lit. You should do your own business
by yourself.))
q, &&5<3 E p a b l ~ ~
(You shouldn't buy a house now.)
+fLl$g&:%gQ~J%< <$7?97:b,,
(We should have told that to our boss, too, shouldn't we?)
dlfi Cf?:L
@i&%@QL7M-(&)d3
E?Qfi97:L7%
(He shouldn't have married.)
$!$Ti&%L - B I J Z D W & ~rz,,
<$
tieire
< %Et..:$%z~?,
(Tanaka is indeed a despicable man (lit. a man whom one should
despise).)
t:s BCa?
&&<3EC:%&$$2b10
(There's no description where there should be one.)
-
=
.
=
-
'.... B -
g
2. The prenominal form of bekida (i.e., the form which modifies a noun)
- -
is beki. (See KS(E) and Exs.(g) - (i).)
-
--
=
3. Bekida usually expresses the idea that s.0. / s.t. should do s.t. or be in
some state because it is his 1her responsibility or duty, because it is the
right thing or a good thing to do, or because it is the right state or a good
state to be in. (See KS(A) - (E), Exs.(a) - (f) and (i).)
4. Bekida also expresses the idea that S.O.is expected to do s.t. (See Exs.
(g) and (h1.1
5. Adj(i)stem + ku aru bekida, as in (I), is a possible form but this form is
not commonly used.
*.he tL :* b*,
(1) @ C L + B ~ ~ T Q J L \ G L ~ < ~ ~ B ~ ~ ~ : ,
(Even if one's body gets old, one's mind should be young.)
6. Bekida is not used when the speaker is younger than the hearer or lower
than the hearer in status. For example, (2) is not appropriate in the given
situation.
1
(You must study harder.)
b. ZCib T k%$&$rtKbE,
(You should study harder.)
c. z~~&T~%$&L~L%L\L\,
(You'd better study harder.) weaker
-
(e nakereba naranai (DBJG: 274-76); hi5 ga ii (DBJG: 138-40))
111. Ham also expresses the idea of "should." However, ham is used when
the speaker's expectation is involved. Compare the following sen-
tences.
[4] a. ~.G~LLIHSA~~"B~ETI~~"~~,
Za>L;f;"-
(Yamada should rewrite this report. ( = I expect that
Yamada will rewrite this report.))
b. Za>L;f;"-bliLL1H3Aj5"B3ETKbff,
(Yamada should rewrite this report. (=Rewriting this
report is Yamada's duty.))
t L.t;e%
151 a. zo%~izza>o~gri;i+,ws~~~,
(This book should be in this library. ( = I expect that this
book is in this library.))
b. za>*cizza,HPgC=.i+,&K:'Cf:,
(This book should be in this library. (= Housing this book
is this library's responsibility.))
+Key Sentences
Number + Counter
(B)
Number + Counter
bOL 3 r i
I 1 I
(I'll pay the remaining amount (lit. the amount for which cash is short)
by check.)
(ii) Noun 53
- I?& L 5
g &ft
+&%
r;e
:g#%
2
(the amount by which s.t. decreased)
,,A&&L-c~~~-cY~~~~
(please get six sets of materials ready for the meeting.)
z zkM$T+f4
later.)
hT;Lt:G
b, t
2 f? L~?OT??<%&~$TS~~TTS~~~
(Please leave two lines (of space) here because someone will sign there
$ ~ g c ; t i . i & K 5 3 O ~ - ~ xQ%1;->k.
(We were paid a bonus equivalent to four months pay.)
%her, T
1- 4 Y ?ZQ%a>C&$Liik,
(Three trucks-full of garbage came out.)
C(.%
h V f; :;t,
ii&$fkk+%~%o>&$fQ$&&~Ic:%~ f ,
(The government sent food for 100,000 people to the disaster-stricken
area.)
d%:i b i i'r< L i p , 0 . P i ds C*CriOri ;h b,
942%Eci%&Boi9Ba%f?$?2 2% $40@kIS'~j51 2 - L dr 5 k L T L \
75 0
(The school authorities are trying to cover the increase in expenses by
raising tuition.)
mm
Either a number + counter or a noun precedes -bun. When a number +
counter precedes, it means s.t. worth that amount (e.g., KS(A)) or equivalent
to that amount (e.g., KS(B)). When a noun precedes -bun, it means the
amount or portion of something represented by the noun (e.g., KS(C)).
Related Expression]
The suffix -mae also expresses a portion of something, as in [I], but this use
is limited to food. A number + nin precedes -mae.
111 % H ~ ~ - L B ~ A ~ ? ~ ; I S ' T : ,
(Yoshida ate five orders of sushi.)
18 daga
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(A)
I Sentence, I sentence, 7
/ will last.) I
bt:L +mCr dL
(a) ~ L M E ~ ~ I ~ % ?E$, ~ T& &~ ~{ ~~ ~: -~c ~ 5~~~ $: j. ~ L , h g
Cf,
(I met her for the first time; but I felt close to her as if I had known her
for a long time.)
daga 19
+fbt b, LP B/r r
~$pr~&E22k:lflB&kif Q?&& k k:g;h;kfi, I:@, ? & & k d 2
2 b l b LblO
(yamamoto was told by his doctor to quit smoking, but he doesn't
seem to have any intention of quitting.)
Pbmi
I:$,, & ~~ o ; s ~ ~ & ~ - c L ~ ~ w ~
~~OA~:WWW~&
(He is talented, but he is not using his talents.)
Y~O&%O~:~+C:&~L~TB
$&LC, E;s',
-;h&ri T S
s - > G ~yoj % ~ j ~ . - > p ,
(I studied hard for today's exam without sleeping, but I couldn't do it
at all.)
&it:
6 121 (@$&-$& L, &' *& blb1, f:$, %#prCia-if;3.d; ( CI,~,
(My younger sister studies hard and she is intelligent, but somehow her
grades are not good.)
am
Daga is not used in spoken Japanese unless it is followed by ne as in (1).
(1) A: ~a>%z~~~;3.'rs;3.$l;k&~0
(That guy is really sharp, isn't he?)
B: fiAfh, & & ~ ; ~ ' ~ b l , L j ? ~
(But, he has a bad character, you know.)
In spoken Japanese it is usually replaced either by keredo(mo) or by demo.
The formal version desu ga can be used in both spoken and written Japa-
nese.
(2) A: &%G&'FLL~T
L d: i
(Your job must keep you busy.)
B: Lk, W.f l ~ b t / r l lf h F . f l , ~ E I ~ ~ , L T - $ ,
(Yes, but it is interesting.)
Non-sentence-initial conjunctions:
e. S1 tif, Szo ???S1, hf Sz,
f. S1 OIL, SZO *S,, aC=Sza
(Non-)Sentence-initial conjunction:
-
-
However, it doesn't follow g
-
ing that even if one accepts a
- from this that -; But it doesn't EZZZ
premise expressed in the preced- mean that -; because of that
ing .sentence(s) one cannot jump to [REL. kara to itte]
an expected conclusion from the
+Key Sentences
Sentence,
I Sentencez
r (Mr. Cheng is not good at Japanese. On a test he cannot even finish half
of it. But it doesn't follow from this that he is not smart.)
Sentence3
- S,, (S2,, ...) F f ~ ~b Z T TS,, (where S, often ends with ihlf T i t a b ' or
s
gDg 2 b i R b a&>)
&zzs
+h hd,
@ i & z b l , & & b f ~ b ~ I?il.L;kS->T%;iL;kLGbl
, {hIftli&bl/
PEb&b~lo
(He is young. He has little experience. But it doesn't follow from this that he
cannot teach.)
tb?l<c,
(a) Y S 2 d & $ / v 0 Z k Q 6 ~ k $ ~ & ~ 6b4 ~1 1, 1 ~ 3 j t r . t s b $1 &~2
Z i , 7':jtr.L; 2 8 9 T , ~ $ ~ . 9 % ~ T b ~ G b ~ i h l f ~ C ; t : & b ~ ~
(John does not praise his wife at all. Sometimes he doesn't talk with
her. But it doesn't mean that he doesn't love her.)
(b) @li&'%&&% LTb1ZiL0 &<&~:b?jff ~ T b 1 Z iL;3.L,
~ 7':d.L; k
~
= T T ~, ~ ~ $ z ~ # $ ( c ; ~ Q L . ~ ~
(I am doing exercise every day. I am also paying attention to what I
eat. But it doesn't guarantee that I will live long.)
L * i PA"?"
(c) - tA,- ?$QtZil:bi'?&b:?Zi.
El$ACi%~~~djSf&3~1:k~ihkLb0 L
& L , IZjtr.6 k g ~ T @
, I A ( T % $ ~ <GbrihlfTC&$b1,
(They say that Japanese like group activities. Whatever they do, they
do together. But it is not the case that there are no individual
activities.)
a+* I &:i d+f
(d) %l&k@k:blbao
h.5
L*L, 7?;3.L; k S T T , fi,lfjtr.?@<Tblk
I 6 ,+$
C:Eb>t&-j-Ro
(Fish is good for you. But if you ate nothing but fish, it would be bad
for you.)
h(B-3
(e) ~~~g~~~ <$Lb1&+2gbfi60biAlri *$jgj ~#fE
gE L , +LA
R+Q%;ibam
dW:< C A t*
a*%&:, jzjtr.6 L - Z ~ T , f i m ~ j ~ f y < j b ~ 1 i h l j ~ t ; f ~ ~ ) ,
(Japanese is often said to be difficult. The grammar is complex and
kanji are hard to memorize. But that doesn't mean foreigners cannot
learn it.)
dakara to itte / dake de 23
a phrase which expresses the idea just V-ing is enough; can just -;
that just doing s.t. is enough for just by V-in;
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Vinf
1
I I I I
(c) F~C:&
mj~kl~l/v~-j-j5..
(Are you sure that I don't have to do anything except attend?)
(d) ?o%&Tl&$~iiI:I:&9 ~ k ~ z l I ? b Y T k $ 9 I : ~
(At that meeting all I had to do was sit there.)
, , <A
Cw <AS*? Lli!., t%
(e) $ $ k ~ C i -B B ~$8 @L f I ? b f T&O%%%C:BKJI:? i I?,
(I heard that Murakami passed that exam just by studying for one
week.)
. ??iiLIfV S
(f) $ 3 $ 2 x i ' L T % 9 2e&-$~?b$T~~$l/~?--$;.fl&~ { &&BY&%@
flhb.
(There is a vending machine which serves hot ramen (lit. from which
hot ramen comes out) just by inserting coins and pushing a button.)
htf SLVZ1LiL
(g) R a - ~ ~ B $~ ci if ~ E & e ~ k~&3 j * ,
(If you just pay 10,000 yen as deposit, we'll deliver the product.)
(h) i # j < j ~ j~& kf o ~ ~ ~ ~ < ~ ~ ~
dake de / -darake 25
(.lust hearing that story makes me sick. (lit. It is a story that makes me
sick just by hearing it.))
not the action expressed by the verb (Action 1) was taken in the past, and (2)
whether or not the actiodevent expressed by the verb (Action 1) precedes
the actiodevent expressed by the main verbal (Action 2). If A1 precedes A2
and A1 is a past action, the verb must be in the past tense (e.g., KS(B) and
Ex.(e)). If A1 precedes A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb is commonly
in the nonpast tense, although the past tense is also acceptable (e.g.,
~xs.(f)- 01)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is a past action, the verb is
commonly in the nonpast, although the past tense is also acceptable (e.g.,
Ex.(d)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb must
be in the nonpast (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c)).
(edake (DBJG: 93-97))
+ ~ e ySentences
(A)
rr ili WP 9 < i ii
(a) ~ b l z k % k e ~ ~ ~ l a ~ R~~ r~ :I bJ D
~ ~< ~, B Z Q E ~ W
7: ,
(Apparently they have not cleaned the room for a long time and the
floor and the tables were covered with dust.)
D i. .w
! d.2 tb kt: fB
(b) $3 K K ~ H S & A ~ ? @ , +0%0@b2&??23 l f E T 7 L
(When we carried him into the hospital, the man's face was covered
with blood.)
&L IWd
(c) %7'? b l f 0~r(r-h3
-(r&81/1~~
(Don't come in with muddy feet.)
(d) ?g&:23lf~r& ~-(rbl3-f-~
(I am living a life with many debts.)
to
(el
dir
-darake is used when s.t. is covered with s.t. undesirable, but if s.t. is
covered with s.t. desirable -darake cannot be used.
..
(On the floor were scattered bundles of monev.)
[Related ~xpressionl
The difference between -darake and -mamire is that the latter means 'totally
covered I mixed with dirty liquid 1 powder such as blood, sweat, mud or
dust,' excluding intangible objects, whereas the former can be used not only
with liquid 1 powder but also to cover holes 1 pimples, and intangible ob-
jects, as in KS(B) and Ex.(d). More examples to show the difference follow:
[I] 7 ~ h l % *{E%Cfl f ~ / * $ A h 1 7?-,7:,
(My composition was full of corrections.)
[Z] ~ O X S ' J C{ E~ %E l f / * g & h )72,
(My pants are full of holes.)
L l i h/r
[3] $ %OI%I~.G:$ 73. { E % t f/ * $ & h l 7 2 ~ 7 : ~
(The boy's face was covered with pimples.)
[41 El5 I E G C ~ / * Z A ~OI%I B Z ~ ~ ~ B + Z L%
BL t d.h ihTh
T T; ~
, TL~~I:,
-(Igot tired after driving on a bumpy road for as long as three hours.)
de T prt.
for; per
quantity, for each of which certain [REL. ni tsuki]
+Key Sentence
-
=
.---
- Topic
.
D2
-
-
-
-. -
-
a )
is3
-4-9 r
I- * h i / - .
= ~ m 2$&x~2~o
\
1 (We will pay 2.000 yen per page for this translation.)
1
C d./-.
< ;kaT,
ilf
mmm
De can be omitted if the relation between the basic amount and the associ-
ated amount is more or less fixed as in KS, Exs.(a) and (d). In Ex.(b) five
hundred pages for one day is not fixed, so it is impossible to say ichi-nichi
gohyaku peji. The same is true of Ex.(c) in which the cost of 70,000 yen for
five people is not fixed.
e elated Expression]
In the sense of 'per,' the particle de can be replaced by ni tsuki, if the rela-
tion between the basic amount and the associated amount is fixed as in KS,
Exs.(a) and (d). There is also a stylistic difference: ni tsuki is more formal
than de.
probably
urliter's conjecture which is not [REL. dar6; mail
based on any particular informa-
+Key Sentence
I
Sinf
I: vbw :L - ttb.3ti
~ l * k i 8 ~ 2 . 4 6 b ~ ~T ~d j~6 ~
99
i 0t b
(The Japanese economy will probably still keep growing (lit. from now
on, too).)
m!mm I: 'k H
(a) z ~ k i a 7 ' - - & ~ ; f i. =
e EkWzI;t~b~~a&,5i.
(Such a boom will probably not happen again.)
I: LA. LII: 7 Sh:
(b) z D % : s z ai+hsC2.9&K*$ b>-P&65 k + % s f i a o
(It is expected that the next earthquake will (probably) be very strong.)
Z i Lri $b
(c) ~ 0 $i2.@&~%?&7?&55
2 5
(That negotiation will probably be very difficult.)
-
-
S D -g
=
(I think that this area was probably a lake a long time ago.)
-
-
-
= -
- --
-
-
De aro is originally the conjecture form of the copula de am, but it is used
as an auxiliary of conjecture. This is used only in written Japanese.
(+ de am)
e elated Expressions]
I. Dar6, a less formal auxiliary of conjecture, has the same meaning and
function as de ar6 except that de ar6 can appear before a noun as p a
of a relative clause but daro cannot, as in [I].
bLLL3
[l] %L ~ C & L . > ~ %& &ITibj3
Z 5 / *f:3 5 1 Z~~JKT?L-C@;~
-C;k;fiaCf ;km c, aL.r,
(We must be prepared for a strong earthquake, which will prob-
ably take place someday.)
(edaM (DBJG: 100-02))
11. Mai can be used to express a negative conjecture. However, it can be
used only with Vinf .nonpast. aff.
[2] fit&
Q 5 Z Z".l&b&~\, (=@Ii b 5 Z Z " . I & & ~ L . ~ T & ~
i ,)
(He probably won't come here any more.)
( e mai)
-
(i) N t W &
*&it*.
St;& T63 ZI (be a teacher)
(ii) Adj(na)stem Th 6
kh1"& 6 (be quiet)
lKA.l7L *.A*'
(a) ~~iagka%~63s,
("Man is a thinking reed.")
Kit& - if& - d+S
(b) ~$&%.,~a~~la&-pi&,a k ~ .jao~rf:;gb~636,
((The idea) that Japanese is an ambiguous language is wrong.)
HBfSL, U. t 9 h Itwii~
(c) A%!SGZ-AT&& oirf:$%i~~63&~
(Using a big car for one person is uneconomical.)
*'h !! + 6'k
(d) ~ f i ~ ~ 1 u ~ ~ + ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ f i ; 5 ' k & ~ 6 3 f i ,
(I wrote him many letters but it was useless.)
32 dearu
-
I&++<
(el E T * S T C ~ * R $ ~ & - ~ ~ ~z&~ ~ ; t f $ % j~k - c + i ; h a ~ w m ~ ~ .
(In principle, in Japanese we do not say what is understood from con.
text.)
hh.Lai
(f) @ b f l & & 8 b > 0 C i & # ~~ ~ b ~ ~ b ~ $ l ; T a k , & ~
(It is because they haven't practice that they can't do it.)
Plain Form
1
nonpast past conjecture
Polite Form
conjecture
Neg. ~ ~9 %+?A
i h T t i h 9 3-tSATLI: T G i 2 b > T L b5
2. The plain forms are used in formal writing, for example, in professional
articles and editorials. Although the de aru style is more formal than the
da style, the two styles are often used together. Note that the de aru style
and the da style cannot be used with the desu style.
3. In writing, the formality level of the copula is as follows:
dearu 33
-
-
--
-
-
~nformal Formal -
--
4---------------------- *
gi / 72 Tt T&!l$-f
[misted Expression]
~lthoughda and de am mean the same thing, there are some syntactic dif-
ferences between them. First, N da cannot be used as the prenominal form
while N de am can, as in [I].
qC:P-nl;kt:,
(Botchan, which is Soseki's representative work, was written in
the 39th year of Meiji.)
*Key Sentences
9 s ;/'/'/3/Uci;&+j5r%ctlrbb'rz5*, T4E%bBGflrbblo
(Mr. Johnson is not just unable to write kanji; he cannot write even
hiragma.)
Lri+
x:%3/UdiEI*S-h'~lfab1rZF,~, Ei$.%T/J\$i-n'Pcf&("b
bl7Z0
(Mr. Smith is far from being unable to write Japanese; he can even
write a novel in Japanese.)
9 4 - 3 S ~ e i $ 1 ~ & i 5 ' & 4 c ; ; k & r z 5 j ~ 1@
, &?l~h4b;k&.
(Mr. Clark is not just able to eat sashimi; he can even eat mttd.)
hoX&m~rrz5-hl,mqkg3-aa ~ ,
(He is far from reading books; he doesn't even read newspapers.)
F[&&-f& rz5*,g*r;~g$,&~,,>o
(My father is far from doing exercises; he doesn't even step out of the
house.)
'tL lffd'7 Bb
++OAR ca!&\r~ s*, %*9 j:,
(This August was far from being hot; it was cold.)
+~oxci$$(a)
rzs*, $7: 3 9 T*.
(My father is far from being healthy; he is bedridden.)
L<
k&ci~,&g~zs*,
~ D ~ S W ~ ~ V % ~! &
(The meal was far from being a feast; it was like food for pigs.)
mm
1. In S, dokoroka Sz is used to indicate that s.o.1 s.t. is very far from an
expected state. In Sf appears a situation quite different from the situa-
tion expressed in S1.
36 dokoroka / demo
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
i I Predicate 1
Neg.
/
0 $ 6 { ;rbblo
/
Ir' 5 Q $4tj bl (no matter how one tries, S.O. doesn't eat)
(el BT,
5 t j ~ + ~Li ~y t 4 f ~Y j %%&a Q L ~ ,
(I don't know why, but our kids are always watching TV and do not
read books.)
(f) &IO%&tiY5 b & ~ b l L5 7Z0
(That teacher seems strict to me.)
(g) Y 3 > t i . E l * $ ~ % ~ ~ O l i k ~ E$FWOIi
$, Yj 1 5 T-$o
(John is good at speaking Japanese but for some reason he seems poor
at reading it.)
33 LtiCti
(i) Xii.%4R@b L T Y 5 b7FtvKG~f:b Lbl,,
(Judging from the symptoms my father seems to have cancer.)
dWEl It 2 P A L ?
(j) WOF+%ESOYT%K$Q :7: L P Y ~&&I:Q-~:~
(What she said to me this morning in the train somehow bothered me.)
3. DdmO is used with arigatd (gozaimasu) to mean 'Thank you very much,'
or with sumimasen to mean 'I'm very sorry.' Ddmo alone can mean a
very casual 'Thank you' or 'Sorry' without the following arigato (gozai-
masu) or sumimasen. Examples follow:
(I'm sorry.)
-
how (!)
mation about the degree to which [ REL. dorehodo - (koto) ka;
ikani - (koto) ka]
+Key Sentences
I Sentence I I
I
(HOWglad my elder brother was when he recovered from his illness!)
40 donnani - (koto) ka
-
-:
s
--
.DS
=
Sentence
.
E -
- 2 ~ ; frgt u~a c : ~ t , - ~ t \ t ; 2~ - 2 > ~
(a) E%G~&K+C:~WB~CJ;~~.~F:%C=.~/~~
h ' I ?:A.
t $,
:kt, S/uhA. ti6
am=
1. In the exclamatory structure of donna ni - koto ka, Adj(i/ na) or psy-
chological 1physiological verb is used before koto ka. The psychologi-
cal verbs include, among others, aisuru 'love,' nikumu 'hate,' konomu
'like' and the physiological verbs include, among others, tsukareru 'get
tired,' ase o kaku 'sweat,' furueru 'shiver.'
2. When the structure is used as an embedded question, koto is omitted, as
in KS(C) and Ex.(f).
- -
lkani (koto)ka and dorehodo (koto) ka can be used exactly the same way
-
as donnani (koto)ka. The only difference is that the former is a more for-
mal written style.
+Key Sentences
(A)
.
l L d: L l i V a i f l < + k b , L ItA.
&bj~-r$, Pi-+? &81?;3.b, *9I3%D@ 3 % ! 4 3 % 9 $ b j 2 b l Z21;
L 3 LP,
-
(I decided not to try for the Education Ministry's Scholyship, because
I'd be doomed to failure.)
I (If you make a trip abroad at all, it's better to do it when you are young.) ]
L O < t3. ht
Pi*Z/v2f:{ S , L D @ B , &$abv;3IabvM, z & z k i : L
7: L 0
(I cannot do this much homework anyway, so I've decided to play.)
X % [ ~ ~ - j - @ & a h / v f ? &&~( ; ,~ { I ~ L ~ ~ - ~ $ & ~ ~ S P ~ L ~ ~
(I'm going to Japan next week anyway, SO I'll buy that dictionary over
there.)
a-
The adverb Mse often indicates the speaker feels helpless and / or angry that
nothing can be done to change a given situation, but as exemplified by
KS(B) and Ex.(f), the adverb can also he used to suggest finality of one's
decision.
with an appearance I style I tone 1 in - manner; after - style; g 1,
-
-
= =
manner of - -; like
[REL. y6ni]
-
-
-
=-
-
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun
I 1
(C)
Adverbial Clause
A: zk~d2r/vamb:&9fZbblbltvTt+,
(How should I hold this?)
B: ;/"2m1:~9T~Sb1,
(Please hold it like this.)
dj/v~~~:&i%"tv~~.~f~r;, 3 9 ~ % ~ E Q E , T L L j.
(If he keeps drinking like that every day, he will surely become ill.)
Z~>?JL-~~'XC~~'~FR2 G7: ,6 3 < L T % b d T ,
(We have made this cumed rice very spicy like an Indian version.)
YX: -jj.'smms&hsLf:w:tav9
t*
<
9 LIZ,
(I was surprised when Jemmy bowed 6 la Japonais.)
*A?
: It*
ti, 4 a c 2 2 7 ~ ,$ t i ; t ~ nk ~ l i m i l b = , @~%;fi't?%b11:4~9
Tblzl0
(Kyoko goes out every day to take lessons, like flower arrangement
one day and dance, the next.)
$gSty&ygG 9 fz I,> j RC;x;fi'1;gb13 Lkjj.', b~+$T-f;fi'~
(I heard that your mother has been hospitalized, but how is she?)
*i? b % < zw*h.
&BWSa>f.&Gb, < bkjg%-%->-c~brb>, 2blimi:a;kif
blbl/vTt$;ta,
(I wish things could change in such a way that we can spend as much
money as we want to, if it is for educational improvement.)
1. The adverbial phrase fu ni includes the noun fii 'wind' which has
extended meanings of 'appearance,' 'style,' 'manner' or 'tone.' That i,
why the adverbial phrase {N / konna / sonna / anna /donna} fu ni in&
cates appearance I style I manner in which s.t. is done.
2. S to iu fii ni (as in KS(C) and Ex.(f)) is used when one wants to quote
s.t., as if to evoke in the mind of the listener the manner in which the
original communication was made. The meaning is 'the content to the
effect that -.'
3. S to iu fii ni (as in Exs.(e) and (g)) has a meaning of 'in such a way that
-,' in contrast to a quotation case of Note 2.
4. N, fu no N2 as in Exs.(c) and (d) means N2 with a style of N1. More
examples follow:
(1) a. 3-D y / < m ~ g g
(European-style architecture)
9/uB'<
b. I <y /\Aa)g>g
(Bach-style music)
c. =WU--RO%
(a woman like Monroe)
hi elated Expression]
The adverbial phrase fii ni can be replaced by ybni, if the construction is S to
iu fD ni. If the construction is {konna / sonna / anna /donna} fu ni, it has to
be replaced by {kono / sono / ano / dono} yoni. N fu ni has to be replaced by
N no yoni.
tend to; be prone to; be apt to;
be liable to; be subject to; often
[REL. -gimi]
+Key Sentences
('4)
Topic Vmasu
(B)
Topic Relative Clause Noun
I I
Vmasu
I: i%L ?:A b d*LT;vB'r> Arb,: <CL z +m
75'6
5;kCi EI$GZ$~BQB~&~EL~~~!ZIAGZ
&kl 2 3 ?
Lo
Noun
75'6
Noun
g d'&,
-
(Around here many people are often away from their houses during the
-
-
- -
-
day. (lit. Around here there are many houses which residents are often
-
Z
-
-
-
G
-
- ~
away from during the day.))
( i ) Vmasu 75'672
bt
5&75%7: (tend to forget)
(ii) N 75'62
%'+
;3' 6 72 (tend not to be home)
iLXL &+<
Edk??&-if& tm-d'T1;,&!Ld'%~?,
(Our bodies are apt to lack salt in the summer.)
k ljbl PblSLS<
z~@ztt~gzB&d'%?fO
(This watch tends to lose time these days.)
C XL 9 ri 60-t d.LP
Xck 2 & % a 2 Q ~ O $ [ ~ W N ~iW~La s ~ g ; i ; 3 ' % ~ ,
(People tend to think (about things) in a way that suits themselves.)
<
% I & 2 75 $!@~%~&i:g;i$3j:~
(Young people tend to think (about things) too seriously and narrow-
mindedly.)
L*i $9
*6 i %%&ifd'%r-F,
%Lc&E%a
(These days I seldom stay home even on weekends.)
a'<**, ad.
z n c 2 7 ~11 ~ ~ A O Y L W ~ L Laiq&j:,
~~'%
(This is the kind of mistake which American students are apt to make.)
- 3.oe~
7 7x
(i) @&~i&@$%
iL01
e:ittif%~%o)r?w%X~~b~a.
(There are some students in my class who often get ill.)
KdL k 0
go
b.
*b1b17d <
71' 71i q 3 b 1 T b 1 & 9 1 : R ~ \ 3 d @ 5 7 ' ? 0
(Good ideas tend to occur to us when we are relaxed.)
*sasii4mfr.~a)x%~~ai~
(It will be mostly fine tomorrow.)
2. When -gachi modifies a noun, two forms are possible, as in (2).
(2) a. flk$% I & / O l q&
(a student who tends to miss classes)
b. %%$% { & / a 1+#
(a child who often gets ill)
3. -gachi can be paraphrased using the adverbs yoku 'often' or shibashiba
'frequently,' as in (3).
The suffix -gimi can also express the idea of "tend to" in some contexts. The
major difference between -gachi and -gimi is that -gachi usually describes a
general tendency in someone or something while -gimi describes a visible
indication of a tendency. For example, in [la], Taeko has a general tendencB
to gain weight but she is not necessarily overweight at the moment of
speech. In [Ib], on the other hand, Taeko is showing signs of being over-
weight.
[I] a. $$+iit& 0~,~GIz~
(Taeko tends to gain weight these days.)
b. WFiiEZk 0 $?&fL
(Taeko is showing a tendency to gain weight these days.)
In addition, -girni also expresses the idea of "touch of" or "a little," as in [2],
-gachi does not have this meaning.
+Key Sentences
(A)
Topic Vrnasu 1
1
I I
- -Vmasu
$Lbz2->T
bt
h k3f:l.l
-
86 7
'
,E,bl~ KQ&7.650
-0-
-
.
-
-
@0;;i$i&G~fl7:b~~
(His behavior is hard to understand.)
&0%t&@$ s T w : l & x & 0 f17:bao
(That professor is so respected that I can hardly approach him.)
ks %(DL :?HP P
ZOI-Dl%%l&EBZ.If Gff17:b~0
(Between these two works, it is hard to say that one is better than the
other.)
ZDYD YL 9 1~33 ~ 7 2: t&sbaflf:bao
(It is hard to say that this project was a success.)
'i - 2;C&d&&flfibaX"$7'~0
(Mr. Jones is an irreplaceable person (lit. a person hard to get).)
bhbfi
iqgo$#k:gT&&,j, L f l f : , , a j ~ & g ~ , j , ~ 7 z o
(We obtained an indisputable piece of evidence concerning his crime.)
~~t&A&k:$~,j,b~2fl7:b~~~g~~fj:~
(1 was intolerably humiliated by him in the past. (lit. received an intol-
erable humiliation from him.))
-
-gatai is used when it is virtually impossible for
for example, is equivalent to (1).
-gatai, -nikui, and -zurai express a similar idea, i.e., "difficulty in doing s.t:
However, their usage is significantly different. First, -gatai is usually used
only in written language or formal speech, but -nikui and -zurai can be used
both in spoken and written language. Second, unlike -gatai, -nikui and -zuraj
do not imply virtual impossibility. For example, in [I], where Mr. Yamad&
handwriting is hard, but not impossible, to read, -nikui and -zurai can be used
but -gatai cannot.
[I] ;i;a~~%$a,+~&d;r
{c;< L \ / ~ % L \ / * ~ P ~ L L \ I ,
(Yamada's handwriting (lit. characters) is hard to read.)
Third, while -gatai and -zurai can be used only with verbs which require an
agent, -nikui can be used with verbs which do not require an agent, as in [2].
b. ~%$a,$lik~ {I:< L \ / * 3 % L \ / * W T L L \ I O
(This wood doesn't burn easily.)
(d-nikui (DBJG: 307-08))
In the sentences in 131 and 141, -nikui can also be used. However, -gatai
cannot be used in these sentences because they do not convey the idea of
impossibility.
gy ku ni @I= adv.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(A)
(B)
Subordinate Clause Main Clause
6 I 0 , b G3&6kLI:,
-
.
. -
(I expected to be scolded but, contrary to my expectation, I was praised.)
Sentencel 1
(If we emphasize conversation, their grammar becomes inaccurate.
Sentencez
I
Conversely, if we emphasize grammar, they are (lit. become) unable to
speak.)
hL L n i
L I f b 1; @ F!QL L f P 7 I : I ; , & : % % d ' 4 ~ I : ~
(I didn't practice for some time; then, contrary to expectations, my per-
formance improved.)
&-j-ga2 , z & ~ : a i ; a v l ~ ~, c : & L - c L t~: o
(If you sleep too much, you don't feel well; instead (lit. conversely),
you feel tired.)
~4%57-C-?6 $ k , R q T b l I . 6 , i!&b:*@%gbfiT L 5 9k0
( I was thinking of complaining; then, contrary to my intention, I had to
listen to complaints.)
r.9 L t i l f L 4 L . 1 L :t
-& ! !@&fk$Q L k ~ l : , 3C:@i7b:&bfiT ~5 9 I:,
(I worked very hard, but, contrary to expectations, my peers hated me.)
gyaku ni 55
f:0
-
Conversely, if I try to be strict, he cries readily.)
$/.%ti
b>b>$k&Q-t&l:at,1:~;1:% %LtFTG;tb>hf a b > L ~ L Zl:1l , 5
7 3 %L t FT b b>b>i@@b;t:&&tsb>,
(In order to perform well, you mustn't be too tense. But, conversely, if
you are too relaxed, you cannot perform well, either.)
+Key Sentences
(The closer (you sit) to the stage, the easier this music is to hear.)
(B)
Vinf. nonpast
I I
-
+.M i).t hlrn r b vt
Z k f S @ % B Btl 'b A I2 k (the more logical a person's way of
thinking is)
-
-
-
.
. -
-
dr < $&s&T
a $&12 > (a student who studies harder ; the harder a
-
E
-
H g-
-
- student studies)
-
-
-
-
-
1. Hodo can express the idea of "the -, the -" as well as "(not) as - as -"
-
and "so that -." (ehod0 (DBJG: 135-3811
2. Sentences of the pattern KS(C), which involve noun phrases before
hodo, can be rewritten using the pattern KS(A). For example, (1) is
equivalent to KS(C) in meaning.
(1) %LILff~hf%LL\t3z.t.aB@ffiTa, <
(The harder the job is, the more motivated I become.)
60 igai
+Key Sentences
(4
Topic Sinf
ht L
$ 1 & ' ! - 1: {q$$$lh;(l'2bl,
1 (I have nothing to enjoy other than drinking.)
(i ) N I%% (ON)
3 - t - ~ 9 (O&&.&)
+ ((drinks) other than coffee)
1: IPLLI
-
@ot+$-cr&f %-I i-i 1) ~ a f i o B i . & i i c a a r . . -
-
-
(At present our company is not dealing with any countries but Aus-
tralia.)
IfLI*? L I 1
),( 7 9 1 )8L%fioEl+L;Bk<SlUWRZ;5'%I:,
(Many researchers came from countries other than America, too.)
(d) K B l i z f i u f i l ~ g ~ b k L a b ~ ~
(I can't think of any causes other than this.)
3b,K86% 3LY?
(e) + L ~ & & U W C Z B @ E I B L . \ Z ~LBT ~ \ & ,
(I take (other) light exercise every day as well as taking a walk.)
(f) zz~&9Tb~6a%abl~
(There is nothing to do but wait here. (lit. There is no other way but
waiting here.))
(g) Zb+M$WJ+b\b~ z 273% !I a Ti%
(Is there any merit besides the price (lit. besides the fact that it is
cheap)?)
+LA 3 86'
(h) z o Z & ~ g + o g d g ~ w6&;5', +fiuficaBrz,
(This sentence (or passage) contains a few kanji mistakes, but other
than that, it is perfect.)
C*iBki ~ X L
(i) f% % A U # ~ % & [Door sign]
(Employees only. (lit. Entry of those other than employees is prohib-
ited.))
62 igai
1. "X igai no Y" refers to the referent of Y excluding the referent of x$8
member of Y. In "X igai no Y," "no Y" is often omitted, as in (1).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1-
g
-
-
(=Ex.@))
2. " X igai ni" means 'besides X.' In this phrase, ni is often omitted, as in
Hoka can sometimes be used in place of igai. For example, igai in the fol-
lowing examples can be paraphrased using hoka.
Another difference between hoka and igai is that igai can be followed by -
- -
conditional forms such as nara, datfara, and deareba but hoka cannot, -- 1
-
-
as in PI.
[31 a. &$ r w t / * m f i > }{as/ ~ 7 t / ~~ ~5 n c~b+ C}B $ L
-rdiCf"&L o
(I will lend you anything except money. (lit. I will lend you any-
thing if it is something other than money.))
*- C*A
b. {Hfi/*(DCSfi>lI & % / E 7 k 5 / T S h l d l @JTB+?
!I 390
(I play everything except mahjong. (lit. I play anything if it is
not mahjong.))
Finally, igai can be followed by case markers such as de and to but hoka can-
not, as in [4].
d.11 6
141 a. &++G I W ~ / * D Ct~~~ t~f>iI ~ & trbKeL T~L> .~~ &,
(I make it a practice to socialize only with rich people. (lit. I
make it a practice not to socialize with people other than rich
people.))
b. ZO&& {Hfi/ *(T)MA~l
T~n~9&~2b~T?~b~,
(Please do not eat in rooms other than this one.)
64 ijd (wa)
Sentence, Sentencez
Vinf
<A. Sri
education.)
(d) & 6 9 f:LXkli, h a f : & k $ $ $ k , ~o&r.f,
(Now that you have given this to me, it is mine, no matter what you
say.)
(el %%L < ~ % ~ L T ~ ~ z L J L ~ & ,X?$O~*&ZLG~~~ ~ b l ~
(So long as you are very active, your body seems to stay strong.)
(f) X ~ % % L ~ : L X _+~;Ck ~ ?, 1 ; a l f ; k ~ m r ; a b l ~
(Once you have made a promise to someone, you have to keep it.)
1. The construction S, ijo (wa), S2 can be used when one feels strongly that
there should be a close, necessary connection between S1 and S2. The
structure cannot be used to express an objective causal relation. Exam-
ples follow:
S h L *h hh
(1) *ZB+Be$6%blfAXt, 2 T &%;k-Cbl&,
I. When S1 ijd Sz means 'so long as' as in KS(B) and Ex.(e), it can be
replaced by S1kagiri (wa) Sz.
$'
11. S1ijd Sz cannot be replaced by SI kara ni wa SZ,if the former means 'as
long as,' otherwise the replacement is possible.
A ' W
[41 % - n ' & $ ~ v a I H + / * ~ P G C = C~~%
I,C = T ~ ~ E B B
10
(As long as I live, I won't let you go without anything.)
IHk/*fJ>%CZib},
[5] #ii;tkr&k$hc~..b %kdi%r;;+h~l~
(So long as you keep drinking, your illness won't be cured, you
know.)
[6] H$Za)4'i;S%RblTblS
'5+6 r v , +
IHk/*fJ>%Etb),EI$ZQlfil
< A l i 1 4 ; T L ; + h b l T L d : ib.,
(So long as you listen to Japanese radio, your listening skills
won't deteriorate, I presume.)
( ~ is
t snowing outside, and it looks really cold.)
(The bookshelves of his study room are packed with books of all ages
and countries, and it surely looks like a scholar's room.)
68 ikanimo
Sentencel Sentence,,
I 1 1
2%
(i) bljlr.~:it&9L;ebB13~-if,
(It is exactly as you have said.)
trm -
if&
Y X s -&&ablhbtriaa
(i, ~ ~ & i i r l $ l ht: %~'ilgS~ia;k,aj5',
b>o
(Japanese is indeed a difficult language, but it is not the case that you
cannot master it.)
aim
The adverb ikanimo is used when the speaker 1writer wants to express his
emotive conviction. The adverb often occurs with such conjectural expres-
-
sions as soda (as in KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d)), rashii (as in KS(C), Exs.(e)
and (0) and ydda /ydsuda (as in KS(D), Exs.(g) and (h)). Also it occurs
with the conjunction ga (as in KS(E), Exs.(j) and (k)).
e elated Expressions]
I. Every use of ikanimo in KS and Exs. can be replaced by another adverb
hontd ni 'truly' without changing the meaning. The only difference be-
tween the two is that the former is slightly more formal than the latter.
The adverb tashika ni can replace ikanimo when the latter is used in the
Pattern of ikanimo S1ga Sz, as in KS(E) and Ex.(j).
70 ikanimo / Imperative
Imperative
k-+? k,
1
4
(stop it now.)
Quotation
I I I
Vcond
I I I
1
I
(It says here to pay before December 3 1.)
Imperative 71
(A) ~ffinnative
L 6 [Spoken] (Do!)
[Written] (Do.)
(B) Negative
Vinf enonpast 2
%t2 (Don't talk!)
A. 2 (Dont't eat!)
(ena (DBJG: 266-67))
Rk!
(Shut up!)
G< C!
(Don't move!)
**'rrl.Lw Lri t< C RwCL
lh qg $1IW@%%+? dr ! [A demonstrator's placard]
(Yarnanaka must go! (lit. Prime Minister Yamanaka must leave his
office immediately!))
$09 .
Q %%Q dr [An examination direction]
(Translate the following sentences into English.)
72 Imperative
-
(g) %&
I%. ts k ~ b ' - c & & ~
(It says (lit. is written) not to send cash.)
[Rdated ~xpression~l
Vmasu + nasai and Vte + wa ikenai 1 ikemasen are milder than the
I.
imperatives introduced here; therefore, they are frequently used in daily
Examples follow:
^rA Bri
[I] ;t9LB%LaPe\,
(Study harder.)
-
(d nasai (DBJG: 284-85))
n. ~ o t also
o expresses a command, but it is used only in written rules and
regulations.
i7BAL7 IittL
b. BEJ%$TlitZ&% L h b > Lk O
(No talking in the reading room.)
(e
koto)
-
1;
-
=
-
-
1 (Prof. Kanda teaches physics at college on the one hand and does
research on Japanese language on the other.)
-
(This medicine, on (the) one hand, alleviates symptoms but on the other
hand, it has strong side effects.)
(b) ~ k i $
S&
fj~&
f'- ,
Tb.6 kLl$@7'&
(On one hand, Mr. X is engaged in charities, but, on the other hand,
rumor has it that he is engaged in a ruthless business.)
(c) ~ grb,c.i~ f t-mimmm~-w
Ori
~ " , "$6,
KbQb,
CniS7 L
9 <t <
~ f j ~ i i P ! b
Wm%%i.b~Bh% b f%WL-Cb~Tcb~,
(The President has promised tax-cuts. But on the other hand he doesn't
think much about waste of tax-payers' money by his entourage.)
ipp6 de (wa) - tahd de (wa) - 75
-?i~~f,fi&%i:~d.ejaljc:
&&$&%it,
+r(+?~ikL T L I @ ~ Q ~ ~
w?jriisZble:~asas.&*~blei, %bi.;tielaa,
m e answering machine is, on the one hand, very convenient for both
,person who calls and a person who is called, but, on the other hand,
unnatural because you can't talk directly with the other person.)
(Life in a foreign country is, on the one hand, enjoyable because one
can encounter new culture, but, on the other hand, it is sometimes hard
because of culture shock.)
aim
The construction is used to give two contrasting facts about a given topic. In
other words, it is used to show both sides of the same coin so that the hearer /
reader can get a total picture of an action / state.
a suffix which indicates the idea of from the viewpoint of; for (the
"from the viewpoint of," "for the sake of); for (the reason); j4
sake of," "for the reason," or "in (terms of); relating to; in -ing
terms of" [REL. no ue de wa]
*Key Sentences
-
-
-
.
-
. -
Noun
-
i-
.d"
-
- bilk'< ~ t ?
.
-
.
- - ca>%iiita _t L<GW,
I I I
(This film is not good from an educational point of view.)
Noun
1 (I will skip a detailed explanation for lack of time (lit. time limitation).) i
(In terms of calculation, this is correct.)
(E)
Noun Noun
i +_
a> h"d T$S&&Z kKLk,
I (I've decided to retire for health reasons (lit. for a reason relating to my 1
health).)
Noun Noun
3miV
r&m 0 at] ab: (&tv+'~t,>,
(Read "Warnings for Use" carefully.)
+Key Sentence
iif C *h
(a) A: -%~e$ b%b'T, $ h - FL r 5,
(You must be tired after swimming as long as one hour.)
Ilh s
B: b.?, $ 2 9 T Z X K ti 7 I: L
(No, on the contrary, I feel fit now.)
I: i t L Z C i i S
(b) 6C I%~ L~L $~ ~ ? 7 : b ~ f ~ ~ k ' 1 ~ t ' d & dB.bk. +%f i~q k?A, t**
XL,: -$P,
B$Ak8ZGTifd.OSLTb~f:OT7 d . k ~ T ,? + K ~ ~ T T % $ Q T
$3 LIZ,
(I went to Japan, believing that my Japanese will improve (if I go)
there, but I spoke only in English with Japanese there, so (contrary to
my expectation) my Japanese became worse when I came back here.)
L a i Lt < 2h1:h *L<LX
(c) % l O i t kTZAO%&G:7 F)<I.X% L T b b 9 k O T 3 V , 7 F
rnr+$X ,
~ ~ I ' x ~ F ~ ~ ~$kq-c,
s ~ o T
$+r;ti<
, t i 9 - c ~ ~ a L1 Pa ,
(I was given advice on job searching from three professors, but their
advices are so different that I am rather at a loss.)
kaette 81
m
The dverb kaette is used when one describes a situation I event that occurs
to one's expectation.
[Related ~xpressiod
The adverb mushiro 'rather' can replace all the uses of kaette in KS and Exs. -
-
-
z
-
-
-
K -a--
-
[I] a. / @ L a ] $?js#U'p(
%$&AlZb, I-h'k.97 g 9 j:, (=Ks)
+Key Sentences
(As long as Mr. Tanaka is not here (lit. does not come), we cannot
begin this meeting.)
Subordinate Clause Main Clause
(AS long as this is the fact, he probably cannot escape being found
am-
( i ) Vinf Pi3 11
,&b PE cl (as far as s.0. sees)
L5
$@I: PE ")as long as s.0. examined)
&a a blPE 11 (as long as s.0. does not read; until s.0. reads)
C r)
&%b PI4 cl (as long as s.0. can do; to the extent s.0. can do)
(ii) N T {&b / C b > ) Pi34
d'< CV
f &T& b PI4 0 (as long as s.0. is a student; while s.0. is a student)
:I i i h u
T I 4 (as long as s.0. is not Japanese; unless s.0. is Japa-
nese)
*T'*
? @ g & l i $ ~ * ~ t v I t b ~ " )'I i&afP9ko
(As far as I read, the document contained no errors.)
a ~ g ~ b j+ AaG Z~ 2~~ '~ ~
E KT~?~TG~GV,
SliW<L*
(While you are an educator, you shouldn't say things like that.)
z ~ @ c : % l ; a w ~ ~ ~4
CriSiai
x a3 G=c~%Lz~~~,
(Until you pass this exam, you cannot enroll in the advanced class.)
$$if;
., h * b 1;Gb% 'I+H:/l_t@@@~ii$riJ'dti.T-rt~
3 L 6.03 h
&%aPJ!'I-P9TJhZ-rto
(I will try my best (lit. try to do as long as I can do).)
(As long as the person is good at it, it doesn't matter who does
it.)
2. Nouns before the conjunction kagiri must be followed by the copula de
aru (or de nai), as in (3).
EXPR~~~O~I
id^ wa 'while' and uchi wa 'while' are used in similar contexts. In fact,
wa and uchi wa can be used in place of kagiri if the kagiri clause indi-
cates a time interval.
However, aida wa and uchi wa can occur with adjectives while kagiri cannot,
in [z].(See Note 1.)
[z] a. EZIB~~
I5%lb/Mlb/*BEbJ) %%if&-b!I??,
(=(I))
b. %$u~'sI ~ % M / W U / * R&~ I~ I ~ k ~ < / > ~ >jo
j I TLL
(It would probably be a good idea to borrow it (and keep it)
while it is convenient.)
a suffix which expresses the idea the last; only until; from - on;
limited to; only
+ ~ e ySentences
I Noun (time) 1 1 1 I
I I I
(This is the last time I am going to any of his parties.)
Number + Counter
I I I
--.
(Tickets are limited to two per person.)
.
( i ) N (time) FR Q
+ 3 Pi2 Q
LL Lwi
(limited to this week; This week is the last week.)
-
-
-
E -
(ii) Number + Counter lra 0
vt, 2'
-$, PR 0 (limited to one time; only once)
-g
I(;
L
-
i v 9
. :A179
z D @ a i g i i + a pi2 w%$k
7$.
tL2-F0
(This movie house is open only until the end of this month.)
V:'$~~mf&,~:if~e~~d,a.t,
(From today on I will give up both drinking and smoking.)
+-ILCL&~PEQ TT,
(Tomorrow is the last day of the sale.)
f D$j~Rl,l 03gi;f:
Lal/$$j5rb~l/~,
(You'd better not make an empty promise (lit. a promise limited to the
moment).)
& L & L~;~:--EwFE cl TT. b.?d'rxsLr9
mmm
1. -kagiri is preceded by either a noun or a number with a counter. Nouns
before -kagiri are usually those which indicate a certain time.
p+kagiri is used when a repeated or on-going action, event, or state lasts
2.
only until a certain time.
whether - or -; or
possibilities about which the
{ i i % b 1 / m ~ @ ~ r : 21
1 {3a1;a~/-=al;a@~1~1 +
(whether s.t. is 1was interesting or boring)
L*iLr<
F$e&T&b3 R-j-~fij&$bz~a@2 &&Tb>2+Ao
(I haven't decided yet whether to get a job or go to graduate school
after graduation from college.)
%& ~#%#&3@~&Jqf3@,
~b1-?3b&&9&
(Please ask the guest in advance whether he likes meat or fish.)
??Bt
z ~ k i : c i = - u . ; l , c e & f + t a ~ , 7 3 ~ ~ ~ & & + a + a, m a
-Cb>aa/v,
(I haven't yet decided whether I should travel in Europe or work in
Seoul during the summer break.)
b<ti U S k i 5 V
%#*?em f?9 k @ & @ E i 7 ~ 7:@,
9 5h-C L 3 b > a L k o
(I forgot whether the meeting was on Thursday or Friday.)
%&-C977 k & ~ k ~ f l l f - f?- T ? ? ~ ? Z @ , 7 - 1 b T i ? ~ k $ ,
%L-Cb>a+Ao
-ka-ka 89
(1 don't remember whether it was at a party or at the pool that I first
met Tamara.)
I b,$b> *A:?
& ] ~ S ~ Y ~ A Y T # Z ~ ~ ~ ~ &8&*sm~m;tr.,
L I : ~ > ; ~ . , h9Tk.
6 -S*o
(DOyou know whether Mr. Kimura majored in economics or politics at
-
college?)
@I&%$, %Tab.*, **b&b>L 5 &&)Lo
(Lately, it's hard to tell whether a lot of men are men or not.)
If?ki t b s l i
&%tifl1;3.*1(7NE LTTS b..
(Please make the meeting Monday or Wednesday.)
-
-
-
m e - ka ka construction is used when one is not sure about two
-
-
-
-
-
K
choices or possibilities. (6 ka2 (DBJG: 166-68))
Normally the construction is used to deal with two choices or possibili-
ties, but when one lists the choices and possibilities more than two ka's
can be used as in (1).
(1) % w G ~ ,% t : ~fid#a~s
s fiw R IfL be? E r it25
< fi>, a I Z R ~
-cb>3+?Lo
( I haven't decided whether to stay here or make a trip or work
at the research institute during the spring break.)
If the same verb is repeated as in KS(A), the second one can be replaced
by do ka as follows. (+ka (dbka) (DBJG: 168-70))
(2) %+ E $-4W *
s E 5 fi', a 7?** 0 3 +?Lo
90 kana
I wonder if -
cates a self-addressed question or
question addressed to an in-
*Key Sentences
Vinf
-
6LCb' LX
s+roEBii r i s a ,
(I wonder what life is like in Japan.)
(d) 4 a ~ $ $ ~ % ~ i ~ z l ' 2 0
(I wonder what today's dinner will be.)
(el 71f- b ' & @ i i 8 b ~ @ h 0
(I wonder if the apartment rent is high.)
(f) 5k4ti&kjS.ao
(I wonder if my teacher is in good health.)
1h,6<+w $3 J
mm
1. The sentence-final particle kana is used when one asks himself about s.t.
In essence kana is a marker of monologue question, so this cannot be
used as a straightforward question addressed to others. Compare the fol-
lowing:
(2) r z - . ~ 7 3 E t f i ~ o
(Where are you going?)
(3) P;+?l;jZjfi>a,
(I wonder where I should go.)
92 kana / kanarazushimo
The questions of (1) and (2) are straightforward questions addressedto
others, but (3) is a monologue question which does not need t
O be
answered. However, if it is a yes-no question and if the addressee is an
equal or younger one, kana can be used as a question addressed
to
others, as shown in KS(B) and Ex.(g).
2. If one asks himself what one should do,Vvol has to be used as in KS(A,
and Ex.(b)
3. Kana is normally used by a male speaker, but it is often used by a
female speaker, too, in casual spoken Japanese. The normal c o u n t e ~ ~
is kashira. (+kashira (DBJG: 181-82))
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Adj (i)inf
(one cannot always say that people with good memories are good at -
=
- -
EKE
-
foreign languages.) -
-
-
-
-
-
I I I I
(I don't think that a Japanese is always a good Japanese language
teacher.)
-
(s.t. is not always quiet 1S.O.is not always a teacher)
(b) % B L <
*s~di!w~6?&3~& t ii~~r;tsc.1~
(People who exercise regularly do not always live long.)
-
Kanamzushimo nai is often used in a proverbial expression in which
2. the tense of the final predicate is usually nonpast. However, kanarazu-
shimo can be used with the past tense as in (1) below.
(1) a + O ~ ~ * ~ R ~ ~ Y ~ C ~ G T L I B ~ Z
+If&
(The students who went to Japan that summer not always
became proficient in Japanese.)
b.
f7]ag3359:-)b.
*.A<*
iJin~~~y0~#&@pL&
$ $ g T l d 2 ~ 9fz0
(The performances of the virtuoso pianist Vladirnir
Horowitz were not always perfect.)
[Related ~xpressiod
- o expresses a partial negative. The partial negative can
~ ~ ~ a r a z u s h i mnai
-
also be expressed by other expressions such as minna wa nai, zenbu wa -
- -
nai, subete wa nai, itsumo wa nai. Examples follow:
b. $Eta {ei%/*a~~.t~
F ~ T L ' ~ ~ ~ : ,
(I've done all the homework.)
96 kanarazushimo / -kaneru
c. $LG;f. { L \ ~ & / * & T LZ%R,
&I
(I'm always healthy.)
a
-kaneru fP,'h b aux. v. (G,:
2)
4. None of the regular potential forms can take -kaneru either, because it
creates double potential meaning.
However, there are two exceptions: wakaru 'can figure out' and dekiru
'can' (used with a Sino-Japanese compound) can take -kaneru, as shown
in KS(A) and Ex.@), respectively.
6. As explained in Note 3, -kaneru takes the first person, but when the
-kaneru / - kara - ni itaru made 99
main predicate is in the progressive form, -kaneru can take the third per-
son, as in M e ) and (f).
[Re,atd ~x~ressionsl
nereare two auxiliaries similar to -kaneru. They are Vmasu nikui and
gatai. The crucial difference is that -kaneru conveys the meaning of
but the other two don't; rather, they convey the meaning of 'hard
to do ~ . t . The
' auxiliary -gatai is used in written Japanese, so it sounds very
awkward in [lb] but is acceptable in [la].
C l i i A.
I I I I I
(Mr. Smith can read Japanese widely, ranging from weekly magazines
to scholastic books.)
100 - kara - ni itaru made
(a)
&LA. B
w&mbae+it+
Lr L I • ‹L l i
ao 5
Nlali %i+7
-
-
(c) W~DA~L$LGH~ 2&O bZh%okhi:s& a ~ ,
.
. -
1Kg (That lady told me everything in detail, starting with her family and
. -
-
- ending with the worries of her life.)
L-Bri *'?b
(d) R iwzmf:s;tc:ii, ?&-h.~%wa:za a T, T~v:~ AT&
(When the president of the company arrived, everyone from the guards
to the vice-president was waiting in front of the gate.)
&?'lL r i ? <
(e) 1L-',-bt@jS~b#~~:36 aT,
WOZ % f ? ~ f : ,
(Lucie was dressed in green, from her shoes to her hat.)
-
Since kara - ni i t a r ~made Cannot express range of physical distance or
time,
- kara - made has to be used in that case.
I t i t LW..~L SL E ~ P L
+fi)ljz8fi (ZT/ * K Z ~ kffiw~~~+~i)li)lz,.
*TI
( ~takes
t three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.)
> b + - @ Z S I%T/*CZZB&T) F - X B Ll:,,
(Yesterday morning I played tennis from 9 o'clock till about 11
o'clock.)
+Key Sentence
LhLei 6 < k i
(a) + ~ l $ * i ; 1 6 ~ ~ ; ~ ~ G : f i C f d~5~, j s ' ~ & ~ ~
(This week it will probably snow from Thursday through Friday.)
-
(b) b % 1 $ 2 8 fir;-kfl~:64j--(r65js'%<.
(In Japan the rainy season continues through June and July.)
:i I h? C i i i L M L t i I*iL*i
(c) &%&-nr$fl%+sfil;h t[.ll:fiCfT&o & L T ~ \ & ,
(High atmospheric pressure extends from the Korean Peninsula up
through Kyushu.)
[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
-
- kara made is similar to - kara - ni kakete, but not exactly. The former
indicates a spatial I temporal 1 quantitative beginning, and the end point is
clear, but the latter indicates a spatial I temporal beginning and the end point
is not clear. So, as shown in [I], - kara - ni kakete is ungrammatical or
marginal, because the end point is clear.
---
[I] a.
-*A< C
+fitif~~+fi>%+&& ( 3I * ~ ~:fi>tf~~ Xgjs'Lit 0 a*,
h he water will be shut off from 9 a.m. till 5 p.m.)
1. C*< i I
b. J R C ~ ! & T ~ R ~ ~ ~ % ~ & R {ZT/??CZfi>tfTl $ % G : ~ Q T I / ~ ~
-3-0
ka a t
e ' 52 7 conj.
+Key Sentences
I I
@I
I Subordinate Clause Main Clause (negative)
(Even though I don't complain, it doesn't mean that I'm satisfied with
the present situation.)
I (You don't have to be so pessimistic because you didn't pass the exam.) I
-
1 04 kara to itte
4 L Li i
(a) # @ L k ~ \ Ik; g 9 - C & - ~ r k k T l i G b \
(It is not a problem which will be solved because you have paid / will
pay compensation.)
C t i L 4 b ~ f i w
(b) kSJ0@*7?75'b k g 9 - C R 9 T L g 5bkj-l:iib175'Gblo
(I cannot obey the order without asking questions even if it is from my
boss.)
(c) 7 3 11 W+MI; kg9-C&h:%&d'"ii+c:aa ~OTI~GL~,
(Your English will not improve (itself / automatically) even if you go
to America.)
(dl k ~.* %kK & T P ~ ~ ~ I ; ~ S ~ - CG~ ~ BL K- B C
r~Ir3 Cri t C 4 *h,Bri
~ ~ ~
Gb',
(Even though he goes to class every day, it doesn't mean that he is
studying seriously.)
(e) ~ / v t i ? ~ ak 3~ = ' f i t ~ k = ~-C$GG=&%L-C~~~;~LYTG~GL~,
(Even though I tell you such a thing, it doesn't mean that I'm criticiz-
ing you.)
(f) ~ ~ 0 ~ 7 ~ ~ e G b ~ 7 5 ' I ; k ~ ~ ~ < he bbl , ~ ~ Q
(It's not right for you to be indifferent just because it's not your prob-
lem.)
SL* ha?
(g) &i?fih k S 9 T @ 9 - c i i b ~ v G b ~ o
(Don't take her lightly just because she is a woman.)
1. Kara to itte occurs with a main clause in the negative form. "S, kara to
itte Sz {wake ni wa ikanai 1koto wa nai / etc.}" is used in the following
situations:
kara to itte 105
When the speaker expects the hearer (or someone else) to think
SZbecause of S1 but disagrees with it (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) -
(d)) or denies it (e.g., KS(B) and Ex.(e)).
When the hearer (or someone else) does something because of
S,, but the speaker disagrees with that action (e.g., KS(C),
Exs.(f) and (g)).
[Related ~x~ressionsl
Kara cannot be used in place of kara to itte. Compare [I] and KS(A).
+Key Sentence
1 (It is probably difficult to predict what one's self will be like in ten /
/ years time.) I
336 Lh
EI $ $>?Ii (s.o. 1 s.t. is probably interesting)
k 75'5 i (s.0. / s.t. is probably good)
6 5 (s.o.1 s.t. does not probably exist)
(ii) <
{Adj(i)stem (hi)1 {Adj(na)stem 1N} TCi ) ts7llij i (LO./ s.t. is
probably not -)
BE!< (12)hA>6i (s.0. / s.t. is probably not interesting)
ZL8L
H%T C;f: 2 2 ~ ~i 6 (s.t. is probably not hard)
f l <L +
?%TCi7's53aSi (s.o. is probably not a scholar)
mQm
1. The conjectural auxiliary karo is the contracted form of the no longer
used Adj(i) ku aro, and aro is the conjectural form of aru. (eye)
2. The auxiliary karo is connected only with an Adj(i). When Adj(na) and
N are connected with karo, they have to be negative, because the nega-
tive nai is an Adj(i).
3. V cannot be connected with karb, as shown in (1).
za)% HWRQ%V&
*t;LL%
aiw&
t,b.*L
[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
Another auxiliaq daro can replace karo without any change of meaning, as
in [I]. Note that the connections for the two auxiliaries are different: the
ones for dar6 are {V I Adj(i)inf] dar6 and {Adj(na)stem l N] { @I datta]
dar6, whereas the ones for kar6 is Adj(i)stem kar6. (See Formation.)
Also to be noted is the fact that kar6 cannot be connected with the past tense,
but dar6 can, as shown in [2].
f:w8w Ir i r $A%
[2] a. 'i3 2 k:di B *%GltRPiki%;5.3:'7 I(E)3i / * %5~I, 3
(For John the stay in Japan was probably intriguing.)
l i ~ d ~ b ~ ? i
b. ;~t%f&to%~&d.~
:7' 5 / *@?I 5 I,
(The winter in Hokkaido was probably cold.)
The most basic difference between dar6 and kar6 is that dar6 can be used in
both spoken and written Japanese, but kar6 can be used only in written
Japanese. (cr> daro (DBJG: 100-02))
do s.t. in a - fashion / manner /
+Key Sentences
(Dl
Vrnasu
i $ 5 k i Q
( )
{~dj(i)inf/ Adj(na)stem 9 !Vinf 1 + ( ~ o u n0) + Vfnasu k 5 ';J- &
0 if 5 B t6 (lose in a terrible way)
-
2;3 9 & 0 a) Bk e -if & (view things in a unique fashion)
k < %& b # k f i B 3- & (teach clearly (lit. in a way one can under.
stand well))
(ii) N a ) k i Q + ( ~ o u n ~ ) + ~ r n a s u k ~ t &
$b!akiQba>a)%b~kBTb (talklikeachild(lit.talkina
-
-
:
:
-
.
-
-
=
K-g
child-like manner))
L k B -if &
%F%&-ifb k 5 ls ii$ (speak in such a way that people
are impressed)
~ac.;,~-r-~k381/li&~fk~-if~~
(That pitcher throws (a ball) in an interesting way.)
i L t! ( L $ALP' iL7L
g m ~ i ; t ; g t d ~fj~-ifz,o~&-ix
~ ~ ~ o e 1;io i ~ ~ % b ) ,
(I'm afraid of getting a ride from Yoshida because he drives carelessly
(lit. in a wild fashion).)
tt:L ^rL?iti
~cicasoY&r:&Lf:% ~ & O LLT1.16 ~ Q L 5 I?,
(Tadashi seems to study in a different way from other students.)
h t L
m : i a 8 $ $ ~ m15 l s ~ ; i f j i i & & ~ 1 ,
(I cannot think like Prof. Nomura.)
%B&$L < & a k 5 ls&;ikQ L T I ~ L ~ ~ ,
(We'd like to be taught in such a way that we (come to) like studying.)
80
~ 0 ~ @ ~ : 9 b l ~ $ 5i i k ~ ~ k i+;i;ik~-ifb~iig<
2 b l T L a 5.
-kata o sum 1 11
(There wouldn't be many people who think about this problem in the
same way as I do.)
( ) $$jrisoXE** < i l - w a a iQaLfi*ba.
((1) Tamura's talk sounds like he knows the minister well. (2) Tamura
talks as if he knew that minister well.)
[Related ~x~ressions]
I. In some cases, the manner in which someone does something is
expressed by the adverbial form of an adjective, as in [I].
[I] %HB~I~% ~<Q/%zl
c ja ma,
(Mr. Yoneda is good at teaching grammar (lit. teaches gramma,
skillfully).)
(eAppendix 1 (DBJG: 581))
However, "Adj(i1na) Vmasu-kata o sum" and "Adverbial form of
Adj(i / na) V" are not always interchangeable. First, the adverbial foms
of some adjectives cannot be used as manner adverbs (i.e., an adverb to
mean "in such and such a manner"), as in [2].
[2] a. *&a) r 4 T - GAB8 < EGP6 (Acceptable form: ...-@
Q b > E m Q T a O )
(That pitcher throws (a ball) in an interesting way.)
<'Xy6ni V" and " X ydna Vmasu-kata o suru" both indicate a manner in
which someone does something. However, "X yoni V" is used when
expressing an exact likeness. Compare [Sa] and [Sb].
[5] a. % L d ' S i k 5 K?&~-C-FSI/L
((1) Please write it down just like I tell you. (2) Please
write it in the way I tell you.)
b. % L d ' S i ki&?S37iBLTT3b~,
(Please write it in a way similar to the way I tell you.)
Similarly, [6a] implies that Mr. Green's command of Japanese is like
that of a native Japanese. [6b], on the other hand, implies that some
aspects of Mr. Green's way of speaking Japanese are like native Japa-
nese speakers.
[6] a. 3")-2ShIrS.B$Ao>ki~ZH*~giO.Z&.f.
(Mr. Green speaks Japanese like a native Japanese.)
b. ~11-2Shdrf.El*Ao>ki8H*ZEo>BLfSBtho
(Mr. Green speaks Japanese in a way similar to the way
Japanese people speak.)
Because of the "exactness" that "X ydni V" implies, this expression is
unnatural if it is unreasonable to expect that someone does something
exactly in the way indicated in X, as in [7].
[i'] a. ??7432S/vbrS.l\ll x~/va>kiC~b~iO.BhO
(Mr. Brown views things just like Mr. Harris.)
b. 7"332S/vda7\Vx3ho>kiCcbo>o>HfSiO.th,
(Mr. Brown views things similarly to the way that Mr.
Harris does.)
(@ ~ 6 n i l(DBJG:
.~ 553-56))
ka to iu to B3 2 i2 conj.
+Key Sentence
= (You would think that all the Japanese like sushi, but that is not true.
-
- -
-
Some Japanese don't like it.)
(i) - {V/Adj(i))inf 2 l k Z ? k , So
{;&j- / 3 L f: I 75.2 B 5 2 (you would think that s.0. talks / talked
but -)
LC
{%fi / bfif?? 7: I 2. k % 5 2 (you would think that s.t. is / was
quiet but -)
I%%' / %&f?9 f: 1 2.2 S i 2 (you would think that s.0. is / was a
teacher but -)
ti d I f ~ l t L
(a) 7 5 r / v i i : $ ~ ; ~ ~ . , " : $ k i l . kt ~
, it B B ~ W B $ ~ ~ I
tSbfi-cb>&o
(You would think that cancer is not curable, but that is not true. If it is
detected early it is said to be curable.)
*Ah/*i : CriT
fl$m9-c, ,: 3+i$&bfE*zgflk+b:a&&kg5 2, + i T
& 2 b l k 5 E o& 2 9 ~ ? + b : a & z k & & & ~
(You'd think that if you went to Japan and lived there for a few years,
your Japanese would become good, but that doesn't seem to be true.
On the contrary, your Japanese may become worse than before.)
~r'vd'( 26 -tt~,($ b(-ttr.
;k~o>@b:b~blfi@o>~&jS'$f&Tfi@~&&k~5
~+d.i. C*.:i
2, 's,'~~&+i
k I5/E>,
TC&~
(You'd think that a college student with good grades would be suc-
cessful in society, but that doesn't always seem to be the case.)
&'$%Be*fid&2e*&&ks5 k , ? 5 T & a s + 7i%
(You'd think that if you did exercise every day, you would live long,
but that does not seem to be true.)
04%
S * % C & % L b ~ & k S ik , %~1:13hb>7':13$&~kd&?L%b:%~
< %b>o
(You'd think that Japanese would be hard, but speaking and listening
are not that hard.)
<b3 +b,d'7 L <A, #LlL
$% b 7Toqa LO&i%fl$@7?9k&kZ5 2 , &%+5 Tl&a$a
97':LT-fo
(You'd think that my life without a car in Boston must have been
inconvenient, but it wasn't at all.)
The conjunction can be used when one makes an assertion that a popular
belief or what the listener I reader may believe is not always true. In SIka to
iu to S2, what the listener / reader is expected to believe is expressed in SI. SZ
is often sd de wa nai or its variations as shown in KS and Exs. However, the
S2 part is sometimes omitted as in the following examples.
(no) kawari ni bl CZ
((D)fJZb conj. / comp. prt.
*Key Sentences
(I am going to enjoy myself in the daytime, so /but (to make up for it)
I will study at night.)
(no) kawari ni 1 17
(B)
Sentencei (Subordinate Clause) Sentencez
- Vinf. past
(Main Clause)
-
(The former apartment had bad facilities, so /but (to make up for it) the
rent was cheap.)
lrllrrimrm
(i) {VIAdj(i)}inf l
t;h k) : C
8 b ~ bb:I (instead of talking)
7?*
(iii) N { 0 1 f? 9 7: I I f b 0 K
l t b b C: (in place of the teacher)
f : l t b b C:
I/>I/>%!&J?3 (s.o. was a good teacher, but (to make up
for -))
Ili tLti1.L
4 sc a ~ m ~ r m ~ t ar, c?&oi~&rm~fi,
l t b
(Today I didn't study in the library. Instead, I studied in my dom
room.)
bfi L K IiL - ,?.iI - %&
%Lii1.1. C: El*&%ji;i-c&1~f~Rb 9 eL&b.-%fin B%ji;i-ciC, r; 9 t:,
( I taught Tom Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.)
W ~ ~
&L 9 T
E m m e $ c m t 0bc:,
%ii . h
!
342%b: < & I / ~ ' ~ c I / ) ~ T ,
(Instead of making expensive long distance calls I often write letters.)
% L o 7 7 f - 1. ii%Rfl&b%b 9 c:, $fib:% < -c 2 -c &%$lT-k
(My apartment is expensive, but it is close to the station and very con-
venient.)
A$(t?b, *LY?
%Lgo s*Ego)%!&ii&~I/~lt;h
13 c : ~ ! & o m l a l W f l I / ~ b ~ O
(Our teacher is strict, but (instead) he takes good care of his students.)
y!oR&ci$E6 * i 0 r i r, 1: &js#j &
(College professors' salaries are low, but (instead) they have freedom.)
6% * S f Lh
Xii@$$$I/q-tb 0 i & k f l 2 -c iC,&
(My father is physically weak, but (instead) he has a very strong will.)
zo2iig-n.aItb 0 K, <-c%%~$~
(This area is quiet, but (instead) it's inconvenient because the stores are
far away.)
Cri
El$EgO#g %G:I/>3iC, OLLIHfk&Ol?,b 9 C:bq2 I/> i$FLb>%&.hi
L-?9f:,
1/>1;9
(To our Japanese class came a new teacher Ms. Tanaka instead of ofl
regular teacher Ms. Yamada.)
(no) kawari ni 1 19
2. Vnonpast before kawari ni indicates an action that has not taken place;
whereas Vpast kawari ni indicates an action that has already taken place.
Consider the difference in meaning among the sentences (3) below:
(3) a. HE~BBR
9 C:&BF3
;~ B 9 IZO
--
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
K
-
-
-
-
-
The crucial difference between -nai de, -zu ni, ga, keredo(mo), shikashi on
one hand, and kawari ni (as a subordinate conjunction) on the other hand is
that the former can be used even when no meaning of balancing is intended,
but the latter cannot be used if balancing is not implied. That is why all the
following sentences would become unacceptable if -nai de, -zu ni, ga,
keredo(mo), and shikashi were replaced by kawari ni.
(no) kawarini / kekka 121
kekka %% n.
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun Main Clause (result)
I I I
(As a result of the vote, the proposal was rejected by the majority's
opposition.)
:A+\, O r i i il. 3
#SO@$;, 4Ha>Ef~7;ic&@%P.
b Z 2 1: 2 9 I:,
(After discussion, it's been decided that the planned trip will be post.
poned.)
&a@%, gd&% y z :i &&W#QNZ 2fl&-*91:o
(As a result of the examination, my wife was found to be healthy (lit.
it was found that there was no abnormality with my wife's body).)
Wf@@%,*gLb>+&$""
w B s &I:,
(As a result of the investigation, new facts emerged.)
A L f2
< $ , & ? & $ gg;ic2mfZ 0&973&*k **El I:o
(As a result of the police investigation, it was determined that the cause
(of the fire) was the careless handling of a cigarette butt.)
& i i o g ~ ri-~2;LI:$~%,
, T+noifiB
x K~JLI:,
lfl.tl~3 *w:i
I
-
(As a result of using a new textbook, the students improved their per-
formance remarkably (lit. the performance of the students improved
remarkably).)
e l . Lr- c .SA &A~:WTL .+,a
Y)L~O~A&B~V~:@Z
$%OB611,WsB
, L;7PC:Q9 I:D
(Upon taking a private golf lesson, my problems became clear.)
Kekka can be interpreted as 'as a result of' or 'after / upon doing s.t.' only
when it is not followed by a particle. Otherwise, kekka is a common noun, as
seen in (1).
5WL*i L
(I) a. 83%0S%ik%33%L;*3P.~
(I will let you know the result of the exam next week.)
kekka / kekk6 1 23
+Key Sentence
~ 1 ~< 3
(hb Ah
Z O ~ ~ i & b ~ $2481 V 0~2 T
, L0
(This car is old, but it runs quite well, you know.)
6 O x ~ i k % lkf: h ; i & T ~ a 5 . T b , % @ $ % ? F b ~ b ~ / ~ - c " - i t ~
(He looks dumb, but he is quite sharp.)
L d-7
FIRI Z l/>i
~ DL:, ~ & ~ l i l a ,
(It is April, but it is rather cold, isn't it?)
31.1 *3
/J\Sb)I?r;'bo~:, ~ $ R L > I / ) LI-xf ;/$&&h,
(There are quite a few good restaurants in this small town, aren't
there?)
z O y $ & & i y ; ' b b ~ h j ~ , $#&:& j:$L&&
(This dish is small in quantity, but it is pretty heavy on the stomach.)
(f) %$ ~;1:HHI
E4.ti V
~OG:~%~TER&/UT~Z,;~~,
(Today is Sunday, but the highway is rather crowded, isn't it?)
a?
-
i(rLr1 L= L r < t L
(g) 21;1:%xma~~
~ f i i ~x' a
, L ~ K I ; ~ : ~ ~ / uj ITT,
: L
(My father was an optimist, but when he lost his job, I think he suf-
fered quite a bit.)
(h) 27%?C;1:%mf..d:s, % t % % ! ~ ~ d : ~
(It was my first karaoke, but it was rather enjoyable.)
For that matter kekko cannot be used with any negative predicate.
B l Lh
(2) a. * Z a>%I%di$3@D3E3
QL\T.fO <
(This magazine is quite uninteresting.)
-- z003kt#R71:.lm e tbL'T9, <
kekko 125
[Related Expressions]
1. Another adverb angai is used to express unexpectedness about an
action or a state. Since kekko also expresses unexpectedness about s.t.,
there are cases where kekkci can be replaced by angai, as shown in [I].
*LYW
[I] a. Z Z 0 f LGi, Zfigbl Lblia, (cf. KS)
However, when the modified verb does not indicate s.t. that is subject
to degree interpretation such as kekkon-suru 'get married,' kuru
'come,' tsuku 'arrive,' etc., kekko is out of the question as shown in
PI.
ht: O It9:L
[2] a. (Z9t/*%#l #50IACL%2(P?&~6L h a b l k ,
(The two might get married contrary to our expectation.)
b. I b ~ ~ G L ~ f - i i - b : l b ~ ~ ~ ~ +8&% b ~ & ~ ~ l i f ~ ,
k 0 h L, (854/ * E l l % 6 $ 6 L h B b ~ Q ,
(That guy usually doesn't show up at a party, but today is
right before the summer break so he might come contrary
to our expectation.)
C. {%fi / *%@I, & 0 % ; s i % l : % b ~ ~ b ~ & ? Lh3+?A,
P6
k,
(He may have arrived there earlier than us, contrary to our
expectation, you know.)
When degree interpretation is possible, both kekko and angai are both
acceptable, as already shown in [I]. In other words, kekk6 has to be
used with a predicate that is subject to degree interpretation, but the
degree interpretation is irrelevant to angai.
11. There is another adverb igai to 'unexpectedly,' 'to one's surprise'
which is very similar to kekk6. lgai to means that s.t. totally beyond
one's expectation occurs. Since both kekko and igai to express unex-
pectedness they are interchangeable when the predicate is subject to
degree interpretation.
Just like angai, igai to cannot be replaced by kekk6 when the predicate
is not subject to degree interpretation.
[4] a. It$+&/*%#%I h O S A I i % W ~ & i 5 1 hLkLQblh.
(The two might get married contrary to our expectation.)
b. bjb13Itlf-T .f --C=GiI:L.~Tb\%Qb~G?, +El Ci8B
bFDEIZL, {SVtI:/*%#$I % & f i h L;kQb14?,
(That guy usually doesn't show up at a party, but today is
right before the summer break so he might come contrary
to our expectation.)
c. I t 9 t t /*%#I, % & 0 f i ; 3 ' % ~ : ~ ~ . 1 ~ ~ . 1 & i 5L;kd@/.
1B
h0
(He may have arrived there earlier than us, contrary to our
expectation, you know.)
111. Another adverb wari(ai) to l ni or wariai 'a little more than one has
expected' expresses a slight gap between expectation and reality. In
kekkci / kono 12 7
other words, the speaker has some expectation about something, and
believes that reality is relatively higher or lower than his expectation.
~ e k k 6in the KS and Exs. can be all replaced by wari(ai) to / ni or by
wariai.
hr) hW
[5] a. Z La)? LC&, 3J(B) kBblLbl;ta, (cf. KS)
(The sushi served here is rather good.)
b. &a>AC&.Bd&VG:E;i&TLd 5 , T $ , B j k R W l b l A
T*, (cf. Ex.@))
(He looks dumb, but he is rather smart.)
c. +El I&. s @ H G a ) K & ~ d ' B J 8 ? B A T b l ;6t a (cf. Ex.(f))
(Today is Sunday, but the highway is rather crowded,
isn't it?)
The replaced versions express the speaker's comparison between the
expectation and the reality. So, for example, in [5a], the speaker
expected that sushi served at the restaurant would not be delicious
because the store did not look good or the price was cheap. But he is
pleasantly surprised that sushi served there is pretty good. If such com-
parison between the expectation and the reality is difficult the replace-
ment becomes impossible as shown in [6] below.
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun
.
1
$ris/vd2. Z D I I I
~ @ L ~ J P ,
I I I
(Yamashita has been absent from class for the past (one) week.)
& *
L a)& (this autumn ; this coming autumn)
&b'C k LNII'
(a) LOB^ ~ ~ : 4 L b k~, 1
(I met Mr. Yoshioka the other day.)
,*tb%L < +, d.b.
(b) zofitF'zo~o&RC=.fJaRTkJI:f?3
1Lf:,
(I became a member of this club at this time.)
8*l<hf II.
(c) .to!% S%ESk;i &O
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
(1) One time in the past (Exs.(a) and (b)): -
-
t i
Z a) A (the other day; a while agoj; Z (last time); Z a)I: ZF (on
this occasion; at this time); Z 08%(at this time; recently); Z a) {
a-9
f
fl / S I (this February I spring)
(2) From one time in the past through the moment of speech (KS(B)):
Z a) %(these days); Z a)%(these days); L a) - {I
Bw7 / @ / I
(this past week I month I year)
(3) Around the moment of speech (Exs.(c) and (d)):
* f:
Z a)R (on this occasion); Z 0 2 - F (around this time); Z a)Z9 T
(around this time)
(4) A period of time including the moment of speech (Ex.(e)):
9 s
Z a) Z$ (this spring); Z a) {I
/ JJ I (this week 1 month); Z a) -
{am / @El /*I (this weeklmonthl year)
(5) From the moment of speech on (Ex.(f)):
bit 2S
Z Ob(after this); Z a)X(from now on); Z a)-{aF~/7@a/ + I
(the following week I month I year)
130 kono / ko shita
+Key Sentence
(We do not seem to hear about problems like this in this country.)
*tat
Z 5 L 2 A& (such people)
[Related Expressions]
1, Kono yona and konna (the contracted form of kono yona) mean the
same as ko shita. However, ko shita and kono yona are more formal
than konna and, therefore, mostly used in written Japanese. The adver-
bial form of kono yona is kono yoni. Konna has no adverbial form.
-
11. The demonstratives ko iu and ko itta also express the idea "such; like
this." However, these expressions do not have corresponding adverbial
forms like kc3 shite. (See Note.)
m. So shita 'like that' and a shita 'like that' are similar to ko shita in
meaning. However, so shita and a shita cannot be used to refer to s.0.
or s.t. from previous discourse.
BniEIbZOHTIbi&,f. 9 A&tLhbad: 3
(In America, when the economy goes bad, it often happens that
big companies lay off a lot of workers. We do not seem to hear
about problems like this very often in this country.)
In general, so shita is used to refer to s.0. or s.t. mentioned by a second
person, as in [2], and a shita is used to refer to s.0. or s.t. mentioned
by a third person, as in [3].
[2] A: <
7% '1 f i -(T"tb%%jS'Ea &2 , A&%jS'A%a)%@%%
m w a c tr-nrd; < q ~ ; h t ~ a . f ,
(In America, when the economy goes bad, it often hap-
pens that big companies lay off a lot of workers.)
132 k6 shita / koso
a)HTGk&2 rl E4;Sl;kGkl.L 5 T.f,
(Is that so? We do not seem to hear about problems like
that very often in this country.)
-
the very -; It is that -; only
word, phrase, or clause (when, after, because, etc.);
in particular; precisely; defi-
nitely; [an italicized or under-
lined word]
+Key Sentences
B: Noun
(Dl
-
-
3
=Ka
-
=
r 1
(We could minimize the problem only because you explained (lit. told)
it to us honestly.)
( i ) N (particle) Z f
Dt
Z 0A Z f (this man in particular)
*fi
:G Z
%$ + (to him in particular)
(ii) Vte Z f
LS?J:IISII? L e i d * L fib:
(a) A: -#- B4 b liil9 L T L l 7': /v I?O
(What on earth were you doing for a whole week?)
B: +-j&gZ+lFJ9 ~-cbl7?,4,I?~
(You say that but what were you doing?)
*X.b,L i*h
(b) Z,Lak!(c:)
(On this kind of occasion, in particular, we all have to cooperate in
order to solve the problem.)
L l t L th:
(c) 4$Z+L03!@iZ33Tk*&~
(I will pass this exam definitely this year.)
-
L L 9 i
(f) % Z R f i 1 ; Z + Z / v t s Z k Z r g C = . ~ -/vl?k,
j
(It's because you are my friend that I can tell you (even) such a thing.)
l ltL3 iiL L e i
(g) & & ? ~ b b \ f i b Z + h l I/J&5fI:@BL~IfkLCf~1;hb~OI?o
(It's precisely because you can't do it that you have to practice more
than others do.)
The particles ga and o are dropped when koso follows (e.g., KS(A) and
Ex.(a)). The ellipsis of e and the temporal, directional, and locational ni
before koso is optional, as in Ex.(b), and (1) and (2).
(1) ~2 F ~ ( A ~/ z ) z & < < s r ? ~
(Lodon is the place you shouldn't miss.)
dr< L *
(2) Z O ~ $ ( I Z )z + * & T L l & 1 5 a y % f l b l & I i T 7 ? o
(This university should be the place to find the type of scholar We
are looking for.)
Other particles are not dropped when koso follows.
koto 135
+Key Sentences
(ii) VN 0) Z 2
&&I
0z 2 (should use)
L : 7-L
%L3C&RCPz2 ,
(Refrain from whispering.)
86 6.05
~ G L ! J W Y - Y ~ &z k O <
(Be sure to listen to the tape beforehand.)
&gb&ab'z 2,
(You may not consult any dictionaries.)
g&&&&b'z k0
(Do not walk around barefoot.)
<&ti
*%(e)&%oz k 0
(Bring your own lunch.)
cw*<
$ME(%) 2.
(Wear uniforms.)
amm
1. Vinf.nonpast koto and VN no koto are used only in written Japanese.
They often appear in rules and regulations.
2. In sentences involving VN no koto, the particles ga, o, and ni are often
dropped, as in KS(C), Exs.(e), (f), and (1).
6%Li Ifkl;L T w Lea
(1) a. JRFfiP1i$A(759% ffiUlZ 2,
(The application should be submitted by the applicant in
person.)
aa b n@(c:)sE
+ti r i U Z L! t i drii6
b. 8R ( E )!$%b;2,
(Meet (lit. gather) at Tokyo Station at eight o'clock tomor-
row morning.)
koto de 137
+Key Sentences
Means
I I (Vinf.nonpast 1 I I
mmm
( i ) Means
Vinf .nonpast Z 2 T
138 kotode
(ii) Cause
Sinf Z 2 T
{j7 Lj( / $79 7: I Z 2 P (because S.O. will go I went)
[Related Expressions]
I. Koto ni yori / yotte expresses the same idea as koto de.
+Key Sentences
(A)
Topic
1 (If we don't do this now, we will end up with an awful situation later.) 1
(If we cannot have this draft cashed, our company will end up in bank-
ruptcy.)
koto ni naru 141
(Dl
Topic
I
Sinf Sinf *
I (Ending up with such a result means that there was something wrong I
1 with our preparation.) 1
7
- -
kbl5 ZkKG60
(The fact that nothing happened this time means that the system is
alright (lit. the situation is alright with this system).)
mmm r. i L it& t1
(a) +,$bj~blb k 8 , @ a ) @ U r b l Z 2 E7'66 L o
(If you don't work now, you'll end up with a terrible situation when
you take the exam.)
:C ? Dtii
(b) + / v c z 2 B L I : C ; I R ~ A ~ G : & L ; ~ L ~ St II:Q~,,
/~Z
(If I / you do such a thing, I / you will end up not being able to appez
in public again.)
ri ~
(c)
L+ D T < iLiL b b.
A ?hFBEH%l?f.LT hfLiig5t-$-~iHG:%T6 Z k C:a60< i b w d &
(If Company A donates one million yen, the total sum will become (lit.
end up with) ten million yen.)
bb+JL+-r, Zl?
(d) ~ ~ T $ j d < b ~ C j d % % ~ $ ~ k b l j Z k C : 7 ' 6 V d ? ,
(If everything goes well, (it means that) I will graduate next year.)
C*i Lt
(el G&&Q~&~:kblj z 2 ~ 4 f i i t . h5 Z D ~ Zf i ~ : i k & ~ , ~ b l a ~ /
kK86.
(That the postcard came back means that he doesn't live at this address
any longer.)
koto ni naru / koto ni yoru 143
Topic
\
I Topic 1 1
-
-
-
Sinf Z 2 1: k & (Exceptions: Adj(na)stem a Z 2 :G k & ; N T &6 Z tI,
=
- -
=
=
- 1A )
-
-
=
-
-
-
&%P
'@l/> 2 t:1 k & (because the rent is expensive)
DrilfL L +2r+<
A %$$iE@C Z 2 l: k & (because the expression is inaccurate)
(His present success is due to the fact that he worked hard every day
(lit. did not neglect daily effort).)
o :A &LO ia
j ~ ra a '7&c:g
; ~toc;t~~ah& m9 TPIZZ t:c 1a.
(Their divorce was caused by the fact that their value systems were
very different.)
%&;tr'&~ff:a)1ik~~%13.f~fcZt~:~&.
(His loss is due to the fact that he tried to win quickly.)
% & a ~ ~ $ Z ; k ~ ~ a T c : ~ E ~ ; k f : a o >t;Gc1
t ~6~0 & i ;
(That his talent was developed to this degree is due to the fact that he
studied with Mr. Suzuki.)
koto ni yoru 145
em
S koto ni yoru is usually preceded by a topic phrase or clause. S represents
the cause of the result represented by the topic phrase or clause.
Expression]
Tafne da or kara da are also used to present a cause. Thus, KS(B), for exam-
ple, can be paraphrased as [I].
It should be noted that "X wa S tame da" and "X wa S kara da" can be used
for "X wa S koto ni yoru" only when X is a clause. When X is a noun phrase,
tame da and kara da are unnatural, as in [2].
+Key Sentences
(A)
Vinf .nonpast
-
-
- -
(There's no need to listen to a man like that.)
I 1 I
(I think that there is no possibility that she will forget today's meeting.)
&< 22G i fb b > (there's no need to go / there is no possibility that s.0. will
go)
tR ,
gjp%6 (
z thtablt,E"b12-Fo
(4 ((1) I don't think it will be necessary for you to come here. (2) I think
that there is no possibility that you will come here.)
f~~b~b~&?-~$<ztitablrLri~
((1) There will probably be no need for him to take the trouble to go
out there. (2) There is no possibility that he will go out there.)
() ,$ 5$8 ~i)'i)'h z t itirb>i)'l Lh3Ckh.
(I might not have a chance to see you again.)
LX/rhtL BL
(f) &3 dL$frk 6 Z 2 122 b l t EBb52 To
(I don't think there is a possibility that I will teach.)
dam -
-
-
-
- -
-
EKE
1. Vinf. nonpast + koto wa nai is used as an expression equivalent to Vinf.
nonpast + hitsuyo wa nai 'there is no need to V' or Vinf. nonpast +
kanosei wa nai 'there is no possibility that -.'
2. In some cases koto wa nai can be interpreted as either 'no need' or 'no
possibility' (e.g., Exs.(c) and (d)). The interpretation depends on the
context or situation.
3. Vinf. nonpast + koto galwa am does not mean 'there is a need to' or
'there is a possibility that -.' (+koto ga aru2 (DBJG: 198-99))
[Related Expression]
Vinf + hazu wa nai is very similar in meaning to Vinf + koto wa nai 'there is
no possibility that -.' Vinf + haw wa nai is used when the speaker feels that
an event is not impossible but that it is unlikely. Compare KS(B) and [I].
and ; so
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
I I I
-
Adj(i)stem
*974&%~&9l:oK,
3tiLwi
E%fl $*
t<
<, f l 9 7 5 b L t &
(I went all the way to give a lecture, but the audience was so small that
I felt discouraged.)
mm
1. Adj(i)stem ku is used in written Japanese to function as a continuative
form. When the ku-form connects two predicates, the relationship
between the two is either a cumulative relationship as in KS(A) and
Exs.(a) - (f) or a cause / reason relationship as in KS(B) and Exs.(g) -
(i).
2. As the following examples show it appears that the compound adjective
Vrnasu tai cannot be used to express a cause 1 reason relationship as
shown in (I), although other compound adjectives can be used that way
as shown in (2).
(1) a. it b
I L
~ E L ~ <L, ba < ~ $ ~ f f i ~ f $ ~ : % , %
9 0 R2ffi
IfL 5e-5 L*? lfh
L-ckl<,
(I want to publish my own research so I contacted several
publishers.)
(2) a. ~ o $ ' % ~ z P c ~ ~ T B&& ~%c Cc r~a ><$<&,, ~
h'~
tbTL39k0
(The writer's writings are very hard to read, and I gave up
reading it halfway.)
13 V$< , 2 T B@d\Zi,
:li+LC/rifb~ b/rlC ifgnli,
b. /I\$$ %&o>Z&O'3tSaCk53~
(Professor Kobayashi's grammar explanation is easy to
understand, and it is a great help to me.)
c. ygCk%B~TblZi5 L <, C - 6-2 LTblko
i
(The girl appears to be in love with someone, and looks
animated.)
3. Adj(i) ku cannot carry its own tense. Its tense is determined by the tense
of the main predicate.
Adj(i)stem -kute can replace all the uses of Adj(i)stem -ku. The difference
between the two are the following. First, -kute can be used in both spoken
and written Japanese, but -ku is restricted to written Japanese. Secondly, -ku
can be used as an adverb as in [I], but -kute cannot be used that way.
[I] a. + B B Q ~ %I <~ / * < T I S ~ > T ? S L . ~ ,
(Please write characters larger.)
1: li/r - hlL.5
b. EJ$%WEQ { < / * < T I C?=T3k0
(Japanese has become interesting.)
Thirdly, as shown in (2) in Notes, -kute can be used where -ku is not accept-
able. (aVmasu; te (DBJG: 464-6711
kurai 151
Sinf
I I I
(It is so warm this evening that we (almost) don't need a heater.)
I I I I I
(There's no one who is as forgetful as Yamada (lit. who forgets things
as much as Yamada does).)
(Dl
(I am a poor cook (lit. bad at cooking), but I can at least cook rice.)
-
- (He is the only person who can do this job now. (lit. The person who is
-
=
. -
-
:K
.
. - capable enough to do this job is he.))
-
.
.
.
-
-
-
(F)
Vinf .nonpast Vinf. past
2%
-?-htst
,,
r o Z l d t L I 5Prrbl < bbl%A,~bik.
(That house was so damaged that it couldn't be repaired. (lit. That
house was damaged to the extent that it couldn't be repaired.))
@) &z!ilmY &.,Tbl~&.,Tblbfirrbl < bbl7?9k0
(Jiro was so drunk that he couldn't hold himself upright.)
) LA,G+,
IiL
+~
LCai
r w lfi%'*.<
b b b i ~ .
(Even ten dollars would still be too expensive for a book like this.)
h o e <b b %2
t l
(e) L&91c@CdQb10
(I have never suffered as much as I did that time.)
(f) & i ~ ~ ~ ~ f i ~ ( ~z2c) (% ~ ;~~ ~$ wfL- z
ifa-^,
~
(There is nothing as painful as being betrayed by someone you have
trusted.)
2-6
<
.(if
mm
1. Kurai can be replaced by gurai without a change in meaning.
2. Kurai expresses the degree of some state, as in KS(A), (B) and Exs.
(a) - (c). (+kurai (DBJG: 212-13))
154 kurai
4. Kurai expresses the idea of 'at least,' as in KS(D) and Ex.(g). X kurai in
this use implies that the degree of a state is such that one cannot expect
much more than X from that state.
+Key Sentences
dh i:b~*<*W
<
qmkyn09 *c:&ijbbd.0 $ % ~ T b G 0
(Although he is a college student, all he does is read comics.)
<
g+cA3Ey&09 + ? i : % b w > 3 7 k : & ~ T b G ~
(Although Yoshiko is still a student, she lives in an expensive condo-
minium.)
i:d L
P&EIGAT+I's *i?& < T C X 2 Lk752a0
(Takashi is a bad (tennis) player, and yet he wants to play with me.)
~i&b
< ~ G : & & -aFd;.~
(You are afraid. Don't pretend to be strong.)
$&GA&$Q ab1<Q G : R ~ B $ L L ~ - c ~ ~ ~ .
(Takao doesn't have money, and yet he wants a foreign car.)
% ~ ~ A % I A $ L ~ ~ T Q $ & %LI'sd.9k
Q <+?I:, $~752&$ka97&$
?in3 6 b . t
b:,%.G:gB752k 2-3 l:, <
(Before (the time I became a division chief), Yoshida never greeted me
when he saw me, but he suddenly became friendly when I became a
division chief.)
%'d z~!%%bf?~r: <
< + ? i : x $ ~ ' s g %eo
$
(Don't talk big! You were only a trainee until yesterday!)
1. Kuse ni is used only when the main clause and the subordinate clause
share the same subject. Thus, in the following sentence, kuse ni cannot
be used.
kuse ni 157
2. Kuse ni is not used when the subject is the first person. In the following,
kuse ni cannot be used.
(Related Expressions]
I. Noni is similar to kuse ni. In fact, noni can replace kuse ni in KS(A), (B)
and Exs.(a) - (f). Noni, however, does not express the speaker's emotion
as strongly as kuse ni. Thus, noni is not suitable in contexts as Ex.(g),
(3), and (4), where the speaker swears at the hearer. In addition, the
restrictions in Notes 1 and 2 do not apply to noni.
(+noni1 (DBJG: 331-35))
11. Ni rno kakawarazu expresses an idea similar to noni and kuse ni. How-
ever, ni rno kakawarazu is a highly formal and bookish expression and it
expresses no emotion. Therefore, it cannot be used in highly emotive
situations as in Ex.(g), (3), and (4). Note that the formation rules are
different from those of kuse ni, as in [I].
-
field.)
(el +;kck%%iita2t:?c.trs<8c;;31arkfzo
(It is so obvious that no explanation is necessary.)
-
-
-
= =
- - The adverbial form made mo naku is also frequently used. (See KS(B),
zM=
-
-
-
=
- =
-
-
-
-
--
-- - Exs.(e) and (f).)
e elated Expressions]
I. HitsuyO wa nai is similar to made mo nai in meaning.
However, the former lacks the sense of going as far as to do s.t. 01
bothering to do s.t.
[I] ~ ; k d k ~ % Q ~ t % f ? $ b 8 f - % # ~%CZQL\,
~i
(This is a simple calculation, so it is not necessary to use a
calculator.)
In addition, no hitsuy6 wa nai can be preceded by a noun, as in [2].
[21 r o ~ I- x4 ~c&%(DBBM~L\,
(No reservation is necessary at this restaurant.)
II. Hodo no koto mo nai and ni wa oyobanai are very similar to made mo
nai except that ni wa oyobanai is usually not used in the adverbial form
made mo nai / mai 161
(51 s x l : t i R ~ . ' 3 ~ t ~ ,
(You don't need to thank me.)
No wa iu made mo nai 'It goes without saying that -' and iu made mo
naku 'needless to say' are idiomatic phrases; there are no substitute
phrases for these expressions.
....~-.~ ~~
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Vinf. nonpast
(B)
Vinf. nonpast
---
\
z f i i & & {$&&-Js
I
&< I
3Ll,
\
(Probably no one will notice this.)
.
I I
I I
Noun
(I have a feeling that this is some kind of mistake. (lit. Is this not some
kind of mistake?))
l i d? b
@&T b b l (s.t. is probably not quiet)
CLCL,
%&TI&& a 2bl (s.o. is probably not a teacher)
am= 96-
(a) y $ a > l f - ? 4 -K l i $ 5 4
7 2 bl, <
(I will not go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.)
f *
@) g&j7z 5 abl&z-3ko
(I couldn't decide whether I should go to Japan or not.)
mm
1. Mai is basically a written form. It is usually used in formal writing.
(edafi (DBJG: 1 0 W 2 ) ; mash6 (DBJG: 240-43))
2. For Gr. 2 verbs, Vmasu is occasionally used instead of Vinf.nonpast.
For irregular verbs, sumai and komai are sometimes used instead of
sunimai and kurumai, respectively.
(1) {Ed& $ 5 %&%JIRQL\.
(He probably won't teach English any more.)
164 mai
(2) ? i % k + / v a z t G ~ T ~ L \ ~
(3) z/va@%Gk-Et%%~\~
i: ? -
(She probably won't do such a thing.)
I lw
masaka d P ?Y ad~.
+ ~ e ySentences
(A)
(C)
(Lately I haven't heard from my father, but God forbid that he might
be ill.)
3 3 2 3 a & a k i 2 { E b c d ~ Q f /: % k T 6 k & d ~ - 3 f : ) o
({I didn't believe 1 I never thought} that it would snow.)
masaka 167
L A'?
j SiS'aJJ icg7Fp$&liTiSfab10
(It is not at all likely that it will snow in April.)
C2I%& 3 b
3 S il>l lo (Don't tell me it's going to snow.)
attempt.)
- B:
(Smith has studied Japanese for only one year, but he is fluent,
you know.)
3 36 (Impossible!)
1. The adverb masaka is used to express the speaker's strong belief that an
action or a state is not expected to become or to have become a reality.
The action or the state is usually s.t. that is not desirable for the speaker,
but not always. Take Ex.(b), for example: no doubt it was a very desir-
able thing for the speaker to have passed the bar examination on his first
attempt. The adverb masaka simply emphasizes that he did not expect to
pass it.
2. The final predicate is either a thinking verb, a conjecture expression
dar6, or an expectation expression ham, (wake ni wa iku) mai, and all
take a negative form, as shown in Formation.
3. As shown in KS(E) and Ex.(j), masaka can be used by itself as an excla-
mation meaning 'incredible!' or 'impossible!'
4. There is a set phrase masaka no toki, meaning 'the time of need.'
(1) s s tPnGi:&!kTj+%?? ~T$5b~k%%~b\1
(You'd better provide against the time of need.)
elated ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
The adverb yomoya can express the same idea as masaka. The difference
between the two is that yomoya cannot be used as an exclamation.
[I] A: -f;fa)%
C b ) l A;3'&@G:A7 k A I Z 7 TO
masaka / mashida 169
Except for the two examples above, all the uses of masaka in KS and Exs.
can be rephrased with yomoya.
-
I S.O.I s.t. (or some situation) is not
satisfactory it is better than s.0. /
ferable; might as well
[REL. ii]
+Key Sentences
1 (This new Japanese teacher is much better than the former teacher.) I
170 mashida
(C)
(You say your house is small, but it is much better than our house, you
know.)
b ~ t s X P $ ~ : t s 6 ?2 % 9 ~ ? r l / l a ~ ~
(1 am thinking of becoming a slightly better person.)
mashida / mata wa 171
a-
Mashi is an AdXna) which is used to indicate that s.t. / s . ~ or
. a situation is
better than SS. / S.0. else Or another situation even though it / he / she is not
As for the use of mashida, it is exactly like any other Adj(na).
[Related Expression]
Mashida in all KS and Exs. can be replaced by ii, but the former always
implies that S.O.or s.t. is not satisfactory but better, whereas the latter sim-
ply means that s.0. or s.t. is better.
-
or; either or -
choices or possibilities expressed -
[REL. ka -; - ka - ka dochi-
[raka; soretomo]
172 mata wa
+Key Sentences
(A)
(B)
Noun Noun
-
A (fi), at:ti B ort;r;fi 4%7~+723~>,
I (Select either A or B.) 7
Sinf Sinf
(I guess that either I misheard the phone number or this number (lit.
phone) is no longer in use.)
1
( i ) N (&), a I : l i N
1: Ifh, -
El $& (d.), 3 I: h i % & (either Japanese or English)
(ii) Sinf f i , b I: ti Sinf
<h *h:
(a) %(75), b I : t i 8 0 S - ) k d ~ 4 @ 9 ~ ~ 3 b ~ o
(Please use a black or blue ball-point pen.)
mata wa 173
s-LDLk, d. B r i i l D l < + h i & r. d. lflb&
&$L%-F0?%4
/
@(7!P), 3 7'zdkEi 7 S i = J H T 0 ~ & ,
(Irn~risonmentup to three years or a penalty up to one million yen.)
g~i&ik*&ti7!~6, &F$J-xQ&~~!P, gS~E ~
~I~GL
8%rb, S r i L
g-j-~
'J>O
(1 have to work during the day, so I have no choice but to take a night
course or look for a tutor.)
~:~aibaLbi b t L D L r
;~EIR~C:&L ~ ~ C W D F I~ W ~ ~~ ~ c : &+~cmg+-hra
~ ~ - c ~ ~
b f WiVLSr<
~S;kl:~, 3 7':dk@ff ~7$7$;i1:07'?6 5
(A letter that I assumed was mailed two weeks ago has not reached the
addressee yet. It is probably that my secretary forgot to mail it or that
the post office made a mistake.)
am
When mata wa connects two noun phrases, ka after the first noun phrase is
optional, as in KS(A), (B), Exs.(a) and @).
[Related ~xpressionsl
I. Soretomo is similar to mata wa in that it connects two possibilities, as
in [I].
[I] S % t 3 B M 3 B k I z 7 ! P , {&?-kt / tht&l B 5 L a Z B i k
4 $ 5 k ~ ; k T b > h b a 0 7 ' ? 6 5 . (=KS(C))
However, soretomo can connect questions whereas mata wa cannot.
+Key Sentences
),
r Counter €I
(the fourth (person))
m;pasitma.c:M~, %%cZXeDXr0
~*6i+3/.4r, f i
(Mr. Yamamoto is the person third from the left in the second row.)
(b) -Fa ~~EE~Lc,
(I failed the first time.)
I: 13 h, 2 :tL Z h L
(c) ZOH$%Y~Y~L\~&~~TZP:~C:&&,
(This Japanese program is in its fifth year (this year).)
(d) ~ ~ ~ ~ l ; i a f # ~ ~ j b sa t 'o z ~ ~ ~ i : ~ ~
(From the fifth week on Mr. Hayashi will teach this class.)
y&$ACi2gB
(Miss Ueno will perform first.)
r. 6
(f) A: +Dlf47i-11 2 1&& ~ - 3 % ~
(How many violins have you used so far?)
5 (
B: f;QBT$,
(The present one is my sixth.)
(el
fiZIi g&,&, &gj&jl&% { & ,,>b>o
(She does not need to worry about language (lit. the aspect of lan-
page) when she goes to Japan.)
(11 kd. Orid.
(f) < 8QS;kf:,
+b.mi
~o>Sl;tlW&@Q&
(This car was highly regarded in terms of performance.)
a-
1. -men is typically followed by the case particles de, ni, and kara, and the
topic marker wa. Wa may appear alone or with other case particles (e.g.,
KS and Ex.(e)) with the exception of ga and o.
2. Men can also be used as an independent noun and has the same mean-
ing as the suffix -men, as in (1).
IfL $mi
(1) %ED@ i K R C i b ~ 5 b ~ i j o f i T & ~ . ~ 8 Q Q %~l f ~ 1 6 ~
(His studies have been rated high in various aspects.)
b
miseru &-I? am. v (GK2)
+ ~ Sentence
e ~
&,4,~hb&(I will definitely read it 1I will show you how to read it.)
il.r.L? L?Cri
@liZa>2?tOR EK27 TA-t?&.
(I am determined to become the president of this company.)
.htL
~~ii~a>~\'/~-~,a%'a>Z~Ei&~-~h-t?aih~
(I can manage to marry that handsome guy.)
LL as c Wf C *A.
r 8~-Va>$Q-@Bn7T%,4,Tk-t?&Q0
(I will definitely read a 300-page book in one hour.)
LeiL 3LlL
$ ~ Z + G ~ I ~ ~ ~ * C . B ~ ~ E G ~ - ( ~ A ~ ~ .
(This year I will definitely finish writing my M.A. thesis.)
fib H Dr< C r i b.3Vri ItL
-gikE% - b )be+ - $>T~!ZT-C&-&~~
(Kazuo managed to run 100 meters in 11 seconds.)
(6) ? ? 8 9- b l b % + - @ T % ~T k - F % t &
(Are you determined to run 100 meters in 11 seconds?)
(6') ??X< X S i L l i B 9 - b ) L f ? + - $ > T % ~ T & ~ % - 6 ,
(Smith is determined to run 100 meters in 11 seconds.)
The reason why (6) and (6') are better than (5) and (5') is that in the
former miseru partially retains the original meaning of 'show' as a
volitional verb. In fact, (7) is a good sentence.
mo 5 prt.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(A)
Adj(na)stem
~ o ~ ~ <ca k a~L, m
ik'd' HbLh
$34: B
(This movie is not interesting and not particularly educational, either.)
-
-
-
-
-
g ~ g
--
(Dl
Noun
H(f L
&er&1i*&-T&
4L- L
4, fi$ T 6 &Qo
(Mr. Okuda is a lawyer and also a novelist.)
Vmasu
9 b %b,SLhi +
~ i j ~T~&f
~ ~ $ ~ * i - c i ~ % r;k%3 6 Labx,
(Recently Yuriko does not (even) look at me even if we pass each other
in the hall.)
-
@&
4.
T 6h 6 (s.t. is also convenient)
@$lJT6 8 b ) (st. is not convenient, either; s.t. is not even con-
venient)
%ST
b h6 (so. is also a teacher)
g&T6 C b1 (s.o. is not a teacher, either ;s.0. is not even a teacher)
(a) $ i f i 9 ~ s $ ~ ~ f $ z ~ f E 5. b l ~ t a ~ ~ ~
(Apes also laugh if something is funny, right?)
~~tihiw43~1~2~&~f1:ilr', T L-C, k?
/ri/uti+ih-d.
(I,) %arif;~i&$a$~~:~
v & La$9I&
(Ken'ichi didn't go home for three days right after their marriage, but
Kazuyo didn't cry. She didn't get mad, either.)
(c) dj07/2- t- ~ E ~ T C ~ ~ W il aha,
L $ <
(That apartment is not convenient and not inexpensive, either.)
LwiMiltL I b.2k.ra
(d) EJ B%hiE$lJak,kW9-F% & a o
(Excursion tickets are convenient ; on top of that, they are also eco-
nomical.)
(e) &~stvatv-c%$$~&
c ~ ~ o cPi
: , L-C-?rLaC: L-c&Vaa0
(Mr. Taguchi is not even a friend. How come you do so much for him?)
(f) % < &CbaOb:, Pi L ~ T t v ~ 6 0 BtvT.f$. ki
(Why are you going to buy a thing like that which is not even cheap?)
mm
1. Verbals with mo embedded in them (i.e., Vmasu mo surulshinai,
Adj(13stemku mo arulnai, {Adj(na)stem / N} de mo arulna0 are used in
the following situations.
(How are you during cherry blossom season? (lit. Cherry blos-
som information is also heard these days. How are you?))
In this situation, the mo indicates that other things which herald the
arrival of spring are implied while the cherry blossom news is being
reported.
3. Mo is often used in double negative sentences, which can be para-
phrased as nai koto mo nai, as in (7).
if as muchlmany as -, it will
be enough to
+Key Sentence
(Three hours are enough to see everything in this art museum. (lit. If
you have as many as three hours, you can see everything in this art
museum.))
:C tLiA
x ~ ~ b & - ? r $ + c ~ 6& va L d r~o
(20,000 yen will probably be enough. (lit. If you take as much as
20,000 yen with you, it will probably be sufficient.))
fS.C r i s ;
F - I L C ~9'-x
~ b & ~ ~ 8 b f h f k ~ k E ~
(As for beer, if we buy two dozen, it will be enough (lit. we will be all
right).)
L>T Lei d,&
- ~ ~ b t h ~ f ~ d t 6 ~ i3kt o
: j b ~
(It will take no more than a week until you can walk (lit. until you
become able to walk).)
:1 BLdw Gus?*. ;h
I, zm b &cfW
%
L
M
i$,
(Listening two or three times is I will be sufficient for understanding
most of it.)
a-
- rno - tara can also be used to express this idea, although it is less common.
-
both and -; neither - nor -;
also; (not) either
+Key Sentences
(A)
Vmasu Vmasu
Vmasu Vrnasu
~ 7b
.h*L
b tz,6
~%
ifb. (
~ t i # ~ . ~ r l & j $ $ ~ , d ; < &A eta,
(Loving haiku, I read them a lot and I write them myself (too).)
(That apartment is neither good nor cheap.)
(F)
tbft,
(ii) a. VN 6 VN 63-6 / L a b 1
brio ti C
#F! 6 %!% 6 % 6 (both cook and clean)
$+B6 %R6 L Q b l (neither cook nor clean)
b. N 6 IL/Jp6L/tl~lf)N6Jp&
$4E 6 { L / -$- 6 L / -b ;k l%l 6 Jp 6 (cook and also clean)
c. N 6 t @ T / L 2 b ' L / LhlfkLlfl N 6 LQbl
HE6 (11-4 / L Q L L~ / L 2 d f d ~ l % R
l E 6 L2L.l (does not
cook and does not clean, either)
(iii) a. Adj(i)stem <6 Adj(i)stem < 6 h b / 2b l
i k L L < 6 % ~ < 6 6 6(bothhappyandsad)
5 fl L < 6 ?LF L < & Q b l (neither happy nor sad)
b. Adj(13stem <6 I 6 0 / 6 6 L / h h d f l Adj(i)stem < 6h6
i f l L < 6 ( $ 1 4 / h b L / h l ~ C %%
l L< h h 6 (happy and
also sad)
c. Adj(i)stem <6 I 2 < / Obi L / Q lf l ~ l % Adj(i)stem
l < 6 Ql/l
188 -mo-mo
j ; k L < B { h </ h ~ \ L / h l f f ~ C %%lL < G a b \
(not happy and not sad, either)
(iv) a. {Adj(na)stem 1N} T 6 {Adj(na)stem 1 N) T B h 6 / 2
^ih. ifw F r ~#r
@$UT B #$$gi%T B h 6 (both convenient and economical)
@$IT B %&TJT B h b l (neither convenient nor economical)
b. {Adj(na)stemlN}T& {hb / h & L / h ; k C f )
{Adj(na)stem1N} T 6 i6 b
@ 8 T B {&Il / h b L / h ; k l f ) %%i%T%bib (convenient
and also economical)
c. {Adj(na)stem 1 N} T B 1h / < bl L / h lf ;kG%l
{Adj(na)stem 1 N) T 6h b >
<
@$Or& { h / h ~ l /Lh l f ; k ~ f J %%EITB hb\ (not con-
venient and not economical, either)
ma ~ . r m a l ; ; w 1 t % ~ 6 i m ~ .
(When it comes to German, I can both read it and speak it.)
I r i r ) , LI ti?%
Z CSW9IS4E L T d 6 *4? 3 L T ??6 +W,t; r i P b l b l ,
(This textbook is not too difficult and not too easy, either; it's just
right.)
; ~ ; ' ~ O % P A G M ~Wa !c~f ; k c m ~ gLGP,
,
(Bob's wife does not cook and does not clean (the house), either.)
zo% bcAE3~3< 6 h l f kLb%%;31 L< B2blo
60firt0
(1 checked the word in the dictionary and also asked my friend, but I
didn't get the meaning after dl.)
Dt hPf
& ~ ~ c i s i i ~ b > ~ a ~ / \ > v p~i ~&~
& si tGj:a~ j~5L '~,L > ,
(g)
p a t man is smart and handsome, too, but I'm unable to like him for
some reason.)
a=
1. As the rules in Formation (ii) show, when sum-verbs such as benm-
sum are used in this structure, mo follows the verb stem (i.e., VN)
rather than Vmasu (i.e., VN shi), as in (1).
2. As in KS(G), Exs.(f) and (g), when a clause contains a noun other than
the topic, mo marks the noun rather than the predicate.
- -
(e mo mo (DBJG: 255-57))
+Key Sentences
\
Topic Relative Clause
-
(Most of the present computers are those which are called (lit. things
which are called) the von Neuman model.)
-
(C Company announced an experimental model of an obstacle detector
for the blind.)
Sentencez (cont.)
r % m i b k a1iKLI: ;to ( T ~ s ) ~
-
(This device enables (lit. is something which has enabled) blind people
to recognize (lit. feel) obstacles ahead of them through stimuli to their
skin.)
mono (da) 1 91
(The content of this book generally applies to any society (lit. is some-
thing general which applies to any human society).)
a)
(D Company has decided to reduce the price of M-type word-proces-
sors by five percent. Their aim is to regain (lit. This is to aim at regain-
ing) their recently declining share of the word-processor market.)
(The first meeting of the Study Group for University Entrance Exami-
nations was held at a hotel in Tokyo yesterday. This study group was
started for the purpose of reviewing the present university entrance
examination system which is criticized frequently these days.)
(el za,WEi~&h~&fi~rb%~:&%~fia a,k 3 l ; f i 7 ~ ~ a ,
(This problem is expected to solve itself when the time comes.)
-
192 mono (da)
+d.w iA Z drri t < LA IP
(f) r v 3 I-n=3~0&%b&+fdbb~Ba&%B%Cf'ilI/~<
botTi$
'LI
sika,
(It is predicted that the world of electronics will continue advancing
rapidly from now on, too.)
Mono (da) is used to change the structure "X wa VP," which describes
an action taken by or received by X, to the structure "X wa Np da;
which is used to present a characteristic of X. Compare the two sen-
tences in (1).
(1) a. %GOJ~VL-POI~~AP
2.CI&4~~~2 t t ~ J k q
ik'il'd~ao
(Most of the present computers are called the von Neuman
model.)
Here, (la) describes what happens to the referent of the topic (i.e., most
of the present computers) while (lb) provides a characteristic of the ref-
erent.
Mono (da) as in KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d) frequently appears in newspaper
articles. It is used when a sentence provides such information as a pur-
pose, a reason, a cause, or specific information about something intro-
duced in the previous sentence. The copula (e.g., da) after mono is fre-
quently dropped in this usage.
Mono followed by the quotative to, as in KS(C), Exs.(e) and (f), is used
in general statements or opinion. This mono could be dropped without a
change in meaning. Note that the copula da does not follow mono in
this use.
(+mono (DBJG: 257-61))
How -!; What -!; -!; I wonder;
&ich is used in informal male I wish
+Key Sentences
Sinf
Sinf
I I
I Sinf / I
(El
@7F ct57k
fi 1/ 1 $1 i'd h
&
(a) <
1 i k ~ ~ t b h ~
(We drank a lot! / Did we drink!)
(b) itjo>v~a>%i-ni~ (get%
L ~ C G ~ ,
(I'm surprised that that stingy guy Yoshida gave money.)
(c) &7)&Ll/)Qifio
(I want a house so badly.)
(d) 383 A , gi Lk%Gl/)&Gifio
(I wonder if Mr. Yamauchi is not coming today.)
&$&&q@j~i7kb)fi7k&
(4
(I wonder if there is (lit. isn't) an interesting movie.)
(D &fz, L L ~ t
Zc t T r ~ l b a ~ l f i a a .
(I wonder if she will (lit. won't) get mad if I say such a thing.)
PW-x, sair:abafioa,
(I wish the Tigers would win today.)
.
.
-
- -
-
b. {Adj(na)stem 1 N] h 2 (={Adj(na)stem 1 N) Ebb 2 )
-rb i)
@$Jh2 (It's so convenient! /How convenient!)
3 fib1 hi? (The stars are beautiful!)
+Key Sentence
(There are people who say things like Japanese culture is unique, but I
don't think so.)
aemB
( i ) {V/Adj(i)}inf ifr rl:
%'a r2 ((say) s.t. like s.0. talks)
198 nado to
Wh
(a) % Z F ~ ~ > ~ P EL I; ,$ + & < G Y ~ ~ > ~ Z ~ ~ ~ S T T ~
(I don't have money, so ideas like going to Japan are just dreams.)
L>I-$~A?? Lo? _C FA
(b) &$IE~$~L~GY~C~ZL>Z-~~A~PL;, BC--, ~ E ~ S , ~ I L ~?-jT
ZL;
.f;3.0
(I'm not saying you should exercise everyday, but why don't you do it
2 or 3 times a week.)
(Don't think indulgently things like people will help you when you are
in trouble.)
'I*i d'( +%B= ~$%i
(e) E$+2YLLLzfJLTk>&?YbSAIi, 5%<E$O&i%C3K
&&&fit2Yk~L\fizL-ck~&o
(Mr. Kent, who is about to go to Japan to study, is worried about things
-
like whether he will be able to adjust to Japanese life.)
(f) d i - A h j 5 ' B a ) ~k ~ 4 73 * O ; f i ; f i 7 " 7 ? ~ ~ k ~ - > ~ b ~ & L ~
(Everybody is saying something like you are the hope of our club.)
(g) &<klZ-$, 7 2 Y k 8 j h & 6 k & & ( S b l ,
(When I am told that they respect me, I feel embarassed.)
-
-
b. & $ ~ * ~ l : z o ~ ~ ~ ~C~; ~$T ~j S. P; ~3L.\ &
, -
-
-
-
-
-
-
=N:
-
- -
(There is no reason to believe that Mr. Suzuki, of all peo-
ple, could understand this problem.)
e b L1Z
c. &IF&?',& e f b k \ d ; ,
(Stuff like raw eggs, I won't eat, you know.)
Vmasu
I I I
mwms Dt hi,,
(a) Wa>At;li2?bll'b$L; ( b ) , hA~hA%#I?,
(He is young, but he is very capable.)
(b) %&o>-tr'~ t;li&!Lb>8$1; ( b ) % & k ~6-n'8$31:,
(Although my professor's seminar was tough, I learned a lot from it.)
53j.d.9
(Becky's Japanese is halting, but I was able to figure out what she had
to say.)
(a* t <
( 6 ) . o h m < , a%$ei i b e 0
<i3
(dl ;olia;i.lm-e
(This area is inconvenient, but there is little traffic and the air is clean.)
Chhh h L f: Hhdr<d%~
(4 y % + w b , m ~ o i f ~ g i : & e f ~ r ~ ,
(To my regret, I cannot go to tomorrow's concert.)
(I) ~ l t d i i d f l # ? 2 d ' b ( 1 ) , .L <*%%?lo%~i.
(Hitomi is just a child, but she says things very carefully (lit. after
thinking hard).)
(g) :o@i$J&$b ( 6 ) .L <&lo
(This car runs well, although it is such a small car.)
f=hLh 6. :lh
(h) ~ [ * o ~ m ~ o ; -/ I ~
11 - ~ & Lj ~ G ~ L( 6; 1 , 2&~j:h~?&l
-Cb>&O
(Japanese white-collar workers who have to leave their families behind
-
for work transfers work for the company even though their lives are
hard.)
mlm
1. The disjunctive conjunction nagara(mo) is a subordinate conjunction
that is used to express the meaning of 'although' by combining two sen-
tences.
2. The conjunction is normally used in written or formal, spoken Japanese.
3. When nagara is used as a disjunctive conjunction, the disjunctive mean-
ing is emphasized if mo is used. There are cases where nagara and
nagararno are used as a temporal 'while' and the disjunctive 'although,'
respectively, as shown in (la) and (lb).
(1) a. 4&l&@;kQfif% r"2 I. )ba);l S%%flZ 5 k L k o
(As he fell down, he tried to pull the pistol trigger.)
b. ~ & l 2 @ k L Q f ~ ~ % 6I.)ba)3lS&B3lZ
r"X 5 2Lk0
(Although he fell down, he tried to pull the pistol trigger.)
(+nagara (DBJG: 269-70))
b. {@/&a7':/@1
i2B$-mEhqT;iTb>& {tJf/Lth2/@
I:}, El$.;gF$L $%-eh~/>~
(+ga (DBJG: 120-23); keredo(mo) (DBJG: 187-88); noni (DBJG: 331-35))
However, there are cases in which the first person is used as in Exs.(e) and
(j).
-nai koto rno/wa nai 203
+Key Sentences
(I do read them, but very rarely. (lit. It isn't the case that I don't read
them, but very rarely.))
(a) A: <
z o$IA$$$L G ~ ~ L T T + ~
(Isn't it cool around here during the summer?)
204 -nai koto rnolwa nai
tlP3
B: we, j g , ~ < a b l z t : e a ~ l / v ~ ~w ~, ~ l r < $ i < a ~ 1 2 - d - ~
(Yes, it is cool, but sometimes it gets terribly hot.)
(b) A: k~;s~~&&$~.Ta~>~~g-O
(Isn't your father in good health?)
IfVbr? t
:
B: bl?, z "C
i;
m . ~ a b l kZ 1 2 7 ' s b l A T t f l , ltl.Efl$L'&b>k jT
-+0
1. The phrase -nai koto rno/wa nai is used when the speaker wants to
mildly acknowledge 1confirm with a proviso that s.0. has just said or
written. The phrase is often followed by n(o) d e w ga.
2. The phrase expresses a double negative structure that is virtually an
affirmative statement.
3. The phrase is an expression of repetition that repeats the same verb,
adjective or N + Copula which has just been used in the interlocutor's
-nai koto mo/wa nai 205
question. So, the phrase cannot be used as a discourse-initial sentence.
In other words, one cannot start conversation with this phrase. So, for
example, in a drinking party situation one cannot utter (1) out of the
blue.
e elated ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
-
=
-
- i
sNp
-
_3
The predicate phrase -nai koto mo nai and koto wa share the same charac-
teristics of not giving an unconditional statement. But the former is used in
response to a negative question, whereas the latter is used in response to an
affirmative question. Compare [lA] and [2A] with KS(A) and Ex.(a),
respectively.
111 A: EI +mmimima;r a -wO
(Do you read Japanese newspapers?)
[2] A: Z o)ZCSZ%L~/\/uT.fd.~
(Is it cool around here during the summer?)
B: ?iTT;ta, I Z L L \ Z t l d Z L L \ T t / * S L < & t \ Z t S &
L \ A T b l $, @ h v r < g < t : ! l a - $ ,
(It is cool, but sometimes it gets terribly hot.)
(+koto wa (DBJG: 206-08))
206 nakanaka
+Key Sentences
-
Adj.
:1 IIL Z LriT
1~3>3LktEl$&F tbiPc$ LPTb its,
Adv.
(It will be a long time before the cherry blossoms are out this year. (lit.
This year the cherry blossoms do not bloom easily.))
nakanaka 207
(a) z 0 8 b i i t i 2 d ~ t ci t~ b~ >~ ~ - ~ h ,
(This garden is quite beautiful, isn't it?)
208 nakanaka
t r< &lri?W
r.zo
Z D & D P ~ ~ E L ~ ~ ~ 5~ ~ % E + L ~
(This math problem looks quite difficult, doesn't it?)
2. When nakanaka occurs with the negative form of a verb it indicates the
difficulty or slowness with which s.t. desirable reaches its realization, as
shown in KS(C) and Exs.(f) - (j).
3. There are cases in which the affirmative form of a verb can be used as
shown in KS(D) and Ex.&). Notice that in these cases one could say
that the adverb yoku is understood. The deletion of yoku appears to be
allowed when it is followed by a verb that already includes the meaning
of 'well' like dekiru of KS(D) or hanaseru of Ex.&). So, if a verb
doesn't include the meaning of 'well', yoku cannot be omitted.
(5) ZO&&&%P& I & < /*#I & ~ f - m & ,
(This picture is well painted.)
4. It is not the case that any N can follow nakanaka; only those nouns that
include the idea of an adjective or adverb can be used with nakanaka.
For example, bijin in KS(E) and benkyd-ka in Ex.(l) come from
utsukushii hito 'a beautiful woman' and yoku benkydsuru hito 'a person
who studies well.' Even the loan word purei-bdi can be used with
nakanaka, because it means yoku onna-no-ko to asobu hito 'a person
who habitually plays with girls.'
21 0 nakanaka
Nakanaka can be used with adjectives that have of positive meaning and
with the negative verb when it implies slowness or difficulty. Observe the
following examples which contain six adverbs of degree: nakanaka, totemo,
hvo ni, taihen, kanari, and kekkd.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(The Japanese final examination was not very hard, and I felt relieved.)
(ii) 2
{Adj(na)stem1N} TI&. <
LS
@+Ti22 < (s.t. 1S.O. is not quiet and -)
=Tti 2< (s.o. is not a teacher but -)
et
@0$&,3 I I ~ <a < , $-IT- d?,Z & ~ ; i l . ? h + ~ ~ : ,
(It wasn't very cold this winter and we wore our overcoats only two or
three times.)
l o i n fhd'
ll$s~f:@~d&c:3E < a < , #$T&-c ~ 3 ~ 7 : ~
(The movie I saw yesterday was so boring that I went to sleep during
it.)
x
<
$ L G L ~ & . B $ ? Q)j5I$@~C;fa
~B~ < , A5382 L k O
7%
(To listen to Japanese was not easy, and I had quite a difficult time.)
@Zk@&f:8d&.?fii3 &L < 2 , %€I!+ < &%%
(I was surprised that I did not feel so sad when I parted with her.)
<
$Li~B$$g??&$ji;i-C fif:a)d&.El$ATG&.h < , 7 >'I i5Af?9f:,
IL I 1 L C L
(The person who taught me Japanese was not a Japanese but an Amer-
ican.)
< 9 .r~ae,
#hikam;t.s~Y$&~i~a
(What I like is not Japanese cuisine, but Thai cuisine.)
2. The -naku form is used in written Japanese, whereas -nakute can be used
in both spoken and written Japanese. However, note that the negative
continuative form -naku cannot be used with a verb except when naru
follows the naku form, as shown in (1) and (2).
%
%
oiQ
$ { ~ Q t b < ~ / * ~ ~ ~ < lB<-$,
(Our child doesn't read books and we don't know what to
do.)
EXcif4~;&,2
g &a< 7/ * m a < I B.n'9~~>%
t o
(My husband doesn't drink much, and it's a relief.)
(L=> nakute (DBJG: 279-80))
i % o F C S Q % % t b <Q 9 3 Lk,
(Our child doesn't read books any more.)
~ A l k @ Q R Q Q <Q b 3 L ~ L ,
(My husband doesn't drink any more.)
3. If nai is attached to N + Copula, it indicates contrast. But, if a noun is
a Sino-Japanese compound ~ i t l l ~ aadjectival
n nature, such as akusei
&E) 'malignant,' kdhyd ($f 8 ) 'popularity,' it indicates a reason1
cause for what follows.
(3) a. ~&&FE~WQ < , 1 2 9t L?:,
(The tumor wasn't malignant, and I felt relieved.)
b. % ~ l r . . * m m ~ a< , ~ 9 . nr)' LIZ,
(The book I wrote was not popular, and I felt disappointed.)
4. The following chart summarizes the negative and affirmative continua-
tive forms.
-
Affirmative Negative
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
-
=a=
-
-
-
The -naku form is connected with an Adj(i l na) or a noun, but it cannot be
connected with a verb except when naru follows the -naku form, as stated in
Note 2. However, Vneg zu can be used in written Japanese. Vneg usually
takes a potential negative form, except when Vneg means 'without doing
(+naide (DBJG: 271-73))
H$%D#%@%&T, B 9 k 0
(I was not able to read Japanese newspapers, so I had a difficult
time.)
CaiLr K'LblfLZJ tlL5< K' 1
fE f i & ~ % % T & & f i > b TW
, wYi%Gzfi9k o
(I didn't know the address or the telephone number, so I was not
able to contact him.)
,hkL L2bL
bhf,
@X$QRB~~K&$;~ ${~fib>k,
(I couldn't answer simple questions, so I felt embarassed.)
nandemo 21 5
+Key Sentence
I I
(I don't know for sure, but they say that Mr. Yamamoto has separated
from his wife and lives alone.)
O t r i fib
me G z o&awmmt t:~r>+i e-3-L
11 61
h.
(I don't know for sure, but they say things are expensive in this neigh-
borhood.)
r n e ~ ~ o X i a if iwe :~i~~-~ e ~ ~
+L fib, l
(I don't know for sure, but he appeared to have earned a lot of money
through stocks.)
fiwf< I v ' r W < La? L
r n e ~ & h ~ ~ k l~ +i e ~ ~ ~* kj d5& y 6 + ~ & ~
~ 7
b '>: 1 ;
T-3-L o
(I don't know for sure, but it seems that Mr. Toda's son received an
MBA at the University of Chicago.)
I: ~wwh. - L b& 0 -3 s bviicl
rne~
b%k7% 1) ~ ~ E ~ ~ B ~ ~ P ~ ~ c ~ ;
,>a
(I don't know for sure, but there's some talk that they are developing
an airplane that flies between Japan and the west coast of the States in
about five hours.)
has to be either a hearsay expression (as in KS, Exs.(a) and (d)) or con-
jectural expression (as in Exs.(b) and (c)).
2. The sentence remains grammatical without nandemo, but it cannot
express the idea of uncertainty.
3. Among the conjectural expressions, dard l deshd cannot be used with
nandemo, because the speaker is sure about s.t. more than 50% but less
than 100% when he uses nandemo, whereas he is at most 50% sure
about s.t. when he uses dard l deshd.
bfi O I -ZX.
(1) *4Wb & D I A C ~ ~ @ ? & P L:J 3 h,
(I don't know for sure, but the two will probably get married.)
+ m T b &DXAIi%fi€W& { % LL\/ & 3 / ? 5 1 T ? k
(I don't know for sure, but the two {seem / appear / have been
said} to be getting married.)
(+dare (DBJG: 100-02))
+Key Sentences
fl(Cb%( CL CL*W
--Al?;Sl$ h,
(A: I heard that education at this college is good. B: Yeah, you may
be surprised, but the instructor-student ratio is 6 to 1.)
I Sentence, I 1 sentence2 I
(a) & O ~ ~ A ~ & ~ LT~ T~ >L Y ~% % & & & Q T ~ > & L T * ; S ~
;la,
(He is rich, you know. Believe it or not, he has three Mercedes Benz.)
@ L a , tD&btsl,>io%$g
(b) @ a ) ~ G i $ ~ G : ~ $ ~ ; S 1 3 7 ' : T t 0
<
Gbi b b l T L l z - h l b h ,
(It snowed a lot this winter. In fact, there were less snow-free days than
snowy days, you know.)
21 8 nanishiro
(d) A: bTd&.~$@b>jfak
(Japan is crowded, isn't it?)
B: j A, { @ L S , %41&.79
'I f ~ a ) 3 - 5 5 3 O - Q O b : , XEd2.:
4:t*'): Xh.
53O-7'?73 b jfao
(Yeah, as a matter of fact, the size is one twenty fifth of America
but the population is one half, you know.)
(el ~ L S :jF~~l/vrz,
, & a & f i ~ ~ ~ ~ t v ~ ~ ~
(I'm unbelievably busy. I don't have any sleeping time, you know.)
1. Originally the adverb comes from nani o shim meaning 'do what you
may.'
2. Nanishiro indicates the speaker's emotive reaction about some extreme
state of affairs, so if an unusual situation does not exist the adverb can-
not be used.
(2) <
, K ~ ~ L -Q
lr<
L {~p " ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ $ ,/ &
c ~ I / ~ L > ~ . .M
, ~ -
*R$ZZT%%->TL>ZI] d.6,
(Don't worry, because {there are as many as 20 policemen
watching 1I am watching you] .)
Nanishiro in all the KS and Exs. above can be replaced by tonikaku. How-
ever, tonikaku has a meaning of 'any waylat any rate' but unlike nanishiro it
does not indicate the speaker's emotive feeling. In other words, nanishiro is
a speaker-oriented expression, but tonikaku isn't. So, the latter can be used in
nanishiro / naranai 2 1g
highly hearer-oriented request or question sentences but the former cannot.
[I] a. I L : C Z ~ P </*.fiil~31&416:4~7;2b',
(Come and see me, anyway.)
b. I t E f i > < /*.fiilL31 ? % d Q & ~ f z Ir; i T T ~ ,
(I'd suggest that you send a letter, anyway.)
c. {L:w< / * w L ~ f)i i c w b t , a . t t j . ,
(Are you going to quit smoking anyway?)
+Key Sentences
(A)
Adj(na)te
,%& a I; ak'o
(I'm very much womed about my sick mother. (Lit. I cannot help
worrying about my sick mother).)
Tamaranai and shikata ga nai can be used with any Adj or V of psychologi-
cal or physical feeling to express its unbearableness, whereas naranai is
much more restricted in that it has to indicate psychological feeling when
used with V, as shown in Note 1 above.
The difference between tamaranai and shikata ga nai is that the former
expresses the speaker's feeling of intolerability more strongly than the latter.
(+tamaranai (DBJG: 44547))
- nari - nari 223
(As for kanji you can't read, find out the reading either by looking it up
in a dictionary or by asking a Japanese.)
( i ) N1 h 0 N2 Qll{;59/ 81
t: **<h
H ~ Z B 3 ~ 8 Z B r(;59/81
l (eitherTanakaorYamada)
(ii) NI Prt. Q ll N2 Prt. B 3 (where Prt. = other particles than iF/ 8 )
+i iA
LLI- B 3%". B 3 (to the mountain or to the oceans)
H +Z b= B 3 LLI H Z G= B 3 (either to Tanaka or to Yamada)
(iii) N1 Q ll N2 B ll Prt. (where the Prt. is, : G +, 2, T , &b)
224 - nari - nari
(a) ~ ~ t s ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ a ~ j 5 ' ~ % i : B ~ i : ~ g b f ,
(Either I or Yamada will go to the airport to pick you up.)
(I,) ? $ ; 3 ~ % % t a z t : j 5 ' h r l ~ ~ f : 1 ; % & a ~ 7 T . ; r 3 x a v ~ s $
f 0
(If you have something that you want to report, please do it by tele-
phone or by fax.)
It*
(c) %$larl%%a"I=&~-C,Q~ < Q ~ L ~ : V / ~ T L
(I would like to see my parents or a close friend, and talk leisurely.)
-
-
=
=
-
-
=
7:
EN
-
-
-
c0
-
- (Right now I'm so busy that I can't make a trip, but I intend to make
one during the spring break or summer vacation.)
(e) Y ~ x i F L k ; t r . ~ f : 1 ; , b . L h r l . f ~ - 1 ~ ~ 7t :' L
sfr: lb b 1 b \ T L ~
i
(If you want to play tennis, why don't you play with Tom or Charles?)
v-eh*
m d ~ m =<&a 9 , $ % a > Z % ~ b
A
(f) I- B$L
7 1 f - !TV& ha 6 ,
a V L k b P5 Tf7k
(If you are looking for an apartment, you should go to a realtor or look
at the newspaper ads.)
(1) %&c:~T<
&I) LT, & g k g & b t ; / v k L~':I;P~T?&
(Why don't you go to the barber's and make your hairstyle
neat?)
3. The main predicate of the structure in question is more often than not in
the nonpast tense, because it expresses the speaker's current will, deter-
mination, desire or habits as shown in Exs.(a), (c) and (d). But the main
predicate can be in the past, if the predicate expresses a habitual deter-
mination as shown in (3) below.
(3) %~lk?%?o)~k%;~~%~b
Gblk!I&, %&a?I B$hG )3 Izk7 <
d: i: I Lk,
(I've made it a rule to ask my teacher or a Japanese when I don't
know how to read kanji.)
- - -
I. The structure - nari nari can be replaced by the conjunction ka ka,
because both can express choice. So, KS(A) and Ex.(a), for example,
can be rewritten as [I] and [2],respectively.
- -
The crucial difference between - nari - nari and ka (ka) is that the
-
latter is an exhaustive listing of choices (i.e., 'either or'), but the for-
mer is a listing of representatives out of more possible choices.
- -
(+ ka ka; kal (DBJG: 164-66))
11. The expression - -tari - -tari can replace - nari - nari. For example,
226 - nari - nari
KS(B) and Ex.(f) can be rewritten as [3] and [4].
-
(e tari - tari suru (DBJG: 458-61))
- -
Both - nari nari and -tari - -tari list representative examples, but the
former sounds more assertive than the latter. (i.e., the speaker feels that
his choice is the proper one). So in a situation where the ~ p e a k e r ' ~
-
assertion is due, - -tari -tan is not used.
t Lt3.L
[5] 53*r;ed.9r:c;,H P @ T (i<~*b)/*S<f-bJI, &&
C: {W<&b! /*ML\ebJl L.51,
(If you cannot figure it out, do research at the library or ask
your professor.)
In [6a] and [6b] nari is ungrammatical, because Vinf.nonpast nari
Vinf .nonpast nari cannot be used with the past tense predicate.
[6] a. ~ d l i f {~L k2V /*bQ&b))
~ C D 9 (i?!l'$~~\kbI
/
* M < & b J I Lf:,
(Yesterday I did things like playing tennis and listening to
CDs.)
b. 749 { & ~ f P/*f?.TC&blI,
l &a (B3fLbl/*%3&
6) I, t -c B % ~ $ 1 k
9 ,
nI. - toka - toka is also used to list representative examples. - nari - nari
can be replaced by - toka - toka: the former conveys the speaker's sub-
jective judgment that the choice is the proper one but the latter doesn't.
-
- nan nan in [9d] is unacceptable because it cannot take a verb right
after it.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Noun Noun
-
aa)X it i
b j
m avi: 1& & T v & ~ L w ~
t,*<CV
YLkitYnts !I:b -
(students in their own way)
without
-
[REL. ga (i)-nakereba;
nashi ni wa]
+Key Sentence
tLt*>
cEi===
%==
%&aL T l i (without a teacher)
7
[Related ~xpressions]
I. Nashi de wa can be replaced by nashi ni wa in KS and Exs.(a), (b), (d),
and (e), but not in the other Exs. It seems that N nashi de wa is pre-
-
ferred in a context where N is used as a means of achieving something; ed
whereas N nashi ni wa is preferred in a context where the meaning of a
means of achieving something is weak. That is why in Exs.(c) and (f)
the original nashi de wa can hardly be replaced by nashi ni wa; the free
time is regarded as a means of enriching one's life in Ex.(c) and a car is
regarded definitely as a means of transportation in Ex.(f). In [I] below,
the same N "w8puro" is regarded as a means in [la] and not as such in
[lbl.
[I] a. 7-;PU ( & L T U / ? & L C = U ) L > V ~ $ % F & ~ ~ ~ L > ,
(Without a word processor one cannot write a good paper.)
B&V= 8 S i i d./rdc
b. 7-;Pu {≪:ib / ? t b : L T i t l X $ W % C & 4 R b ; k t s ~ > .
(One cannot think of writing activities without a word
processor.)
-
11. The adverbial phrase nashi de wa can be rephrased by - ga nakereba
or by - ga i-nakereba. Thus, for example, KS and Ex.(a) can be rewrit-
ten into [2] and [3],respectively, without changing their basic meaning.
232 nashi de wa / -neba naranai
The only difference between the two versions is that - nashi de wa ver-
sion sounds slightly more formal probably due to the archaic form
nashi.
- -
However, ga (i)-nakereba cannot be rephrased by nashi de wa when
the sentence is a question, request, command, suggestion, or volitional
sentence. Examples follow.
I@
[41 { t t z + m ~ f h l ~ / * t m & ~L
~ ~
u S < IZS
~W/RL T
b>/t%LI:br5T$7P/t%L3 L L ? l o
(If you don't have a job, look for one / please look for one / why
don't you look for one / let's look for one.)
E X L 4L*i5
[5] I%&#L\&Cf hlB/*%!k& L T l b l $%T% % L a S b l ,
(If there isn't a teacher, study by yourself.)
[6] { ~ & h f Q k t h C % / * ~ & & L T t t r?
l , LI:bblbrT.f$,
(If I don't have money, what shall I do?)
+Key Sentences
(A)
Vinf.neg hdf8 6 8 b h
% 3 ;faif8 b 8 b 1 (s.o. has to talk.)
kxhifa 6 8 b 1 (s.o. has to eat.)
-@bC%th l;Qbh (irr.) (s.0. has to do it.)
IjL3*3 9-3
(a) $&~Ee~~a~cf;fawr;;ib~.~,
(I have to continue the same research from now on.)
CLL*-.Ll L
(b) h @ ~ k ~ 8 < 3 ; t a b f 8 r ; h b ~ ,
(We should get rid of racial prejudice.)
dv ?r 8blLi % <: -lZLL+ W:<
(c) 2%0t4?Sa%~&$?f
1:ssi~-@htf8 1;8 ~ I..,3
had to report the agenda of the conference to the main office after
(I
returning to my country.)
(d)
+?A It -
h ~ w % a 8 i i + ; f a m r; ~ c L > ~
(We have to voice preservation of nature.)
234 -neba nafanai / ni
The only crucial difference between Vinf. neg -neba naranai and Vinf. neg
-nakereba naranai is that the former is used normally in written Japanese, but
the latter, in spoken and written Japanese. Connection-wise, the way -neba
naranai and -nakereba naranai are connected with adjectives are different.
ni CZ prt.
- ~-
Scond Sinf
(a) ~ ~ - + c ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ c z ~ j~bz0 ~ : ~ B
.&tr,%hL I: if^
(If you could stay in Japan another year or so your Japanese would
become more proficient.)
&$js."t: <
~ / v i f j n ~ i z ~ . e % ~j ~I f: i~i ; i a ~ ~ ~
(If we had a lot of money, we would be able to buy this sort of house.)
a 3 : ,.!:?fI T
~ c : L ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . " & Q ~ : I ; % ~ +5sKO
~~~BQY~~~
(If I had had a good job I could have married Michiko.)
O . : i ;1 d % t L _,-
~q~g~6cfirw'mgi-jrL ~ Aj aj K ~ I:.
( I f you go by plane, you could easily get there.)
Bj S LL3li
m:aa&x, &&ts~a~6 j i:,
(If he uses his money a little more carefully, he could save his money.)
<
&O% 0 7 1 f - b ~:&/vf.. ~ $ $ u T L L I:,
(If you lived in an apartment near the station, it would be convenient.)
:?6 *2 l CbW<
+@BIAbk~~:~T;51~QOG:i&~&-h";51;516TL L 5 KO
(It must cost a lot of money to send two children to college.)
% $ ~ # o G & a e <L-c, S ? 3 Q f : z k T L L 5 K O
(You must have had a difficult time when you lost your airplane ticket.)
-
1. If the structure is "Scond, {V / Adj}inf.nonpast (deshd 1dard} ni,"
the entire sentence expresses the subjunctive past (i.e., supposition that
is counter to the current situation) as in Exs.(a), (b), (d), (e) and (f).
-
"Scond, {V /Adj}inf.past {deshd l dam} ni" expresses the subjunc-
tive past perfect (i.e., supposition that is counter to the past situation) as
in KS(A) and Ex.(c). In both the subjunctive past and the past perfect,
the entire sentence expresses the speaker's regret. But if the subject of
the Scond is the second or third person, it expresses the speaker's sym-
pathy for the second or third person. If Scond is not there, as in KS(B),
Exs.(g) and (h), the entire sentence expresses sympathy.
2. The sentence-final particle ni always follows deshd / dard.
-
"Scond, {V / Adj }inf (deshd / dard}" can be rephrased as "Scond, {V / -
Adj} infnoni," as shown in [I] and [2]. (6 noni (DBJG: 331-35))
ni / ni atattelatari 237
[I] E
6 El %hdfE%C:%;iIzUlCL (cf. KS(A))
+Key Sentences
(On the occasion of new employees' entering the company, the presi-
dent threw a party at a hotel.)
(On the occasion of graduating from college, Kazuya consulted with his
academic adviser on his future direction.)
(On the occasion of my study abroad, my father told me about his own
experience.)
c It/, I k . 8 ~ liL *mi :orl.W t L r 6 . L 923 -2
(b) E ~ $ @ ~ % B W R T ~ C ~ % IB: %
~ TH,P % T & N ~ ~ Q L ~ : ~
(Before I did research on the Japanese economy, I collected materials
at the National Diet Library.)
L*-J+?$ +<Qi? *vs
(c) &&~i.tf: 7 I.& R W ~ : 9, M B ~ % R B LIZ,
(The Premier had a conference with cabinet members before attending
the summit.)
L ~ i t ?A. L: f i b , a$ L
(d) G:/?: 0 , + o B + ~ ' ~ o E ~ BL~ <$ # d 7 ~ ~ ~
zm~;t;&?h~Q%(
(Before writing a historical novel, the novelist did an in-depth survey
of the history of the period he dealt with.)
1 . ni atattelatari is used to indicate time when one faces s.t. formal. The
formality of the compound particle can be shown by (1).
(1) a.
L e i L& LziQii gk* gT& B~g;gCz
% L i 2 R $ 3 K 3 k ~ 7 9 E 0 @%
Tb\&,,
(It is my custom to drink a small amount of foreign liquor
prior to going to bed.)
b. * $ L C ~ & & ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T T ~ ~ X + - % ~ ~ I I . ~
(I drink a glass of whisky before going to bed.)
Both (la) and (lb) express a similar situation, but (la) is expressed in a
more formal way than (lb). Thus, ni atatte is acceptable in the formal
sentence (la) but not in the informal sentence (lb).
2. The compound particle is primarily used in written Japanese. When a
verb precedes it, the verb is often a Sino-Japanese suru-verb as in KS(B)
and Ex.(b), because the Sino-Japanese verb is also suitable for written
Japanese.
3. The tense of the verb before ni atatte/atari is always nonpast regardless
of the tense of the final predicate. The nonpast tense expresses an
=N?
incomplete aspect of an action indicated by the verb. Thus, for example,
in KS(B), when Kazuya went to see his academic adviser, he had not yet
graduated from college. That is why the phrase can be translated into
English as 'before' or 'prior to.'
4. The difference between ni atari and ni atatte is a matter of style; the for-
mer is more formal than the latter.
5 . There is a prenominal form - ni atatte no N used as in (2) below.
(2) %A?kW0A?*E ( 3 7 ~ 7 /7* 3 k t l l D l $ - f 4 -bi?tE&
aR L I . ,
(The president attended the patty held on the occasion of new
employees' joining the company.) (cf. KS(A))
I. Toki is a basic noun which indicates the time when s.0. / s.t will do /
does / did s.t. or the time when s.0. / s .t. will be / is 1was in some
state. It is clear from Note 3 that toki cannot be replaced by ni atan/
atatte when the preceding verb is past. (+toki (DBJG: 490-94))
240 ni atattelatari
b. @a { s r f / * t Z l k ~ T / * K ~ t ; '/-r'7-~&F&,
~I]
(Before going to bed I take shower.)
11. The conjunction mae ni and the compound particle in question are
semantically very close. Both of them allow only Vinf.nonpast because
an action indicated by the verb is incomplete. Yet there is one crucial dif-
ference between them. Ni atattelatari means 'before s.t. signijicant takes
place,' but mae ni means 'before s.t. takes place.' The difference can be
shown by the following examples. (dmae ni (DBJG: 231-33))
1 *
[4] %+I&@& {at: l * C Z I f ; - > T I f L F B ~L
(Nobuko watches TV before she goes to sleep.)
111. There is another time expression - (no) sai (ni) 1 - ni saishite which is
used to indicate a special occasion on which S.O. does s.t. The crucial
difference between this time expression and - ni attatelatari is that the
latter indicates an occasion in formal sentence, but the former indicates
ni atattelatari / ni hanshite/hansuru 241
a special occasion. Thus, in the following formal yet non-special sen-
tence the time expression in question cannot be used.
-
Practically all the uses of - (no) sai (ni) 1 ni saishite can be rephrased
-
by ni atattelatari, as long as the sentence is formal.
$At% 5%
b. El*O%l-E4kO@% { E E L 7 / D E E / E%f:7T / E
% r L b ) H*OH%D%%%$U~
) Lk0
(At the time of research on Japanese modernization I used
the ~ a t i o n aDiet
l Library of Japan.)
(It is said that to enter good universities in Japan is difficult but to grad-
uate from them is easy.)
I I
i i c:kji.ta % ek~~~l;;kf:.
(Taeko was forced to marry. (lit. A marriage which was against Taeko's
will was forced upon her.))
mmm
Gc E L T (contrary to expectations)
7%.
(ii) Sinf 0 C: LZ L T (Connection rules: the same as 0 R)
k < $8 5.4 t a 0 C: LZ L T (in contrast to the fact that S.O. studies
hard)
USL O l i L L 1 t b 1
$E;51;k-cb>&o
(The principle consideration of elementary education in Japan is to
provide students with knowledge. In America, in contrast (to this),
emphasis is put on increasing students' creativity and individual tal-
ents.)
(The election this time ended up with results which were against the
general prediction.)
The difference between the two is that when ni hanshite is used, the
connected propositions are in opposition but when ni taishite is used, the
connected propositions are contrastive but not necessarily in opposition.
Thus, in 151, where the two propositions are contrastive but not in oppo-
sition, only ni taishite is acceptable.
%&Ski C*iL
[5] A ? ~ ~ ~ % B E % Q ~ B L {EMLT
T L ~ /*C=BLTl
~ D B 3i
t i~ 7 - r -E&'$~,X;~TL~~~
(Company A focuses on products for education (lit. puts im-
portance on the education industry) while Company B focuses
on products for leisure (lit. takes great interest in the leisure
industry).)
-
Topic Clause I I I Sentence (reason) I I
Topic Sinf
1E*c< :9F< L*3 . d.LI +f; PQ
fimw 812 C ~ W D A z : 1:~32.2 1;a b l ,
I: :* h C L
(c) ~ E ~ > W C ~ Q Z E ~ l=
j a .b aCo Z ; ~ ~ ~
(His speech and behavior are nothing but self-advertisement.)
rb
BB '
<
(d) %dr%R??%!L LCJV&a>di~R??%~Tb~~;3~bC:lZ&abitrb~,
(The reason why parents discipline their children strictly is simply
because they love their children.)
d.o)tr lr<
(e) @&$$$~:&->T&QDc~#??$Y~~ f z b a * ~ ; c:~+tc bG L ~ ,
(The reason why she comes close to me is simply because she wants to
use me.)
C i ? fi-
(f) H$%$ZkLGZ P k ~ ~ f . a > d & . ~ $ a > ~~a$>~ a > ~ & a > . k j & C ~
bLB-haa b a b 1 0
(The reason why my Japanese made such progress is simply because of
my college Japanese instructor.)
(g) Z a > ~ ~ a > ~ & a > ~ j g . " b ~ b ~ a ) ~ i ~ ~K$Gl Z; ;l ?kI bawo
~~ D
b ~ & b
(The reason why the student quality of this college is so good is simply
because the selection is tough.)
d.<-w
(h) @jS#a>lH
$
il
L A',
bih%a>@&??%
CLAv I t *7
Z t 1: G2&a b a b l ,<
(The use of nuclear weapons invites nothing but (lit. is nothing but to
invite) the annihilation of humanity.)
The phrase ni suginai which means 'nothing but' sounds very close to ni
hokanamnai but they are quite different. The former means k t . / s.0. is noth-
ing more than what is stated, in terms of amount, degree, status, signifi-
cance, etc,' whereas the latter means k t . / s.0. is nothing other than X.' The
former often has downgrading nuance, but the latter lacks this nuance.
-
not limited to (but also); not
-
only (but also)
[REL. - dake d e (wa) naku
- (mo)]
*Key Sentence
Noun
NC
:lrbCl;T
c ek-r
El $i%C: $El;f (not limited to Japanese)
*A*'<
B A: ~ ~ ? ~ ~ ~ Y ? c : P ~ ! c ; T ? $ T B & s ~ . ~ ,
sf^)
(Talking about music, I listen to any music, not just classical music.)
C L * ~ hbv?
za>~r-~~Y&r~~ft:lrdll;y~~a,~~~:eXk~;&,a.
(This bar is popular not only among men but also among women.)
~~t~~bc~El;f&~Tf.
-
(My preference for fruit is unlimited (lit. not limited to something); I
like any kind.)
$ CITfTjZ 2 flY$jj?,
L zt * b ~ b,
?6$db=.lrg!b~g'@jSbk%~%
(Whatever you do (lit. Not limited to anything), it is important to do it
with sincerity.)
- dake de (wa) naku - (mo) is used in similar contexts. In fact, KS, Exs.(a)
and (b) can be paraphrased using this structure, as in [I] - [3].
~ e w m am:ct-mcz)a<
w ia.n'osTsfi'i;hit-rwa.(~f.KS)
(Arranged marriage is practiced not only in Japan but also in other
countries, too.)
8%d235'/~3T~CfP(lt)~<~ilT&M ?i3TO
(cf.Ex.(a))
(When it comes to music, I do not listen just to classical music, I lis-
ten to anything.)
2 ~ l d2%tWtf
f - T(ib) <
k,EDWK.fAB-nl'a&,a.(cf. Ex.(b))
(This bar is popular not only among men but also among women.)
- -
However, dake de (wa) naku (mo) cannot be used when an indefinite
noun is used in front of ni kagirazu, as in Exs.(c) and (d).
+ K ~ YSentence
1 Noun I I I
I I
BP 01 .tlLrbl ItL L e i L= L t i
PwL&i2f:b>-cb%f % SKb>b9L? 60K, +El KFE9Tb>b9
L-?bG*9fz0
(Prof. Nakano is usually in his office, but today, of all days, he wasn't
there.)
%%&9 T&GL> El ~ ~ ~ T%fl&&
619 LT$ h
(Only on the day when I don't bring my umbrella, it rains, you know.)
W t t *
B C @ ~ : I E ~ - ~m;lca'sjJaa7maw0
,
(Of all times, when I am in a hurry, the bus doesn't come for ages.)
-
~azM#!I6@~:PE9-c, BEaz kfl%&
(Only when something unpleasant happens, do other unpleasant things
occur.)
Lri.tl2d. +
Z 0 + 8 @ a > f b>f:9,0b:pE9T, 9 3 b?'sb)&0i2ab1,
(Only works written by this novelist are never boring.)
*Key Sentences
(4
Noun
I I
(With regard to the sales tax, the opinions of the leading party and the
I opposition parties conflicted.) I
( i ) N KWLT
L m t i Ir?-crt
2?# 0 %%bz R L T (concerning the Prime Minister's visit to the
U.S.)
(ii) N K M T a N
E# a)%Xb= M-if 68% (public opinion concerning the Prime Min-
ister's visit to the U.S.)
mmaD ILHd. L i
(a) ??a)%%T??~&a>%&h=M
If-V
L T ~ <
o)&%fl~3k~k,
m e r e was a lot of criticism concerning Mr. Yoshioka's presentation at
the conference.)
I. Ni tsuite can replace ni kanshite, as in [I] and [2]; this usage is less for-
mal in tone than ni kanshite.
254 ni kanshitelkansuru / ni kawatte
11. No koto with a particle and ni kanshite express the same idea. However,
no toko is informal, therefore, it is not appropriate in a formal context.
In addition, no koto does not have a prenominal version, as in [4].
+ ~ Sentence
e ~
Noun
vt i 3 o l e rLrw
nmm3#r 1Ab3T, &.%&P&TY-~ 9 f.,,
(In place of Prof. Yarnada, who is ill, Prof. Suzuki taught us.)
ni kawatte 255
cn,5
%fkj5"4~b:l~;h9~
37F&~3f:,
~4%4~
(After the war plastics became available replacing glass.)
L = - F ~ : R ; ~ ~ - c c%D %W <
~ ~K- C, & L h9r..,
(In place of records, CDs have become available, and the sound qual-
ity has improved a great deal.)
bkL *?? ,
/ ~ B B L G r..,
-c,9@%d~;k;%r
iwxtL~;h :&~
(In place of my father, I went to the airport to pick up our guest.)
c'L*-,C$
R O @ % K R ;a~L-C,
~ I ' % Z % $ ~ B % < S @ T ~$9,
>I:~?~
-2.
(I am very sorry that the president was unable to attend, but I have
come in his place.)
elated Expression]
The crucial difference between N ni kawatte and N no kawari ni is that the
former cannot be used when on-the-spot substitution of objects is expressed,
as shown in [la], and the latter cannot be used when 'replacement' is
expressed as shown in [2].
256 ni kawatte / ni kuraberu tolkurabete
+ ~ e ySentence
Noun
%7 1 : 4 IfL r
k Z c i ~ . ~ f - s z ~ . s ~ i t a & ; i ab: i ~ t t ~ ~ z ,
(I can speak Japanese fairly well now (lit. I have become able to say
things in Japanese fairly well) compared to my level before I came to
Japan.)
+&i&+i:J~<-c&l 6
$gbl i r.z0
(In comparison to last year, we seem to have more rainy days this
year.)
+ +$$a$b
C*i h L i i
LG:Jk<& k 4 O g b ~ l i ? & : - f ~
(Compared with our life ten years ago, our present life is heavenly (lit.
-
is heaven).)
i L L ILlfWfh
~ ~ % ~ b l >
( V
t =l - 9)+?1Ldi, &\+jlLk.!k4~j&.nf~$M
< a-Q-cb~Bo
(When compared with the older (computer) model, the operation speed -
-
=
- -
of this new model is three times as fast.) 'N
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
-
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
I Noun ( I
-
(In spite of his strenuous efforts, Ken'ichi failed the college entrance
examination.)
Adj(i)inf
tSd.
BLfia~f; (0) : C B i5.&bb4, .L < &$k0
1 (Although the exam was hard, I did well.)
I (Although winter mountains are dangerous, Ichiro left for the mountain.)
ni mo kakawarazu 259
T+r.o
(Although Carol lived in Japan for three years, her Japanese is very
poor.)
B*Ogv bL< C ItLCL
\t&Bdi%<i ' s 7 T b 1 & (a)) CZ&$&bb4,El*hiif ;kg
K&ttlnab',
(In spite of the fact that the Japanese economy has become strong, the
Japanese people cannot feel the effects.)
2 60 ni mo kakawarazu
-
- -
-
7
=N
-
-
-
-
-
-
elated Expression]
-
--
The conjunctions noni and keredo(mo) can replace ni mo kakawarazu with
proper adjustments of connections.
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun
6t
G:&+blT &?$$LL$-$~
I (I will givs you the facts. (lit. I will talk on the basis of facts.)) I
CDs<?aLfi LOri
-
gxr&OT$9k0
(Mr. Nomura's lecture was based on his 20-year teaching experience
(lit. was a talk based o n . . .) and was full of suggestions.)
8 hh.
(e) L; k ~ 1 ~ ~ 0 K & c : g + b 1 j : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(This is a discussion based on a hypothesis.)
-
. -
Ni motozuku and ni motozuita modify the noun which follows, as in KS(B),
: =
Ng
I-
-
Exs.(d) and (e).
-
-
elated ~x~ression]
Ni motozuite can be paraphrased as o moto ni (shite). The prenominal form
of o moto ni (shite) is o moto ni shita.
(In summer (lit. When it becomes summer), there are many days that
exceed 30 degrees Celsius.)
Noun (non-time)
( i ) N(time) &:a62
If3 L:
AE%K2 6 2 (when it becomes 8 o'clock; at 8 o'clock)
(ii) N (non-time) 1: O 6 2
h*
m:t O6 2 (when it becomes rain)
L $r2rrd. -6 s<5
m a w x a a t , z a i m t 2 ~ ;k~c:&3
3 b-ifO
(In this area, in the middle of April, the cherry trees bloom beautifully.)
t ? l l <6 It?
-=.-.I 29-77 ~'ti$;h;kar911
fiamwoii, % ~ at a
,
g%FtT it 3 ;kb1T.-if0
(In the north-east area of the U.S. called New England, tinted autumn
leaves are very beautiful.)
ht* L t 5
wmt-+w:aat, a-nrmm<
btL XZ C*lV$
aa.
(At about 11 p.m., my brain stops working.)
264 ni naru to
hriLL II<
(d) %b3, 3Zb:a& 2 , T @ W C ~ # % $ C = & ; ~ T ~ ~ T ;kk0 <
(When I was a child, in summer, my parents took me to the ocean.)
(el
fbW< *v
;kqw1i3~i, % J + G = Q & ~ , L<B?+~L~:~
(When I was a college student, I traveled a lot during vacations.)
+h
(f) q E i i 7 y b;f;'-~ba;f$b:~&tr#$j?,
(When the topic of the conversation is football, he is totally absorbed
in it.)
+
-
Le4ri trtll Llt ht
(g) 4kEiiBDZtG:ts&k, A P Z ~ J ~ ~ : L ~ C = W < ~ ~ & ~
(The president becomes lenient as if he were a different person, when
it comes to the matter of his daughter.)
*
xp
(h) r c z a a 2 , ZDZ&L
tjiij&c:a~,~
(When it becomes snow, this airport is often closed.)
+Key Sentences
('3
(place I time)
QL C +b1
bLBk;Cfb
+<L? I!. dl
(Many scholars from all over the world took part in last month's inter-
national conference in Tokyo on environmental protection.)
266 ni oite/okeru
( i ) N K%baT
7 % 'J 73 :C .$b . 7 (in America)
(ii) N K B C f N
6r< %bl*b.d.=
7% 1) 73 I:% lf 6 %!&!&ti3 (student life in America)
1992 %0;511 7 P Y 3 i i ~ i ~ - t rt n~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ E k k s k ~ j . ,
(The 1992 Olympiad was held in Barcelona.)
& & K B L . . T G ~ Z Oa L~ ~k ~ k i t j 3 II~$EG:~~;~-,I:,
(Such things were hardly considered to be problems before (lit. in the
past).)
S<XL XLIZ3
Za>+$ftGi?&C:a;ba-CG;t&;f II BmVBGiaba,
(This composition doesn't have many problems in terms of grammar.)
DO9 I:Lw,.3
%%t:g~;cta%~y~ojt;qik~t~--~itja~
(The ratio of male students to female students at this school is 2 to 1.)
tr l i d * b, CLd'< I L bs L1
% $ t ~ + t . i ~ ~ z ~ ~ : ~ i f ~a -kc ah r~ ; tt ~ - ~ w a .
(Dr. Kimura is known as an authority in (the field of) genetics.)
-
2&!3%+~~7t:%lf
iaL+/r
&@o& #~G&C:3-if
dh z i*ti
6 L b l Q D T i t j k~ o
(His achievements during the past five years were truly remarkable.)
L@+dr=h 3 I : K 3
4-B + S E l b:BV & @ 0 7 7 ) 1 T 4 ~ & ~ ~ - c b ~ i t r b ~ ,
(His alibi on the twelfth of October has not been established.)
-
=
This restriction, however, does not apply to ni okeru, the prenominal
form of ni oite, as in (5).
(5) za)%~ii991+t=~~f~7'i7W%a) GNP B ~ L T W ~ ,
(This table indicates the GNPs of Asian countries in 1991.)
Note in [2] that with ni okeru, the prenominal form of ni oite, no must
follow de.
268 ni oitelokeru / ni shitagattelshitagai
De cannot be used when ni oitelokeru is used to indicate a "nonphysi-
cal" location, as in [3] and 141.
Unlike ni oite, ni can be used for specific times. (See Note 5.)
7 / %L\
ni shitagattehhitagai Kg-> comp. part. / c o d .
[REL. ni tsureteltsure]
+Key Sentences
(A)
Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Vinf .nonpast
1 W b w 9r < I: I~L-: u<t*iL +
I: 136.
a~DX~WPFB<
91
&.a C:P-&~T/@VI,s ~ m y g ~
$ 2 3~
k0
(As Japan's economic power has become stronger, Japanese language
leaniers have increased, accordingly.)
1 (In accordance with the contract, your tenure shall be three years.) I
-
(i ) Vinf.nonpast : G {@9 T / @blI
+a)!&~&+b: {@7 T / @ b > } (As s.0. reads the book)
(ii) N 1: {@9 T / @b)l
1: 7 T / @ b ) 1 (in accordance with the instructions)
Lail:*i
(a) 4 X A $ % 4 k & t : @ 7oT
bk94$ f&f i ?%
(As our income increases, our expenditure, too, increases.)
fib,lr<
(b) @ 2 & bC:@b>, $$A?PWK&~
(As you grow older, your physical strength declines.)
(c) 3%d&~:@~,
Z/$DXF.LX&$(~~,
(As civilization progresses, human stresses increase.)
$$ UziS 6.w6.<
(d) bflf:~b:@qT, Xa>%~iiH@LT 3 fz0
(As the days went by, my father recovered from his illness.)
[Related Expression]
Vinf .nonpast ni tsureteltsure is an expression very similar to Vinf. nonpast ni
shitagattelshitagai. KS and Exs. can all be rephrased by the former without
changing the essential meaning except KS(B), Exs.(f) and (g), because the
pattern is N ni shitagattelshitagai. The difference seems to be that
Vinf.nonpast ni shitagattelshitagai is more of a written style; whereas
Vinf.nonpast ni tsurete/tsure is more of a spoken style.
S.t. or S.O. is nothing more than nothing more than; not more
what is stated in terms of amount, than; mere; merely; only; just;
degree, status, significance, etc. as little / few as; that's all
[REL. dake da; tada no]
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Vinf
LT
&6h'~~(~z~?)~;hX L L~\ B
~ ~ k (Ebf)C:$lgfsba0
~
I I
(That man is not doing more than what he was told to do.)
(His speech was nothing more than the reading of a prepared manu- -
-
- -
script.) Iq g
-
-
-
- -
-
96 0 L LltkllSL
( i ) % ~t tk~ ~ ~ i i a ~ m o k!@a%$$%&
!, L?: ( E L ? )
-
-
-
-
-
-
(Mr. Yamano and I did nothing more than exchange simple greetings
when we first met each other.)
To express the idea that someone or something is X and that's all (where
X is an adjective), dake da is usually used, as in (2).
(2) zo%iix3b~f:~ff:,
(This house is big and that's all.)
(* dake (DBJG: 93-97))
2. In Formation (ii), the quantifier can be either a number with or without
274 ni suginai
Note that tada no, however, can also mean 'ordinary' depending on the
following noun. Therefore, when tada no N is interpreted in this way,
N ni suginai and tada no N da are not exactly equivalent, as in [3].
:+:+ *L*b,
[3] a. %EGi&@0%4C3!4d&~\~
(He is no more than a high school teacher.)
b. ~Ebif~t-a&@D%&tf
((a) He is an ordinary high school teacher. (b) He is only a
high school teacher.)
(+tada no)
+Key Sentences
1 (Up inti1 now Japan has taken a closed policy toward foreign countries.)
(B)
Sinf
Lu,$< t w 3 dr<
A L a t,jtr].L-C, 7 9 '1 ka*yb*g
I r i
%-F&Ofl% L b > , ,
(Japanese colleges are hard to enter; whereas American colleges are
hard to graduate from.)
Noun Noun
I I I I
=
.
. -
(iv) N :G {;r;fT&
/HLTa>l N
- -
N
-
.
.
.
-
-
-
-
-
&%1: (PQT / H LT 0 1 @ 2 3 (one's view of mamage)
(Last year there were very few car accidents, whereas this year the
number was very high.)
ItLCL
~ l $ h b i & t b b ; k f i 9 , k < TktvTQtbblJ k g i , Z i t b c H L ~ ,
IL
(h)
<
7 % 1 ) 5 5 h b i k ri&,V$kjI k g ? .
(When Japanese get compliments, they often say "Oh, not at all." In
contrast to this, Americans often say "Thank you.")
(i) %~Eo&&I~ EI&TE I~
D. I . < r l t ; d .
$ ~~~ o K ~ + L T%, % T I ~ E ~ N ~ L ' .
(Women's position is still low in Japan, whereas in Europe and Amer-
ica it is relatively high.)
<I:CI: XLL* I. 3*3 =<f i b . h <
(j) F 3 - n r 1 f O ~ . b # ~ i : { ~ b : h f i 3 T b l & a ) b : i r f L T , i+ B k E k
6?:3ri++L
AL % g t i ~ ~t G { i~ k ~~~ ~ 3j lEa,
astern European countries are progressing towards democratization,
whereas Continental China and North Korea appear to be slower in
S3;i j3d.f
(1) ~ E ~ ~ H H C : ~ Q L T % $ I Lf:,
]~~%~Q
(The departmental chief made a remark in Okada's favor.)
l?b,Sb,'#< L+
(m) ?O%RY%O%~: {%-if6 / W L T ) K%bi~db3?:,
(There wasn't a counterargument against the enonomist's thesis.)
to; for
[REL. ni wa]
*Key Sentence
bf;L
%LC:k7-C (totforme)
-
b~GlfL*L-zL If L L
Z Z tiBi: k 3 T-%eQI.s%fi7f0
(This is the safest place for you.)
$$$~tvdi%LG: t 3-C%L.~$f&Lz~l:&.
(Mr. Imamura is a remote relative of mine.)
Ni totte cannot mark a noun which represents the experiencer or agent (i.e.,
the semantic subject). In this case, ni wa is used, as in (1).
(1) a. Z@&$C&%LILCb / * E & - > 7 1 t t l g h b l ,
(I can't do this job.)
b. k
&O+bi%L {LIZ / * K & 7 7 1
can't see that character (word or letter).)
(I
(Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
Ni wa can replace ni totte, as in [I].
+Key Sentences
('4)
I I I I
(Mr. Smith asked me various questions about his going to Japan for study.)
ni tsuite 281
(i) N 1:3b>T
fb W <
A%:l 9b >T (concerning college)
(ii) Sinf Z I: lZ9bl-C
(iii) {N,
1 Sinf Z k ] b:Tb>Tcr) N2
L i t ? ?iriW<
a% :b 9b >T cr) &,$$ (an opinion about elementary education)
bLfblTL
8 $-8qt Z I: 1: 9b1-C cr)Fn7#B,6 (problems concerning studying
abroad in Japan)
- PY<
&@BG:~L>T% ba0 LTYS
(Please talk about your family.)
L5
$ ~ c : ~ ~ > - c R < TAT$*,
I,>z,
(What are you investigating?)
ggcr)g&:3b>T&b>* ,$ l,>,,>-p$-*,
The difference between N ni tsuite and N no koto is that the former means
'about 1concerning N,' but the latter, 'things about N.' Compare the follow-
ing three sentences.
[I] A: h % S ~ % h g T b > 3 T i P ~
(Do you know Mr. Tanaka?)
*Key Sentence
(This job will pay you six dollars an hour. (lit. You can get six dollars
an hour doing this job.))
Number + Counter C= 93
--@AG:9?c (perhour)
1. Although in most cases the number which precedes ni tsuki is one, any
number can precede ni tsuki, as seen in Ex.(b).
2. When the number before ni tsuki is one and a noun does not immedi-
-
E
= -
ately precede that number, ni tsuki may be dropped, as in (1).
n N= ZOI?E&&-%A ( l Z 7 3 ) k F I L & l; 26, (=KS)
-
-
r-- (1) a.
[Related Expression]
Atari also means 'per.' The difference between atari and ni tsuki is that while
atari can be used with a counter only (i.e., without a number), as in [I], ni
tsuki requires both a number and a counter. When atari appears with a
counter only, however, it appears only with certain counters.
h
[l] a. E@BdW f; 1) 5 l=)b (five dollars per hour)
<
t3.P
&&a c:Q;~T, wmt b < tba,
I
(el $&A$<
tba c:~&T,%3$i5~?ih~~i:tbT~3
fz0
(As we've moved further into autumn, the colored leaves have become
more beautiful.)
:Fb +V8ri
(f) Fl%d&EkEtb C:9kLT, %$\b@hTba < .
(As children grow up, they become independent of their parents.)
(g) ~ a > m t c : ~ ; K$hz;hao
k~,
(The scenery also changes with season changes.)
2. Since the conj. / comp. prt. expresses change, the verbs used in the
tsurete/tsure clause and the main clause have to be a verb of change /
process such as jdtatsusuru 'become proficient' and fueru 'increase' (in
KS(A)), toshi o tom 'become old' and naru 'become' (in Ex.@)),
seichdsuru 'grow' and hanarete iku 'become independent' (in Ex.(f)).
Unless both of the verbs indicate change / process, the sentence is not
acceptable, as shown below.
-
-
-
-
- -
-
(1) * E I $ E Q % L & E ~&~ . kT
~&, Zka>%~Ed'S3.d.~7':~ =N
-
- -
(As I have taught Japanese, I have come to realize the difficulty --
-
-
To make the sentences grammatical the verbs in the tsurete clause have
to be replaced by the verbs of change / process like the following:
elated ~xpression]
-
All the cases of Vinf. nonpast ni tsureteltsure can be rephrased with ba -.
hodo which indicates that in proportion to the increase of extent 1degree of
- -
action or state, s.t. happens, as in [I] and [2]. However, ba hod0 can be
paraphrased by ni tsureteltsure only when the former expresses some change
or process.
EI*ZWkBT;kIgT& C 3 c , EI*AOZB$4;iI& (cf. KS(A))
(The more proficient I become in Japanese, the more Japanese
friends I made.)
%%Rfii%%&C3~?, #fJPG < (cf. Ex.@))
(The older you get, the weaker you will become.)
El*m-&;i;kid'a;i&C%Z, &;i&ZkO%LL$%;filQfi.
(The more I have taught Japanese, the better I have come to under-
stand the difficulty of teaching it.)
+*El$-%Q&f &CZ7hT, & A & ZkO%LL$%;fil~k,
(=(1))
-- El*ZQ<bl< E T h T , & A & Z kO$&LL$%da~T31:.
(=(5))
%O/J\RIi%biX%+C3EP$$&-> 7:.
(The more I read the novel the more interesting it became.)
-- *?O/JSM%QrE7hT,R$&Q k , (=(2))
-- %O/J\Rii3W%+CZ3hT, Ri5'BT 3 k0 (=(6))
There is another fundamental difference between the two structures under
comparison. In front of ni tsureteltsure comes only a verb or noun, but in
-
front of - ba hod0 comes not only a verb but also an Adj(i / na).
- -
(+ ba hodo)
niwa 289
+Key Sentences
Vinf .nonpast
&R$%-&
&&gB 26 :c Ck
I 6-5 fw~t,
(In order to lead a rich life, health should be your primary concern.)
Noun -
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
.
.
E
-M
-
-
-
-
--
-
n 4 k-lkk? n-f+>9 Elk $&3Eo
1 (High-heeled shoes are unsuitable for hiking.)
( i ) Vinf .nonpast b: Ck
:
(a) ~ F Q C~L CHu~~& 1: It&
P;~Q~soI~~P-~E~
b%lf/u
(The best course for getting to know Japan is to study the Japanese lan-
guage.)
C,Ltk' *fi
(,,I *&%e&i:~~~:12~&%f:<s&&9Z2flx&7?o
(TOenrich your life it is important is to have many hobbies.)
(c) X O & & ~ ~ &< c:c2?i?~~$l%Thfl!lZSftO
hd. C?8311< 031'1
(In order to see through a person's personality, one needs to have deep
insight.)
< -)I
m i
(d) W360~~naGca~c:ii+0~i~.r-r<
Pk<
0 f l -
:I
t ~5 ~
.
(The best way for developing one's proficiency in a foreign language
would be to go to the country of that language.)
-
(g) & 0 ~ 2 ~ &i:l;f&f&fl&&bO
T h
-
-
- -
(It takes time to persuade him.)
w r k t t i 09x3
(h) Z 0 3410~~1:tb&b:li~~0k~~~fl!lZ~~
(In order to become a member of this club a member's letter of recom-
mendation was necessary.)
(i) z o ; ~ a i ; ~ ' / v ~ ; f %i2%Arz0
%i:
(This bag is suitable for a long travel.)
IfL P w i
(j) Z O W ~ ~ : C ~0 ~ &~ G~ ~ d $ f l + f i ~ ~
(This research needs a considerable amount of time and money.)
c. F $ ~ : ~ Z ~3La TL I Z~, T
(To Tokyo I went alone.)
(+ni7 (DBJG: 302))
e elated Expression]
There are at least four similar purpose expressions in Japanese.
b?L d%:< Z .iLlr 3
[I] a. %LC;f.@HSOI@%i:@H-1'i7 7zo
(I
went to Korea for the study of Korean.)
292 ni wa / ni yotte/yon'
b. %~i2@@%%@5&Lt=%@"?T-'r:o
(I went to Korea to study Korean.)
c. wmazam.wa t ~ t w z ~ a - 4r~7 ~
(I went to Korea in order to study Korean.)
d. +LCmElzBBS&tba Iocc /*[:I %@.2?T3 r:,
(I went to Korea for the purpose of studying Korean.)
[la] means practically the same as [lb]. However, the latter construction has
a restriction on the main verb ; that is, only the verb of motion can be used.
The difference between [la] and [lc] is that the latter has the stronger mean-
ing of purpose. [la] sounds more casual than [lc]. [la] is different from [Id]
in that the latter puts more weight on the way the speaker learned Korean. In
other words, [Id] implies seriousness of the purpose.
( e n i 5 (DBJG: 297-99)); noni2 (DBJG: 335-37))
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(A)
Nek7T
rv a
iFkRh: k 9 T (by the government)
{VIAdj(i)]inf $ P i :C$ {k 9 T / h 17 I
I ? k b / & I z l $.ri$h: { k 7 T / h 1 7 1 (dependingonwhether
S.O. comes / came or not)
{ % ~ L ~ / E F I Q $ Q I ;daPi$l:
I { k 9 T / h 1 7 I (dependingon
whether s.t. is / was interesting or not)
(iii) {Adj(na)stemlN) { f l / I . ~ k I; 3 a r i $ C : { h g T / 1171
{ $ & f l / % $ ~ l 2 9 f i 1 dlr3d.h: { h 7 T / h 1 7 1 (dependingon
whether s.t. is / was quiet or not)
(These days we can watch world news on TV via satellite live broad-
casting.)
6 3 CLk6
(b) B%t: L T P ~ ,
~ ~ ~ ~ i i ; b . r ; 3 . a )1 TE"~
(The old people are living on little savings.)
-
(The number of the people killed in automobile accidents is increasing
every year.)
(q) & ~ t : L b F & ; k C i k < & b Z k r ? ,
(Belated treatment due to misdiagnosis is a matter of frequent occur-
rence.)
1. The particle ni yotte indicates the means for doing s.t. (e.g. KS(A), (G),
Exs.(a) - (c) and (o)), dependency on a situation / s.t. / S.O. (e.g. KS(B),
(E), (F), Exs.(d) - (f) and (k) - (n)), cause for s.t. (e.g. KS(C), Exs.(g)
and (h)), and an agent of a passive sentence (e.g. KS(D), Exs.(i) and
(3).
2. When ni yotte means dependency on a situation, the preceding element
can be an embedded Yes-No question (e.g. KS(E), E x s . 0 and (1)) or a
WH-question (as in KS(F), Exs.(m) and (n)).
3. When ni yotte means a means for doing s.t., it can be preceded by a
clause norninalized by koto as in KS(G) and Ex.(o).
4. -
- ni yotte can be unconditionally replaced by ni yori when it means
dependency on a situation / s.t. / LO.,as in KS(B), (E), 0,
Exs.(d) - (f)
-
and Q - (n). The difference between the two is that ni yori is used in
written Japanese.
(1) a. El$%O%&OWZii%&L { & 7 T /??A11I Bb>3T
1,
(The teaching methods of Japanese teachers differ depend-
ing on the teacher.)
SS.5 .*I%? 3;.5La
b. ~ l ; i ~ t w a % k e c i a m cra77
r / ~ U @a&.
I
(The Japanese language pedagogy differs depending on the
instructor.)
In (la) ni yori is unacceptable, because it is used in spoken Japanese,
whereas the same comp. prt. can be used in (lb) which belongs to writ-
-
ten Japanese. The replacement is also possible when ni yotte means
an instrument with which to do s.t.
-
When the particle means a cause or a passive agent, ni yori is not used.
Thus, the following sentences are all marginal.
(4) a. <
??R9CZ&1) X%C L k o (cf. KS(C))
5. In the prenominal use of N1 ni yoru Nlr the comp. prt. expresses cause
as in Ex.(p) and (q), or a means as in (5a) or a passive agent as in (5b).
(Even in the humanities field research using computers is
popular.)
Cri k i L e 7 C L ' I L
b. -3- H B L & ~ ~ A & + S & ~ L T
3-3TCi~%'%
0
tL72,
(We got our secret document of the research institute read
by unknown outsiders.)
%LiiEl$ZO%& it: /*C:k771 ~ $ 2 h L k o
(My Japanese teacher corrected my pronunciation (lit. I
am annoyed by the fact that my professor corrected my
pronunciation).)
$1 +b, $ r ittb.
&WZii&!~b~El$~&!3 it: / Kk971 %BEE23
tLk0
(The students had their pronunciation corrected by their
strict Japanese instructors.)
Sentences [6] - [S] show that ni yotte/yori can be used in (b) type sen-
tences which have impersonal and formal written style, but not in (a)
type sentences which have personal style.
(+rarerul (DBJG: (364-69))
In. The particle ni yotte/yori of cause has the related expressions de and
no tame ni. KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h) can be rewritten using de and no
tame ni as shown below.
(+de3 (DBJG: 107-09); tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-5 1))
c. $$$&{T/a)r-mz/*C:&TTIj ~ ~ a ~ t ~
(Because of the power failure we had a difficult time.)
The crucial differences among de, no tame ni, and ni yotte are: first, ni
yotte and no tame ni are more formal than de. That is why abstract
Sino-Japanese words go more harmoniously with the former as shown
in [lla] below:
I b%$Wi9TL
[ l l ] a. El$OkE4%b {a)k&E/E&=T/??Tl
El$?E%B
B7F%;ilzo
(Because of Japan's economic progress, Japanese lan-
guage learners have increased.)
b. El$O&@O%b El$%YB
{a)f:&~z/Cz&.>T/Tl
%7M;ilzo
=
=
- -
- -
In [llb] de becomes acceptable, because the inserted no makes the sN I
= -
=
because of
place or does not take place [REL. no tame (ni)]
because of s.t.
+Key Sentence
Noun 1
I I 1
(f) &@J
-
abroad (lit. makes frequent trips abroad because of his company).)
L*tL
3 i2@3p%Aa)e3a)WRTn 7 F7 G
ZLhL
:34%itr55
t
I?,
(I heard that because of her husband's work Miyuki is going to live in
London for 3 years.)
(g) B&DwRT, tO;PmYx? bb~$.&t:tb71~~
(Because of the budgetary situation, the project has been cancelled.)
[Related Expression]
The following sentences are saying virtually the same thing, but they are
slightly different from each other.
+Key Sentences
p
v
--
--
--
Noun
0 (2 Q~ ~ ~ L ~ F . ~ ~ L \ ~ ~ L .
1 (You'd better forget about her now.)
Noun
(Actually, it's (=The reason I'm calling is /The reason I came to see
you is) about tomorrow's meeting.)
-
no koto 305
NDZt:
Z 2 (about an I the exam)
S o i h h b
FFEIK#S/~~.'~O 2QZ b~3br.4hb~'iCb~I:~.
(Miss Arai asked various questions about you yesterday.)
~?vfl<W+q H6
L S - bbi~l$.Dkf&@DZ2Q&Zi 2,F,~'iCb>6.
(For my term paper I'm thinking of writing about college life in Japan.)
+&'9Z 2 bi~~d.'W&t; a.t,
(I'll take the responsibility for our children (lit. for things related to our
children).)
-
:/r+w CI L*? i2w-b. * t,
CHCW~ 7 2 0~ ~t i j ~ ~ II~a LIZ.
m - a
(I owe you a lot in terms of my internship this time.)
TL t, hb. L n i
& D i , k;%z&Ll:Dli, %3!0,\"-74 - D Z 2 a / v T t 7 F 0
((The reason) I'm calling (is to talk) about the party next week.)
(1) A: =,
topic to the hearer, as in (1).
L$- b @ L t t b A T b S o
(Professor, I'd like to talk to you (lit. It's) about my term
paper.)
B: %T.t&
(Yes? (lit. What is it?))
306 no koto / no koto da kara
b.*I:6 0,
A: & ~ & o B - B B c ~ L T B ~ ~ ~ L ~ T L L ~
(Could you give me another day? (lit. Could you extend the
due date by one day?))
+Key Sentences
--
fi Noun
m Rd.C*
E
Pg 0 , ~$$;if:f&kLT&&1?5iO
(Because Nakajima is always that way (i.e., comes late), he will proba-
bly come late again today. (lit. Because it is a matter of Nakajima (who
habitually comes late), . . .))
Na>Ztf?-n.L;
h'd. f
FJ H S A 0 E 2 f?jSa 6 (because Okada is habitually that way)
- 3 0 kj?fpb,
~ &<&C:d&f
C*l l L I
p$?%
,b
iff
no koto da kara / norni 307
~ y ~ b . ,
(Because it is summer (when foods go bad quickly), please be very
careful about what you eat.)
1: IiL C L
& $ & ~ ; ~ E I * A o z ~ I$z9~ ~ , - ~ d b a - + d : ~
(Because they are rich Japanese, I'm sure they will buy them even if
they are expensive.)
2 7 $ ~ 0 & 3 a % Y s A 0 z k j Z & b ,% b . % & f : b ~ 4 9 2 @ 3 2
b.AC.edj 0 'b*A7Po
(Because Kinoshita loves karaoke, I have a feeling that he will not let
-
go of the microphone once he starts singing.)
# & 3 0 % 6 0 ~k f . . 6 b , ~ 0 i ~ 2 f i j : b & 3 ~ C : d & f $ b ~ b ~ j ? 6
i
(Because Yamada is a sake lover, if he sees this sake, he will probably
=
-
-
not leave until he drinks it (lit. without drinking it).) -
E
- N
-
-
--
1 (I don't know whether I can win or not, but I will just do my best.)
I
( i ) N 0 k (Prt.)
@a) k (#) &l. (Only students came.)
(d) k72&%&SOh(12)~
(The only thing we have to do is to put it into practice.)
(e) ~ & C & ; h ~ j z O h ~ a 7 ' f ~ 3 - h ~ ~ i ~ & ~ C ~ b 1 ~ b 1 i f b b ~
(We've just finished the exterior and haven't started anything else yet.)
1. The case particles ga and o are optional after nomi. Other case particles -
-
-
such as ni, e, to, de, and kara appear either before or after norni. m1
-
-
-
-
2. When the particle de appears with nomi, the meaning changes according
to the position of the two particles, as in (1).
i: if!. - *.34*>t
(1) a. + L I~~ ;iprf~~a>h~saffi&a~
(I can explain it only in Japanese. (i.e., I cannot explain it in
other languages.))
b. $LCi El;iprZa>ATRsBffi%S0
(I can explain it in Japanese alone. (i.e., I don't need any
other languages but Japanese to explain it.))
e elated ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
Dake can replace nomi without a change in meaning. The main difference
between the two is that dake can follow adjectives and quantifiers but norni
cannot, as in [I].
c.
Ll t
-9 IECf / * D k I gi (buyonlyone)
Note also that dake is used in formal and informal speech and written Japa-
nese while nomi is used in formal speech and written Japanese.
(+dake (DBJG: 93-97))
+Key Sentence
d'<l$rl L S
Y%f D f 8 % D T ; T (under the direction of the dean)
+b>+b>L$ Bte
(a) I AI t v~.a%ih~m+wmk~f~~
(The opening ceremony was held in (lit. under) the brilliant sun.)
(b) Eijifitij~ 7-r ; / D T T W & Q % I L
(He studied conducting under (Herbert von) Karajan.)
< A W L bkL*$ 0 "
'
.
2 twlJ9
(c) # F & + ( D ) & % & ~ ~ D T T ~
sDL %%$~!XL~~
(Our divorce was agreed upon in (lit. under) the presence of attorneys.)
-(e) ZDI' 2 7 ~ a ) ~ ~ t & % ? ? f i tB&&$ab1,
bT
(With this inflation there's no point in saving money.)
1. When this phrase refers to physical space, its use is limited to "atmos-
pheric space," for example, the sky and the weather.
2. Some nouns require the particle ni rather than de after no moto, as in (1)
and (2).
-ka de, when combined with some nouns, means the same as no mot0 de, as
in [I].
[I] a. -a)#BTT 6.
(under the direction of -)
b. -DEtR-FT (under the supervision of -)
312 nouede wa
-
as far as is concerned; as far
-
as goes; from the view-
point / standpoint of; according
to; in terms of
[REL. -jb wa]
+Key Sentence
Noun
Itb,*<
za)zt;+aci & O Y T C ~H ~ Q Pj +12,
(There seems to be no problem with this plan as far as the documents
are concerned.)
0 SL
PB%a)kTCi (in theory; on paper; as far as the theory goes)
I:*?< tLiL
(a) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T ~ ~ ~ B z ~ H c ~ ;
(According to the calculations, we are supposed to make a profit of
(about) two million yen.)
(b) Z a ) ? n Y r ? b C r t ( f $ a ) k T C i j ~ < { ~ ~ ? j f ? f?$k~<%87'.2,
l,
(Although in theory (lit. As far as the story is concerned,) it looks like
this project will work out, I feel somewhat uneasy.)
(el ~ ~ ~ , i Li 15~S G~
a ~ > .~, ~ ~ ~ i $ j
(There's no way to punish his conduct legally (lit. from the legal point
of view).)
[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
-jo wa is used with some nouns in the same way as no ue de wa, as in [I].
t r i
[I] a. St$$+Cb (as far as computation goes; in terms of the calcula-
tion)
b. E%klt (in theory; on paper; as far as the theory goes)
c. &@klb (legally; from the legal point of view)
(+-j6)
* ~ Sentence
e ~
I I I
11 lih - S6L5
(a) B$~~O@~S~~."&~~~%@~:OC;~:Z<&%OZ~R,
(It was only recently that I began to understand how interesting Japa-
nese is.)
I%&,<+# h & E w : i Ifh.
(b) $-#$%7ebU$~ b~~;kf;0l;f:l960~~t~&~0ZkTdia0
(It was in the late sixties when genuine robots came out.)
(c) ~9~~~~&&&0~i~~0&;h110~kG~7eb~f24,~
(It will be around the end of next month when we get galley proofs.)
Ihvt, t L : 'r+k
(f) &&-k$d~j5."($&< $b>-Cb>& kI ~~* 6L % f i f : 0 G ; f : 9 b > ~ $ > g i 3 ~ m
t j b o ~ c i , , r ; ~ i +j$fj'k~f.kb>
, jz&fz0
(Although it was only (about) a month ago when I saw Ken'ichi and
Toshiko walking together intimately, I heard they've already split up.)
*Key Sentences
Vneg
I (In the global age we cannot think of our own country alone.) I
Vneg h (N I Aux)
% CI ah (KO.doesn't know s.o.1 st.)
%U 6 ah (a person whom s.o.doesn't know or s.0. who doesn't know s.t.)
% 6 h 6 Lb> (it appears that S.O. doesn't know S.O. I s.t.)
-@a (irr.) (does not do s.t.)
& CI a (irr.) (s.o. does not exist)
dl% *I:
(a) @~-ilqQhb>-ch,% U C I ~ ~ L & & R ~ ,
(No matter what I ask, he answers only that he does not know.)
),I(
l:l*LtL i w -
W I H ~ A ~ H & F & ~ ~ L 5 7~~ 7z0
(That Japanese did not seem to understand English.)
t & d : < & L 7 ? $ O7Z0
PWPL 49 F
(c) @3C&%&1:!4%&3h z7
b lF
%9
(seldom drink these days, but I used to drink a lot when I was young.)
I
:
z 0213&%
1: I f A
(d) ~$z*;;*&%i& hao
(In this area there are not people who can speak Japanese.)
The difference between -nu and -zu is straightforward. The latter can be
used as a continuative form or before ni to mean 'without -.' The for-
mer can be used at the end of a sentence or before a noun, auxiliary or
a conjunction.
{ f / *@I h:&g%L l L
8~*&%&4
(I worked without eating my lunch.)
5
+e W X S ~ R ~2%~:
d.tr
S ~ T~, W {T P / *a}, ~T&-cL>J;,
(I felt a cold coming on today, so I stayed in bed at home,
without going to work.)
$4 B
Qi caEb (a/ *TI,
(I don't think so.)
gab { @ / * T ZI ~ B % ~ - C~ LS> ~~ T W C ~ ~ L ~
(You shouldn't say you know what you don't know.)
-
[REL. o ni naru; rareru]
speaker's respect for someone
when describing that person's
+Key Sentences
(4
Vrnasu
(B)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
-
-
$ %
Vmasu
#& 0
Noun
( i ) 2 Vmasu I?
%&% I? (s.o. is waiting)
(ii) C VN I?
IfLIwi
.-"ti8 %I? (s.0. is doing research)
(iii) % Vmasu a) N
&$%r$rl 0% (those who are going back today)
(iv) =.' VN a)N
C;fiff%a)w& (a problem which s.0. is doing research on)
i $ $ s ~ & aOFT,
(Everybody is here (lit. has gathered) now.)
f&J,+ gg71fk;&vF-ifko
(Mr. Kono, the Section Chief wants to see you (lit. is calling you).)
2 V-Ii h i 9&sirFf da,
(Have you already finished copying?)
r~~Xa&sir-ws,
(What kind of person would you like?)
B%@C;~:~~F.B
cReO
h b Z+L,
(The guests haven't left yet.)
~ ; & V F L ~ F : ~ , Z D ~ ~ & F L<I6iZsirYs1/1~
~Y,
(If you are tired, please take a rest in this room for a while.)
a IL ~/ F>ZC~ ' ,: ~
+ B B I / > D ~ - Y U I ~ L ~ ~ ~ ;0&
-
-
-
(When did you buy the word processor you are using now?) -
F&+&Z-@%TT&
-
-
-
'0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
..
.
..'
(What are you researching now, Professor?)
T/rO'),.Vd. t i & & (IICIL
Di rEzW- w s ,
X ~ ~ D - ~ . " L ' ~ B ~ ~c
(Which countries is the Emperor going to visit?)
-
1. 0 da does not express the aspect (i.e., progressive, perfect etc.) of a
verb explicitly. Aspect can be determined from context, as seen in (1).
(1) a. k;%@-n."h5 9 C%% b TTo (=!%a)
(The guests are leaving soon.)
b. 4 ~ ~ % & s i r ~ b l 5 ' ,( = % A T I / ~ & )
(What are you reading now?)
c. 2 V - - C i h 5 ~ % s i r T T ~ ~(=%A??)
,
(Have you already finished copying?)
320 o- da / o hajirne (to shite)
2. 0 - da cannot be used with two-syllable Gr. 2 verbs (e.g., rniru 'look at,y
iru 'stay,' kiru 'wear,' neru 'sleep') and irregular verbs (i.e., suru 'do3
and kuru 'come').
3. As Formation (ii) shows, for suru-verbs which require the polite prefix
go-, go VN da is used rather than o Vrnasu da. The sum-verbs which
require the polite prefix o-, such as s6jisuru 'clean,' denwasuru 'make a
call,' ry6risuru 'cook,' and sentakusuru 'wash' are not commonly used
in this pattern.
D t ll
(3) a. ? ? % ~ ; ~ ' S - A T ~ E B S %(Acceptable
~ I ~ ~ form: & 4
flS-AT&BE%@ELT {&%ha / 6\59 L ? 6 l 0 )
(The teacher is cleaning the room by himself.)
-
0 - da is not as polite as o ni naru but is politer than
- passive honorific
forms.
-
(+Politeness and Formality (DBJG: 36-44); o ni naru (DBJG: 358-60);
rarerul (DBJG: 364-69))
Noun
*??L 44 $. ?'<+?Lb%
L T i , 2 i tL ~jE?R;z$-~#&3ff~
*Arb,
i C & ( t L T) (starting with the teacher)
%!& Q C
c ItL L <
(a) +-r-i-ti, -+ifL'frcke*k LT, E I * l~ ; % ~ $ 4 i e a ~
(Starting with sushi, Cathy eats any Japanese cuisine.)
d*Llrt6 l i i 3 * &C+
(b) 4 % c & k t ~ c i ~ & ,
(This year, starting with Osaka, the rainy season was short in all parts
of the Kansai district.)
L+ 4 r i L??vLv%Pi Sf2 LI< P i
(c) z&%,it +t~ ' f12r C& t LT, + ~ - i g m qC& ~ TE~&B&
<-cb3zi0
(At this company, starting with the president, all the employees eat
lunch in the same cafeteria.)
C*ixL f2-t 313 &
(d) <
~ o @ k t k , % & ' f r ~ i c&, % O E EW%~P!F RQ%LIG
(Not only the police but also the nearby residents showed a strong
interest in this incident.)
1. N o hajime to shite literally means 'by making N the beginning (of s.t.),'
an idea very similar to the English phrase 'starting with.'
2. N o hajime is an abbreviative version of N o hajime to shite.
3. In conversational Japanese N o hajime (to shite) is not used; instead,
-
dake de (wa) naku (mo) is used.
(+dake de (wa) naku (mo) (DBJG: 97-100)) -
322 o hajime (to shite) / o - kudasai
All the examples can be rephrased by dake d e (wa) nakute - (mo). In fact, as
noted in Note 3, in conversational Japanese dake d e (wa) naku - (mo) is
used instead of N o hajime (to shite).
please do s.t.
polite request [REL. kudasai]
+Key Sentences
hA5<
Z*@%T S b1 (Please contact (us).)
(c) c*%g7;bl,
r j Fkj&$$G:
(Please feel free to consult with us.)
L*iloilfA
(d) %
VJE&$h B%Q c * $ 1 ] ~ 7 ; S b 1 ~
(Please use excursion tickets, which are convenient and economical.)
-
3. 0 kudasai cannot be used in negative requests.
(5) * z o > ~ ; . i k k ; @ k ~ h b ~ ? I - T S ~ ~ ~
(Please do not use this pen.)
0 - kudasai is politer than - kudasai. While there are some verbs which can-
not be used in the o - kudasai pattern as mentioned in Notes 1 and 2, any
-
verb can be used in the kudasai pattern.
-
In addition, kudasai can be used with auxiliary verbs which require verb
te-forms while o - kudasai cannot.
[31 a. B T ~ ~ Q T /T*%RTbl
S ~ ~3TSbl,
(Please look at it before you go.)
o - kudasai / ornowareru 325
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
-
-
Sinf -
-
- .
- ..
-
-
5vhL ItwS S6
20;
-
-
=
-
(It seems that the business conditions of the coming year will be better
than those of this year.)
Sinf
I I
vri 1 3 9 ~ 3 z'<W? IT?
Z D 630% % Iba-aafl haAa6 2 Bb;kbo
(It appears that the treatment of this disease will take approximately one
I month.)
I
1: I t L *LO? :L -
s l o l Y i ~ & + & b i db&tF'?2b1k5 LRihkL6.
(It seems that Japanese exports are not going to grow so much in the
future.)
:t% 0 ii I i L C b ~ i Vd' *Li<+l
~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ e r e ~ ~ m t : a~i LF,;~#I&.
t F ' ~ ~ ~ ~
(It appears too simplistic to relate children's delinquency to crime
movies.)
EbW< br?v< ? ZilW t<
k 5 t:lihh&.
La>A%DR Rt&@.I%d'BKbl~.r
(Education at this university seems to be particularly good in science
and engineering.)
1:h5 b - ~ vl tt? 155 +2 ihw Dt: S r i ?i*bl
3- -t&Rt&f4j@ff3$3 k @ i L ~ ,t&$d'-~D% FJ$$b:ts66.7
5 k,R;hkL&o
(It seems to me that in the 21st century society will become more infor-
mation oriented, and the world will become one community.)
H$&$& -
1: IfL
gc&~-7+egihab1~d'kbat,F,;h#I&~
(When you learn Japanese it seems better not to use romanization.)
omowareru 327
vT$B/rC=L/r
(f) & ~ & & ~ ~ i i ~ ~ l ~ + ~ j ' ~ b ~ a3 )%~N~7 ? ~ 2t, ~a ,ab h)&7 ~5 . + ~
(To look after your health, it is apparently effective to exercise for
about 30 minutes every day.)
b. %Lt:tt%+a)E%bi4+h rl b h5~:,F.~~IZI~
(To me it seems that the business conditions of the coming
year are better than those of this year.)
b. $LtZtzZa)%%o&%ii&-fi~fl&&a t E b h a 0
(To me it appears that the treatment of this disease takes
approximately one month.)
(3) ? t v g Z k B L k C , ~ C Z i f & l ? 2 , R b h 1 ? ~ ~
(If you do such a thing, you will be regarded as a fool.)
328 omowareru
(If you do such a thing, people will regard you as a fool.)
(= Active version of (3))
cf. 9$HAiLH*02k~T,E,%aH?2k,B,~Tb>&o
(Foreigners consider Japan to be an enigmatic country.)
(= Active version of (4))
(e rarerul (DBJG: 364-69))
2. The difference between (5a) which is identical with KS(A) and (5b)
cannot be captured by the translation, because both sentences come out
the same in the translation.
be and -
(REL. ite]
*Key Sentence
Vte
b.0 CI, L%3Frib>L+?Lki ba?lfL Llt
Co),AUdi%%Ar$Hb: &TT %b, -~o)h~2~Z$l;d;f:~;k2b
(This entrance is for employees only and other people (lit. general peo-
1 ple) cannot enter from here.)
I
Vte $3 b
If*
6 LT Q (be speaking and)
-
-
-
- -
-
-
- -
-
0;i 5 -0;
(a) @filk8$$;~7*71~fil:&3~$5Q,
f~3;i&;kCf&&c3~47@~&&&
TT'J>&o
(He is crazy about plastic models these days and is assembling model
planes whenever he has free time.)
C tr * l i b , < L1 I: 0 9
(b) !I, ~ ~ ~ k k ~ ~ ~ / V ~ l O
i%Tki%%&~@~<&3Ebl~%
I,*
2 P tczb',
(In Japan compulsory education is very thorough (lit. prevails thor-
oughly) and the literacy rate is almost 100 percent.)
2 i : i e L 0 3+?w +L!$s<+2w CW*?
(c) Zo)~~l;f:&& 9,%Q ~ & @ ~ ~ ~ B T & % L T ~ >
$uK~QT
(This high school is a boarding school (lit. total dormitory system) and
all the students live in three dormitories.)
1. Vte ori is the written version of Vte ite. Although ori is the masu-form
of the humble auxiliary verb om, when Vte on' is used in the writing of
documents, articles, papers, etc., it does not express the writer's polite-
ness.
2. Vte on is more formal than Vte ite or Vte i.
3. Vte om, the informal sentence-final form of Vte on, is not used in writ-
ing in place of Vte irv.
Vte ori can be replaced by Vte ite without changing meaning, as in [I].
+Key Sentences
-
(i) wums ; ~ & & ~ L T $ ~ ' X - ~ . . & J ~ L I ~ ~
ITL I f
(They found the criminal through the fingerprints left behind at the
scene of the crime.)
$$ b.9 Lti vh Y ti Pri
(j) xi&--~ B Z L T ,- - E B R ~ B & ~ :~LC G L \ ,
(My father has never left Tokyo in his life.)
Tdshite can be replaced by tsujite in all cases except when the medium is a
concrete, physical medium as in Exs.(g) - (i).
an auxiliary which expresses the I keep -ing; have been -ing;
I idea that s.0. or s.t. keeps doing leave
s.t., or s.0. leaves s.t. in an im- (REL. mama; tsuzuke da; tsuzu-
kern]
*Key Sentences
(The Shinkansen was so crowded that I stood all the way (lit. kept
standing) from Tokyo to Kyoto.)
1 borrowed money from a friend of mine and still haven't paid it back.)
(I /
Vmasu 9 1Pa L
3%
d 0 9 df h L ((vi.) have been sitting)
9 Gf 9 Cih L ((vt.) leave s.t. on)
mlzmm
(a) ~ * ~ - ~ ' I L Q I I ~ L - S.-.f-4bi&d
IL a ~ j i $ % ~ iLaI Za ~
(Brazil's volleyball team hasn't lost a game up to now. (lit. Brazil's
volleyball team has been winning up to today.))
(b) 4 8 ~ i @ . n \ ~ ; % &IdI b caa ~ 7 ; ' ~
(The telephone has been ringing since this morning (lit. since morning
today).)
(c) ~a-h.6L e < 13 9 LT%&&\,
(I have been talking since this morning and my throat is sore.)
7JtllA. t*i
(d) &9-*~ F 4 . 4 1. B-E$i + ~ b 9f I i % L ~ Z ~ ~ Q I T I ~ Y FT-)
-j5f$$
9TL39k0
(Because I left my car headlights on all night, the battery died.)
(e) %%&B& L 9 !fa L T E ~ ~ z ? $ ~ T % L T ~ ~ & ~
(Mitsuko is talking with her friend on the phone while leaving the
water running.)
1 (f) ?!FI&-wA,B> ~ ~ : - h . k f ~ dLC:
J fh L T & T % ~ ~ . ,
-
i-
- -
- -
'- p s-
-
-
(Shigeru went out somewhere leaving a kettle on the stove.)
- (g) bef ~ 1 2LQI%-~.I;&W..
2 <S A , X ~ T ~ ~ ,
(Many mosquitoes came in through the window which was left open.)
aQm
1. -ppanashi is derived from hanashi, the masu stem of the verb hanasu
'leave.'
2. The meaning of -ppanashi differs depending on the kind of verb which
precedes it. When the verb is intransitive, -ppanashi means that S.O. or
s.t. keeps doing something (e.g., KS(A) and Ex.(a)). When the verb is
transitive, -ppanashi means that s.0. does s.t. to X and leaves X as it is
without putting it back to its original state, which is not the proper way
(e.g., KS(B) and (C)).
3. -ppanashi behaves like a noun; therefore it is followed by the copula da
(e.g., KS(A) and (B)) or particles such as de, ni, and no (e.g., KS(C),
Exs.(f) and (g)).
e elated Expressions]
I. Mama expresses an idea similar to -ppanashi. In fact; -ppanashi can be
rephrased as mama in most cases when the preceding verb is transitive,
as in [I].
This is because mama focuses on the state after a single action (i.e., an
action described by a punctual verb) while -ppanashi focuses on a con-
tinuous action.
Note also that if the preceding verb is intransitive, -ppanashi cannot be
used in an adverbial phrase, as in [6].
[6] I E ~ Z T ~ /I*Q@ " ~ t f & L ] T?<?sL.~,
(Please remain seated while talking. (lit. Please talk remaining
seated.))
-ppanashi in [7] is acceptable because it is not in an adverbial phrase.
air hrle
[7] EbaBd {@T k b b / EjZkJ = I f & L I Tk;%;3'%~)~
(I've been sitting for a long time, so my bottom hurts.)
(emama (DBJG:236-40))
11. Vrnasu tsuzuke da also expresses the idea "to keep doing s.t." and can
be used in place of Vrnasu ppanashi (with intransitive verbs), as in [8].
+Key Sentences
(A)
1 (He is apt to fall for women, and falls in love with practically any
I woman.)
(i) N ~ l T b 1
%!&1Pb1 (childish)
(ii) Adj(i)stem 9 G9b1
$$9/9b1 (cheapish)
(iii) Adj(na)stem Q CTb a
8t~9 ~1 (pitiful)
(iv) Vmasu 9 CTb1
bt
g k L 9 19b1 (easy to forget, forgetful)
(During the lunch hour, this restaurant becomes crowded with men
who look like salaried workers.)
(b) & & @ t i ~ K k 9 d T b ~ & b f i b I?,
(I like the actress, because she is so womanish.)
(c) z /"a29l 9 4 % , & @ a b . 4 ,
(Who can drink such watery sake?)
(d) haj:, Z/"a~~lTb~777%&9~$1rPi.f6~?
(What are you going to do with this cheapish sofa that you bought?)
tb
(el ~ ~ $ D ~ ~ F G : E E 3~~I C 9 ,~ ~ ~ \ g t ~. iX tPj~~&9$ L - C L G ~
(Sitting on a bench at the park a foppish man is talking with a coquet-
tish woman.)
(f) j t j ~ % + k & ? i 9G T ~ ~ A%
V. t
T ,$ b ~ - ~ W L Lt.~e tZa A T ~ ~ S P ,
- 9 2 L-c, $ D t : a b a b \ t v T t L O
(Our son gets bored easily, and he tries new things one after another,
but doesn't get anywhere with any of them.)
-
(g) <
5 7: b 9 tTblA9 T,!$Ttb0
(I don't like a person who is distrustful.)
1. The Adj(i) suffix -ppoi is usually used in highly informal speech and
writing, meaning something like English "-ish."
2. The suffix -ppoi is an Adj(i), so it conjugates exactly like other
Adj(i)'s.
(adult-like), GPb1
%%7 (geisha-like), 'g7GPba (dusty), b1fzf
7 CPL.1
h?
(brownish), % 7 CPb1 (feverish 1enthusiastic), ,&& 7C
P
b1 (peevish)
1
: =* 6.h
% b 7 Gab3 (quick tempered), &kL 7 GPb1 (easily tired), 'KT 7
tPbl (apt to lose self-control), U)'j5"&7CPb1 (apt to feel victim-
e elated ~x~ressions]
I. N + ppoi can be replaced by N + no ydna or by N + rashii, and N + fii
no, as shown in [l] below. Here, the choice of -ppoi expresses that the
man is manifesting the distinctive character of a yakuza. In that sense
it is very close to f O no which refers to s.o.'s or s.t.'s style. The expres-
sions no ydna and rashii are quite different from -ppoi and fO no in that
the former are conjectural expressions, whereas the latter are not.
There are cases where the replacement is restricted as shown in [2] and
[3]. Here, rashii is acceptable, because it means 's.o. or s.t. is like the
ideal model of X.' But no ydda and fOda which mean 'to look like X'
does not make sense in the context. In [3] the meanings of rashii and fa
no do not fit in the context, but ydna 'like X' in the sense of 'taste like
water' fits in the context.
+Key Sentences
( i ) N (duration) %
m3lmm hR *WLo
(a) %z++%, wCH~E%&TL~ZT,
(My father has been employed in the same company for the past 30
years.)
ItL**?
%%+$%%I?
(b) %ZDW -c3 3 Lk,
(I've been continuing this research for the past 10 years.)
(c) &Y%D%fi9, i9 < 1$-3
7: 13 7Zo
(The rain which started after midnight appeared to have finally
stopped.)
(d) 54 2 El%2 12Ef$%D2%Zo
(Okada and I have been fiends for the past 40 years.)
-
(el ++D%CAA++%D~S I?+ i 72,
(They say that this summer is the warmest in 60 years.)
(f) z ~LCAZ+$%DT&%
(This is the heaviest snow we have had in 30 years.)
1. When -mi is used to mean s.t. has continued up until the moment of
speech, the final predicate takes Vte iru as in KS(A) and Ex.(a) or Vte
kurv as in Ex. (b).
(= Ex.(a))
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-mi can be freely replaced by rnae kara and -kan, but not vice versa, -
because the latter can be used with an expression of both relatively
short and long duration; whereas the former can be used only with a rel-
atively long duration, as shown below:
L: 6%
[41 a. / =~W%A3%
/ *ZE+W%l ElzP;BB%5&L
Tblao
(He's been studying Japanese for two hours.)
b. {M/%tP%/*%I g$p&9TbG0
(It's been snowing for two days.)
When -rai is used in X wa N(duration)-rai no Y da construction, -rai can
be replaced by -buri da which means 'after the lapse of -,' as shown by
[4a] and [4b]. Note that Y cannot be a person as in Ex.(d).
rei no BJO phr.
-
the (in question); that (same);
erent of the following noun phrase the usual
is definite and that the speaker [REL.wa]
expects the hearer to understand
what the referent is
+Key Sentences
I I Noun / I I
-
-
-
.
.
.
-
-
0 1 IUijr9E I I If YiOlfLkd,
:Rs
-
.
.
.
-
.
-
-
-
-
(What happened to the project (in question)?)
@%ON
Relative Clause
+Key Sentence
I I
1: ItL -
B ~ K ~ ~ c <= aa%m
%$ r) %w,
(Is there a book that will make you strong in Japanese?)
H&*< a:: LT
m 3 ag%f:,
(Baroque music is music that soothes the mind.)
ljb~ib~l%?
CkLCi E l $ O ~ ~ ~ . h f d&iP&$T.f.
r <
(This is a book which enables us to understand Japanese management.)
C*?
fib>
$$gfl&&&&Ty$a,>o
(Please recommend any exercise that will reduce my weight.)
< hZ#?d7
n~-bfl&a 3f;L>~.f~
(I would like to listen to hear something that will cheer me up.)
~ k L ~ ; f ; % ~ ; 2 ~ . > 8 $ $ + ~r. fj&Tbk, < SX/~LE~~QTTSL
(These are non-fattening cakes, so please eat as much of them as you
can.)
ahrw - a
&O%*O%%bi.f
'
44 < 2aBMXt2."
(That professor's lecture is a lecture that will make you sleepy.)
350 Relative Clause
1. The example of relative clauses given in this entry are all different from
those of ordinary relative clauses in that one of the two source sentences
includes a topic marker wa which carries a conditional meaning. Take
KS, for example: it apparently comes from (la) and (lb).
(1) a. Ab;fQbl,
(There isn't medicine.)
b. ?a)%MBfi9.1 <
(If you take the medicine, you will become smart. (lit. As
for the medicine, one will become smart.))
(lb) is a grammatical sentence, meaning 'if you take the medicine you
will become smart.' So (lb) is the same as (2) in which the conditional
conjunction ba is overtly used.
(2) ?a)%%&&i&3w.l a a o <
(If you take the medicine, you will become smart.)
Because the verb nornu is missing in KS, it looks as though medicine
itself becomes smart. The same explanation is possible with the other
example sentences.
+Key Sentences
1 Sentence ( a m a t i v e )
I
1 Sentence (affirmative) I
1 (What is there to hide now!)
Rhetorical Question 353
(Dl
Sentence
$ 6 bcfilf Qb>L?aba(ila),,
Sentence
'rL
r , 7 ~re$.rbla a(&).
1 (Oh, you're watching N!)
1 (Do it quickly!)
0. - 3 1 d
tLP6 Ht
; t r , A . 2 , A
Wb
W
< W L ~Q
7?TG;t7'sb>$,
(The man shouted, "Open sesame!" And look what happened: the rock
(lit. rock door) opened with no sound!)
+Key Sentence
-
(On the plane I couldn't sleep well.) =
-
-
-
-
a=
-
-
a
(a) < 2 3
3 1:@5$.6 L ~ ~ ~ T & & Q & ~ S ~&%ffl5kGd'-7z0
.OT,
*L*L C
Along with rokuni - nai there is another structure similar to it; i.e., rokuna N
- nai which is used to indicate that s.t. animate does not or cannot do some-
thing decent / sufficient / satisfactory. Examples follow:
(1) a. &d$jZi23< & & b > 3 = &L Q t \ ,
(He doesn't give us even a decent greeting.)
b. 5-72-b23< a+$$.&%bf&t\,
(Nancy cannot write even a satisfactory letter.)
c. & o y $ b i 3 < QXQB L T b > Q t \ bL L ~ ,
(It appears that they are not eating decent meals.)
d. &oRi23<&R3B & ~ T ~ > & L \ ,
(That dog is not eating decent food.)
e. ~oK&ii3<
mge~at\,
(That professor is not a professor to speak of.)
If the prenominal form rokuna in all the examples except (le) is replaced by
the adverbial form rokuni the meaning will change. The rokuna version indi-
cates that an action does occur but not in a satisfactory manner; whereas the
rokuni version indicates that the action hardly takes place.
rokuni - nai 357
+Key Sentences
-
-
--
(A: You cannot read ~ a ~ a n e sright?)
e, (B: Yeah, sure I can.)
sg
--
-
(C>
{v&
/ +&7? 9 72 1 3 ;., (s.o. is 1was a student, you know.)
(iii) Wh-word - 03
yj L T & < ~ L . > o ~ ,
(Whydon'tyoueatit?)
(iv) NP 3
z ;kbLEi%S o (This is tea, you know.)
(a) A: qi-'$
OI H $ ~ O I F X c~~?LL.>~~I,
wonder if today's Japanese test is difficult.)
(I
Note that [3] and [4] will change to strictly female speech, because yo
is attached to a noun or to a nominalized clause, respectively, but other
than that the crucial difference is that sa is far more informal than yo.
That is why yo can be connected with both informal and formal forms =
-
-
but sa can be connected only with informal forms. 18
-
-
=
-
[S] a. A: %%kT$&*Q,
B: B%$T { & / * $ I ,(cf.KS(A))
b. A: B;GiB$%, %tbQblk;ta,
B: bl?, ?%tb$TI k / * P l , (cf.KS(B))
c. A&tkEb>Ea)k 5 Q & 0T.f I& / *P I, (cf. KS(C))
-
Wh-word yolsa is always connected with informal forms, so there is
no contrast between yo and sa.
II. Another sentence-final particle tomo can replace sa when the latter
expresses encouragement or assertion to negate someone's challenge.
even; if - -
only; if just; as
expresses the idea of "even" in -
long as; The only thing need
non-conditional clauses (or sen-
tences) or the idea of "only" in (REL. made; mo; sura]
conditional clauses
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun
I I I
(She can read even classical Japanese, not to mention modem Japanese.)
Noun Prt.
I I I I
(Researchers even from America visit this lab.)
364 sae
(Dl
Conditional Clause Main Clause
Vmasu
(If you just leave it here, the people in this place will take care of the
rest.)
Vpast
(If we can only finish (lit. If we only finish) this work, the rest will be
easy.)
N S f
L1). 'r
d S f ttl b (even deer appear)
3 L 63 f kd b (eat even sashimi)
(ii) N (Prt.) S f
77 15 (+ / C:) S 2-69f i (went even to Africa)
(iii) N Prt. 3f
2%
Z/vGUC:Sfdjb (existeveninsuchatown)
$L C: S 2- &+ b
bfi L
(understandable even to me)
73%- '
% ~ ~ 3 2 b > G b(havenotevenread)
\
$T 3 A%-@ ;?'s bl
I (don't understand even by looking at)
(d) 36b=.s;i&+fitvl2d.~;%b:Bffi%ad:.
(Even Yamada could do it, so you can do it, too.)
(el a ~ s ~ z o K E G $DG=IE+W
< I:
~d.d.91~
C *A.
(Even my teacher took (as much as) two hours to solve this problem.)
E*3 d.W
(f) 3 L P r FYJ- FI.'R&hb%k1QTBhGffl%3T0
(You can join our club any time if you only have a credit card.)
(g) ~~;i%$~~T<;kj'.b$f c Z O ; P ~ P ~F -%3% @ b ~0E0
il
(As long as you agree (to our plan), we are planning to begin this
project right away.)
eAS;5 L lfA. fib, t r i b:
(h) a L@GLBS&
LT s j i k > k L b % % % d & k X kEo
(As long as you study seriously, you'll do okay on the exam (lit. the
exam will be all right).)
(i) F ~ h ~ s ; i t ; k ~ ~ - i f ~ W6,& ~ h t v ~ <
(If you just raise your hand, a policeman will rush to you.)
(j) %< s;ij'bv;kti&;kaG&TIL
(It should sell as long as it's not expensive.)
$i&~:%$o:'~s~~ti,;kc~rtv~~
Z~TBLWLTT~
(Any location will be fine as long as it is convenient for commuting.)
1. As the Formation shows, the particles ga and o do not appear with sae,
the directional particles e and ni optionally precede sae, and the other
case particles must precede sae.
2. When sae is used in a conditional clause, the clause expresses such
ideas as "if only," "as long as," and "the only thing someone needs is,"
as in KS(D), (E), and Exs.(f) - (I). In other words, in "S1 (conditional
with sae), S2)' S1 presents the only condition that must be met in order
for S2 to be true. In this structure, the ba-conditional (e.g., KS(D) and
Ex.(f)) is most commonly used. The tam-conditional (e.g., KS(E) and
sae 367
Ex.(g)) can be used but is less common. The nara-conditional is used
only in limited contexts such as (1) and (2).
(1) EPR@%I(L-C< ~ ~ ) Z C % + T C Z D Y I~ - YQ ~W- ~~Q
b 11 72, (cf. Ex.(g))
(As long as you agree (to our plan), we are planning to begin
this project right away.)
(2) &%P R&&tb%f&d?P bL.>L;GL.>,
(As long as my family is all right, I ask for nothing else.)
The to-conditional is unacceptable.
3. In conditional clauses, sae can appear in various positions. The focus
changes according to the position, as in (3) and (4).
I. Made is also used as an emphatic marker and can replace sae, as in [I].
368 sae
In the case of sae in KS(C), made replaces both the sae and the de.
II. The emphatic marker sura is very similar to sae but sura is more liter-
ary. Sura can replace sae except in conditional clauses.
III. Although it is weaker than sae, made, and sum, the particle mo also
functions as an emphatic marker in some contexts. First, mo functions
as an emphatic marker in negative sentences, as in [6].
sae / sai (ni) 3 69
Mo can also replace sae after de, as in [7].
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
1 (I will tell you the details when I come down to Tokyo in August.)
( i ) Vinf %l (G:)
f K 5 / W 7 k I l%( K) (when S.O. buys 1bought s.t.)
(ii) N 0R(C:)
L It&
1%():1 (at the time of an examination)
(iii) N b
R
: LT
Wid'<
A f :C l$2 L -C (on the occasion of entering a school)
-
(iv) ( Z O / + O / & O ) R
Z OR
%%S**
(on this occasion)
TLS.4
kEl:$i;;B-TaRb:,
Tokyo.)
86. L ti lri
S 3 A R %G:ELf&
0:
% ~ b a ~ # % - T & ~ b : C ~ $ & ~ @ f l ~ ~ f ? ~
sai ( n i ) 371
$r<*3L*4ri
ZOR, $LPE@$tEl:%LT&3-To
(Since this is an important occasion (lit. on this occasion), I will talk
directly to the president (and see what happens).)
r
7 2 1) -O%%S/vfl < ; ~ ~ : ~ R M T - T ,
t', 'C ltbl
z ; ~ ~ & ~ o R 1.7
%%
(This is a wrist watch which my host family father gave me when I left
for home.)
372 sai (ni)
1. - sai (ni) is used to indicate a special occasion on which s.0. does s.t.
So, the phrase cannot be used on common occasions as in (1) and (2).
tb
(1) @ & 3 2 W/*EI E f l & 9 7 &
(When I got up in the morning I had a fever.)
1% SA29 L+
(2) a. BPfi8~jT91: (@/*El$-B-W6V:,
(When I went to the library I checked out 3 books.)
IfA$*iD
b. @f%gB% b,9T!3EH$%!&%~??97: ( @ / E l ,$-??
y:w,s & Lpo
(When I received research money and went to the National
Diet Library I checked out a dozen books.)
Notice that the occasion of going to the library is far more special in
(2b) than in (2a). That is why sai is acceptable in (2b) but not in (2a).
2. Only Vinf or N or demonstrative adjectives kono, sono, ano can be used
before sai ni. Vinf . nonpast and Vinf . past indicate incompletion and
completion, respectively, in relation to the action in the main clause.
Kono sai as exemplified by Ex.(h) can be used only when the occasion
is special.
3. The particle ni of sai ni may be dropped. When ni is dropped as in Ex.(i),
the focus shifts from the occasion to what is described in the main
clause.
4. - sai ni is a formal expression that is often used with Sino-Japanese
words, as shown in all the KS and Exs. except Ex.(f). Notice that in
Ex.(f), an honorific-polite Japanese verb is used. In the following sen-
tences in which neither a Sino-Japanese verb / noun nor a honorific-
polite verb is used sai ni is unacceptable.
sai (ni) 373
5. N ni saishite is more formal than N no sai ni. When the former is used,
N has to express a very special occasion as in KS(C) and Ex.(g). If N
expresses an occasion which is not so special as in Ex.(e), N no sai ni
cannot be replaced by N ni saishite.
e elated Expressions]
I. Sai ni indicates the time when s.t. special takes place,whereas on ni
indicates an occasion when s.t. ordinary takes place.
SL? k %V
[I] a. H ~ F c = L ~ LI );J ~~/ *LK+
I ~
C=~~Z$&&T;SL~,
(If you have a chance to come to Kyoto, please let me
know.)
bi? A * .
$L
b. {B& / *)Jil
~~~ii%%?!&F& $JDWTQ&TL~Q~.~~:,
(When Bill got married he hadn't obtained his parents' per-
mission.)
For the difference between toki ni and sai ni, see Note 1 above.
(+toki (DBJG: 49044))
11. There is another expression ba'ai, 'case,' which is used in the form of
Vinf ba'ai or N no ba'ai.
b. %PF& :7 e
/ / *RI din4 7 + TCP$ZT-F~
(If it rains the hiking will be cancelled.)
c. AKD {a+/@ / EI c a r ~ . - ; - ~ - ~ T & b i ~ b ~ . a
LAO
-
-
-
- -
Main Clause
ISF
-
- I: 1% BLhL O * l f < I:ltL- C L ~ +
-
-
- -
--
- %ILY 2StvG;f.B$G:Z~2 Y L T b a k D T , Sf P :b EJI~:~~I~&FTT~
(Because Mr. Nelson has studied in Japan for three years, naturally he
speaks Japanese well.)
I
-
(After all, they are Hiroshima oysters. They are really good.)
Noun
bt
I-+$ x*- bag$ EGf Ih9-C / I:), g&b>b>o
I 1 Subordinate Clause I 1
(The great teacher that he was, even he'had a hard time answering the
difficult question.)
-
-
-
-
S-W(C&) 8$0
.($12, (After all, it is a Japanese car.)
-%$~i
S-wA < a/$$.L?}.'
$&?I-&
{%I t'.bj { h 9 T / I:)
(as might be expected from the fact that S.O. studies / has studied hard)
376 sasuga
1 { & - T / /:I
Sf75.' { g 8 b > / m ~ f i 3 k??If
(as might be expected from the fact that s.t. is I was interesting)
Sasuga expresses one's strong feeling that s.t. has turned out as one
expected, as shown in KS(A) - (D), Exs.(a) - (0,(i) and (j), or that s.t.
has turned out to be contrary to one's expectation, as in KS(E), Exs.(g)
and (h) as one has not expected.
In the structure sasuga wa X da, wa can be omitted.
Sasuga - dake may take either atte or ni as shown in KS(C), (D) and
Ex.(f). -
=
-
- -
zss
In the case of sasuga no X mo, the speaker wants to say that s.t. has -
occurred contrary to what one can expect from the characteristics of X,
as in KS(E), Exs.(g) and (h).
Sasuga can be used like an exclamation in conversational Japanese.
L 15.) L l t L vi ? 1
( 1 ) A: ~ ~ $ I C ~ E J & ~ % L : - J B ~ T ~ . *7?dr0
~I:+~
(I heard that Yarnada passed the bar examination on his first
attempt.)
B: PbS!
(I
knew he would.)
378 sasuga / sei
[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
Another adverb yahari / yappari is similar to sasuga. For examples, sasuga ni
of KS(A) - (D) can be replaced by yahari 1yappari. However yahari does not
express the strong feeling of fulfillment of expectation that is expressed by
sasuga.
[I] ; ~ . I L ; ~ ' J S A I ~ B $ G : ~ ~ @ % L T ~ ~ TUt)EI$&Fk%T
~:OT,
To(cf. KS(A))
(As expected, Mr. Nelson speaks Japanese well, because he has stud-
ied in Japan for three years.)
+Key Sentences
(A)
Noun
2% $ 2 3 <A*
;r\% 0 -11-1.1 T @fl&$k)&kLfbbl,
I (Because of the depression, cars are not selling well this year.)
(Because of lack of sleep, I suppose, I feel weak (lit. the body has no
power).)
( i ) N 0-11-1..( T / 75 / etc.)
&%a>-t?b>T (because of overworking)
380 sei
(ii) Sinf *b> ( T / @ / etc.) (the same as the relative clause formation)
lit6
#I! 3 $ ? i k @ - b 1 T (because s.0. worked too hard)
-
@bh i h53a%&~~a+ba~:$&~
(He often blames others for his own failure (lit. claims that his own
failure is due to others).)
z ;kbi$o)+b~T 6
(This is (due to) no one's fault.)
b. @&flb1&{a%% .tts$d:<
/CI)T/k@CZ/???+?L\Tl
Ymso
(Because she is here, I can do a lot of work.)
Sei ka, however, is used whether the result is desirable or undesirable, as
in (2), KS(B), Exs.(c) and (d).
(2) a. < B%ao
%E&flbl&+?~\aWWd:
(I think it is because she is here that I can do a lot of work.)
3 rv -.
b. $i&flx%$l1$%$~8~r:+?~\a~zg8&fl%d:o 3k~~lb:
, a7k0
(Because the emission control rules have worked, I sup-
pose, the air has become cleaner than before.)
c.
(tl)
~&LE~;&o+?L\& ~Edsd: ( ts9 f i ,
(I feel a little better after taking medicine, although it might
be my imagination.)
3. Sei de is used when the speaker finds the cause of an undesirable result
to be beyond his 1 her control, as in KS(A). Thus, if the cause is within
the speaker's control, sei de cannot be used, as in (3).
I. Okage and sei are similar in that both express a cause. The difference is
that okage is used when the result is desirable, as in [I]. Note also that
okage implies that the person who attained the result is thankful for the
cause.
bWt, kt
[I] a. a~)bb~&fi>(fT@flrttld~-31:o
(The safety belt saved my life. (lit. My life was saved
thanks to the safety belt.))
b. @kflFIZ-3 T < ;k7':&fiW'lrf~~~flg< g&11:~
(Because she helped me, I could finish my work quickly.)
El., b
b. S ~ f l & & fz
h2 2LT < ;kk&fi>(fT$+j@fl&@LG:@
Itl.+<
-3 ?z0
(Because you did something unnecessary, thanks to you,
our plan was ruined.)
11. Tame (ni) can also express a cause (as well as a reason), as in [3].
Unlike sei, tame (ni) has no such restrictions as those in Notes 2 , 3 , and
4. (+tame (ni) (DBJG. 447-5 1))
semete 383
semete adv.
at least
speaker / writer's minimally satis- [REL. sukunakutomo]
+Key Sentences
(A)
Number +
Counter
(Iam not saying that I want to get 100 points, but I would like to get at
least 80 points.)
W3hL te d.
*hT-qb:+Ei C b b ' , W&75'&;k& k b > b ~ t v T - w ,
(I wish I could take at least 10-day's leave each year.)
i%i~~lz,~h~iz, *~~)T~&cL;I/~~~&L~G:&TY
(Please come and see me at least once while you are in Japan.)
$%XTG { T &b>b>hf?, * h T , vgb ~ b ~ ~ & k $ & $ ~ j : b > ~
(It's alright if she is not a real beauty. But I would like to marry at least
a cute girl.)
i: it& : +" *L$
EI$GL{+< Xll?dlb, * h T , El$SI?lf i
$ & L T & ~ :5 2 2 3 . ~ -
b>-a.f,
(I am going to Japan, so, I'm thinking of learning at least Japanese.)
gtv3i:3 b.
+ M T ~~ j ~ - - ~ l ~ ~ ~~ O~~ ~G Lj ~: ~r G; L, ~ ; ~ J ; I J ) G : ~
(If my father lived at least one day longer I could have been with him
when he died.)
&t,GG=Eb>%TG < - c b b > b ~ hP,
f -&bt)Tb
Llt - 9
5--68E&& k b > b > a )
GL
(don't need that spacious house, but I wish I had at least another
I
room.)
6 Z%%GL?2& t v T * d l b , * h T , <bbai22*-n2blo
-
(I'm going to stay at your house for a month, so please let me wash the
dishes, at least.)
:iG t t l + r l h
*hTEl$%?TEl ~ & ~ & < b b > i i & & & 5d :K G 0 J:blTB,
(I would like to become able to engage in daily conversation in Japa-
nese.)
well aware that he cannot realize an ideal state. Each sentence ends in a
direct or indirect expression of desire, such as -tai as in KS(A), (C), Exs.(c)
and (h), (to io n desu ga as in KS(B) and Ex.(a), noni as in Exs.(e) and (f),
-(sase) te kudasai as in Exs.(b) and (g) and -yd to omotte imasu in Ex.(d). Of
these, noni of Ex.(e) and (f) express counter-factual desire.
[Related Expression]
Sukunakutomo is another adverb with the meaning of 'at least.' The crucial
difference between sukunakutomo and semete is that the former focuses on
rather objective lower limits of number 1quantity; whereas the latter on the
speaker's strong desire to realize a certain minimum level of satisfaction. So
all the KS and Exs. of semete can be rephrased by sukunakutomo, but the
following use of sukunakutomo cannot be rephrased by semete, because it
does not express the speaker's desire; it merely expresses the speaker's esti-
mation of numbers / quantity.
z D k W l ~ & & i &{$a< 2 -6 /*%@TI 5$7?6 5
i%ld'< *<.ttk.t '
[l] a.
(I guess that enrollment at this university is at least 30,000.)
PLV?< 3 L t L
b. Z O ~ G & {$a<2-6 /*+!@TI 3EZiFJbWaE6i.
(This car will cost at least 3,000,000 yen.)
+Key Sentences
('4)
Vmasu
I I I
(As soon as I get to Osaka, I will call you.)
Exceptions:
r/\ (j -3 L .e ?I &% (as soon as S.O. comes 1 goes there)
-3 L .e rl%% (as soon as S.O. says it)
ts 3 9 &% (as soon as S.O. does s.t.)
(ii) VN %%
shidai 387
$$%a%
(as soon as S.O. comes back to his / her country)
t 3 6*<
FIJ (as soon as S.O. / s.t. arrives)
(iii) (X i i ) N & % ? ? / T
o i ?t;i +A S
( % ? (Fanning depends on the weather.)
S*?lri
$k #&ST (depending on the salary)
$92 L Z t
(a) klmW&;h17 &%, gl$$ 3t if$$% L 3 -$o
(My husband comes straight home every day, as soon as he has fin-
ished his work.)
(j)
shidai
Z#&%TIA,
+a>btt.~Bf13&~tfzl/~2.~,l/~3%~
(Depending on the employment terms I would like to accept that job.)
1. Vrnasu / V N shidai and N shidai dalde mean 'as soon as' and 'depends
on / depending on,' respectively. What is common to both cases is that
an action or state indicated by the preceding verb or noun is a prerequi-
site for another action or state expressed in the main predicate.
2. The Vrnasu of Vmasu shidai can hardly be sum-verb, probably because
it will create a sequence of shi-shi which is hard to pronounce.
e elated Expressions]
I. There is another structure -tam sugu with the meaning of 'as soon as.'
The crucial difference between Vrnasu 1V N shidai and -tam sugu is that
shidai 389
the former expresses a planned sequence of two actions, whereas the
latter can express any kind of sequence of two actions. Examples in [I]
and [2] show that both forms can be used to express a planned sequence
and those in [3] show that Vmasu shidai cannot be used in a non-
planned non-controllable sequence. In this case -tam sugu is much
better than shidai, but slightly marginal and should be replaced by -tam
marnonaku.
b. f$U.k%b: {fT9k%H&tc<
/f79t:%b<'/*%T3R%l
g&,~:fb9?:~
(As soon as he got to Japan he got ill.) -
-
-
-
- --
.
'81
=
-
N shidai da in KS(C) and Exs.(g) - (j)can be replaced by N ni yoru, as
shown in [4].
But not all cases of N ni yoru can be replaced by N shidai da, because
the former has a wider meaning: N ni yoru indicates 'cause' for s.t. as in
[5a], 'means' as in [5b], or 'source' as in [%I. N ni yoru cannot be
390 shidai / shika mo
replaced by N shidai da in any of these, simply because the latter lacks
these particular meanings.
*v t 7 $ L * b L
b. @3A&t6Hqm { L & 7 T / * R % T l ,~ O ~ T ~ ~ L 7 - . .
(He succeeded in this world by means of his political
skills.)
c. $I$ s " i ~ & ~ + i ~ ~ ,
7 ~ i j - C{:~ Q L : / * R % T
(According to the radio, it will snow tomorrow.)
(+ni yottelyori)
+Key Sentences
(B)
Sentence Phrase / Sentence
II I
(He bought a house, and more surprisingly, a house with a large yard.)
I Sentencel I 1 Sentencq I
(He studies till late every night; nevertheless, he gets up earlier than
anyone else.)
(i) {V/Adj./N+Cop.} te L @ h
%k$LTbaT, L a 6 +%ZTba& (S.O. is married, and what's
more, s h e even has a child.)
HbLJ
< T, L 6 6 1: 12 7'2 (S.t. is interesting, and what's more, it is
free of charge.)
>Sf k T , L a h &%&%72 (S.O. is handsome, and what's more,
he is rich.)
392 shika mo
L-SliC*', V r ? ti
5 % @ T , L 73' b d %j? (S.O. is out of work, and what's worse,
s h e is ill.)
(ii) Vmasu L-hlb
L < 'Ws , L $ $ $$ $ Q ba (s.o. works hard, and yet (or
nevertheless), s h e does not complain.)
(iii) Adj(i)ko L73l b
<, L$ by&? (S.t. is cheap; futhermore, it's durable.)
L*?lti
z a ) & % C i ~$ b l , L g b $.k $b'~%lbl, (This job is interesting. On
top of that, the pay is good.)
(She speaks four languages besides English, and more surprisingly, she
speaks all of them like a native speaker.)
% & S i s % s " ~ ~ - cL~&a%~, jX&azam%Ei:~~
~~
caught a cold, and at that on the day before an important exam.)
(I
1. Basically, shika mo has three uses. First, shika mo is used when one pro-
vides additional important characteristics of s . ~or
. s.t., as in KS(A) and
Exs.(a) - (c). Second, shika mo is used when one adds special informa-
tion to a statement about a rather uncommon action or state, as in KS(B)
and Exs.(d) - (g). Third, shika mo is used when one provides informa-
tion which is rather unexpected from the preceding statement, as in
KS(C), Exs.(h) and (i). -
-
-
-
IS
2. In the second use, additional information can be provided with an inde-
pendent phrase, as in Exs.(d) - (0, or with a sentence, as in Ex.(g).
However, the version with an independent phrase is more common.
elated Expressions]
I. Shika mo in the first use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sono
ue, omake ni, or sore ni, as in [I].
I . . Shika mo in the second use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sore
mo, as in [2].
111. Shika mo in the third use described in Note 1 can be replaced by sore
de ite or (sore) ni mo kakawarazu, as in [3].
shika rno / shitagatte 395
+ ~ Sentence
e ~
I1 I
t*3 ? <2 3
(a) +am~ w E ~ ~ @ ~ ~ % ~ LT:;~~.'.;,-c$FS
T ~ & ~ 2~3 ~1 ~L7 L ~
%-Ahf2bl0
(This week the executives are busy attending meetings from morning
till night. Therefore they don't even have time to play their favorite
golf.)
3 96 shitagatte
*t
(b) %&2-F& 2 , = + l b ~ - % & Lfzf19Tkh&b>o
(If you do exercise, you use energy. Accordingly you don't gain
weight.)
(c)
K l t L (hl t L l i f<
EI$O@biifk@fl$Gb>., Lf:fl~-Ck ~ Z
< ; k & ~
(Japanese cars have fewer troubles. Therefore they sell well.)
(d) f i Z i i ~ ~ $ & g $ & / v ~ ~ f~: r~z ; 3 " 9 ~ ~ 1 z i c o z t <8 Sdh: Q r b >
0
(She lived in Japan for five years. Therefore she knows a lot about
Japan.)
$%Y* - lilt80 Yb S i i w(
(el m-mixm;f:ak,a
11% ~ = ~ >La l~j :>~~~ ) ~ = - c ~~ 8B d& : ~~ o
a z 2 t:az0
(In Japan fathers are seldom at home. Therefore mothers are in charge
of their children's education.)
(1) a.
.
gaffe cannot be used; da kara has to be used.
ItLf '
*~&a>X&&d~~z~ L~S~TW~ERL~
b. ~ ~ ~ O A f l E E L fEh>%%L$BRLfz0
:O
(The majority of the people agreed. Therefore I also
agreed.)
The conjunction da kara can replace shitagatte in all the KS and Exs., but
not vice versa, because the former can express both reason-action and
cause-result relations, but the latter expresses cause-result relation only.
(See Note 3.)
shitagatte / s6 ka to itte 397
Lr Or5
[1] a. $ D % D + i r i f b & ~ l : . {Es%
/*LkF7TI % i f f 7-C
z*
3€tvl?,
(The review of this book was good, so I bought it and read it.)
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
( i ) A: Slo
B: +i$kZ->T, 8@l~&~&A~b~&b~f~:bb~b3@AL,
(But you can't read just comic books, you know.)
i5iiBibkEi8baP.fdT, + i f i k S q T , j@@lf&IIS/vTb>&bGfC:
b ba b 3 -@ X. L o (Comic books are fun, but you can't read just
comic books, you know.)
[4] A: :8imb=L<aL.>Lo
(Alcohol is not good for your health, you know.)
+Key Sentence
(My friend told me that something simple would be fine for supper. So,
I ordered a pizza.)
S1o % C T , Szo
d.k. L cr-3
&&7Fgz?2 { a3ko % C T , &@Th%&b*%-Th C k b:~?:~
(The conference room has become unavailable. So, we've decided to have
the meeting in the cafeteria.)
402 soko del
&&m<
s t v & Z , o b : ~ 7 F & ~ $ , ~ f : ?~ Z T , 3'93-~&<;?
1: L f L
(I had a lot of baggage and it began to rain. Therefore, I decided to go
by taxi.)
1) - ~ - ~ 3 6 ~ t v ? & b t L a < t?=k0 ? Z T , ' < -5+4 27i&&&
@ F b B k a <h ~ f : ,
(It has turned out that our leader Mr. Yamada can't come, so we have
no choice but to postpone the meeting.)
6 l&&e T$$&,y-
Y
. f l l S t ? < t?qf:, ? Z T , CLNII,
X!kl:%%L-c
CL b
Ci-z
N o B t,&bf b~Z,&hb\T&f:,
(I got injured and couldn't go to school on the day of an exam. So, I
called my teacher to ask if I could take it another day.)
bkL bh
% E i & - F < T $ L f l Z 7 h f : 1 5 csb+e L f z 0 ? Z T , + L & E ~ T W ,
*tt
mmm
1. Soko de cannot connect a cause and a result, as in (1).
,?u C L L
(1) a. + f - ~ ' ~ 7 ? ' J ~ % ~ . r C ' A ~&
~
<
S&
):T?*B
LW . ;tr'&=f:~
t&tLf:, (Acceptable form: {?Ulf;65 / ?hTl !&$hJfl
...)
(There was a big earthquake in San Francisco. Because of
that, many buildings collapsed.)
soko del 403
D3 4Pt
b. ~ ~ ~ b ~ . t d i c + - ~ I : < S L & 3 3 ; *?LT%;b&
kl:,
$g-h.'%
< T k b bhhba. (Acceptable form: {?Olf;
%L / t h T 1 4 8 13.
(3) a. - -
Ii/rd'<
I ,
HI
R 9
T&3 7 k
(The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. So, I made a
big decision and bought it.)
b. ? O % E O 3 - 1. C&+-ILP*%~?~I:~ ????LT, %LB
<
EbaI: h 9 T 3 I : , (Acceptable form: ? h T , %L%.-)
(The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. So, I wanted
(lit. began to want) to buy it.)
404 soko del
(The fur coat was on sale at fifty percent off. SO, I could
buy it.)
4. In "S1. Soko de, Sz," S2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion,
or an invitation, as in (4).
(4) % J 8 % E f P A Q , i t ; ~ / ~ - 7-4- f l h ~ T 8 0 3 7 x % - P75y:
<
SA*$-F, * ? Z T , &GI:& ( Q ~ ~ % T Y ~ L ~ / L ~ L
?7I:L;tr'iT-F75'/ k'1;7L?L1$@A@). (Acceptable
form: { E + I a % /TB+13%l &GI:&--)
(There is a party at Morita's tomorrow and many of our old
classmates are coming. So, {pleasejoin us by all means. I how
about joining us? I would you like to join us?})
(+da kara in sore de (DBJG: 413-14))
Sore de and soko de are similar and are interchangeable in many situations.
Some examples follow.
In addition, like soko de, sore de cannot be used with a command, a request,
a suggestion, or an invitation. (See Note 4.)
Sore de, however, differs from soko de in several ways. First, sore de can
connect a cause and a result while soko de cannot, as in [2].(See Note 1.)
[2] a. " f 7 7 7 7 3 X ~ T k f & E d " & 7 f : , { ? h T / * ? Z T } $Z@W
<
fz S A @ W & (=(la))
(There was a big earthquake in San Francisco. Because of that,
many buildings collapsed.)
b. ~@&%L~S~I'X+-BI:<S h . @ k Z S t ~ f : ~{ ? h T / * ? Z T l
4 8 i2Bd5%< T W 3 1;kLGb1, (=(lb))
(Iwas forced to drink a lot of cheap whiskey last night. Because
of that, I have a headache and cannot get up today.)
soko del / soko de2 405
Second, sore de is used to mean 'that's why.' Soko de cannot replace sore
de in this use, as in [3].
0 * -€
[31 a. @ E l b k ~ % B $ 1 3 3L k , {?hT/*?LTl% @ B & w E C ~ T
t o
(I had a cold yesterday. That's why I took a day off from
school.)
HHB* LI '
b. A: @Elbk%~-3kk~Tffl&d'djcl$LTb,
(I had some business in Osaka yesterday.)
B: &&, {?hT/*?LTlb a b 7 L . t . b G ~ 7 1 : / v T . f b o
(Oh, that's why you were not here.)
Third, when sore de is used, the situation does not have to be a special one,
as in [4]. (See Note 2.)
Fourth, when sore de is used, the situation does not have to be controllable,
as in [5]. (See Note 3.)
+Key Sentences
1 (He might offer you a drink. At that time you mustn't hesitate.) 1
( i ) S1, ? Z T S 2 ,
taiTL lit
z o q >-P75.'9bb?:b, ?ZTjtE Z B & b T T f b',
(When this light comes on, (lit. then,) start charging it.)
(ii) S1, -? T S20
nt, c I)*&
(a) + m ~ : ~ r . ~ ; % ~r.eb
fi J t&tt+r;, - ? z T % <O B . ~ @ - C
& E c & b ~ - c ~ ~ b ~ ~
(In an hour I will say, "Stop!" Then, stop writing and put your pencils
down.)
(b) $Ld'Z&B L k b , ? Z T % 3 t v % 3 - t ; E b ~ t - i f O
(When I give you a signal, (lit. then,) you will all stand up, please.)
soko de2 / soko o 407
I Hb
~ ~ f : j b k , ~ ~+f ~:~~&;i ,t p o e - = ~ 6 a < $ ~ - i f ,
(If you think you are intoxicated, you should stop drinking at that
time.)
:?b t*
X s ~ ~ ~ m cL -=T ~. Qk w L ~ ~ : - T L ; w+~~. ~ % i ; f l i t ~ ; a - ~ l k
blijjbblo
(Little children sometimes get into unbelievable mischief. Their
parents must scold them then.)
(Prof. Yano scolded a student. It would have been all right if the
student had apologized to him meekly at that time, but the student
talked back (instead).)
amB
1. In "S1. Soko de Sz." S1 represents an event and Sz an action at the time
of the event.
2. Sz is often a command, a request, a suggestion, or an invitation.
3. Soko de may appear in mid-sentence position in S , as in (1).
(1) a. %Lfis&HeL k b , B S L - ? Z T ~ 2 % ~ B b ~ 3 -(=Ex.@))
ifo
b. 4 \ s b ~ ~ R c i @ c : Lk T b a-blblf:Tb e-ifao%I&+ZT
Pkb fhblk blCf j b (=Ex.(d))
o
SO~O ;f. C f conj.
+Key Sentences
(Tom is small for a football player, but he makes up for it with his swift
legs.) 1
i v Cr5d.h
ZhJI:l.1:e&-Mv b=.iibl*ab>b;.
Ph h t f
<
(a) %EiiGBCi+hb%Ed:abld',- ? Z Q & % T @ ~ ; ~ . T ~ T ~ > & ~
(He is not that bright, but he manages to get along on his efforts.)
almost
happens [EL.
rn6 sukoshi/chotto de
- sum tokoro (datta)]
410 -& ni naru
+Key Sentence
Vmasu ? 5 G: a6
bf
S i k ? 5 GL l's 6 (s.0. almost forgets s.t.)
$6.11 ? 5 I: 2 b (s.0. almost understands s.t.)
L9
% %k L
Lt<
+ 5: C 2 6 (so. almost loses his 1her job)
- rb
*fiL
7=-lbTE5 < %IWL+?5 Kl's9 k
%~i&+wlk$, Z 2fl&bo
(When I was a child I almost drowned in a swimming pool.)
~ d + , 5 % ~ 9 2 ~ ~ ~ : 0 dG% z f b+9 7?L5
(Yesterday I almost got run over by a car.)
&&&a>gt3.9&&? 5C:g~j:~
(My house almost got destroyed by an earthquake.)
go&>&&Fgj&&L+? 5 G : f t 9 jz0
(An old pine tree in the yard almost fell down in the typhoon.)
y d & k A a g o y T , % & B ~ b & + ? 5K 2 9 k 0
(Today in a crowded train I almost got my purse pickpocketed.)
-Mni naru 41 1
lilt Vr 3 s
(g) +gkh%+{i~f?jC:Qg?:@l:, @t.71'fi5,bL8~-cL331:0
(When I was almost able to go to Japan my mother got ill.)
rCmrL*-
1. Vmasu sb ni naru expresses the idea that s.t. almost happens. As shown
in Exs.(a), (b) and (f), Vmasu sd ni naru is often used with an extra
adverbial phrases such as ayauku 'narrowly,' and md sukoshi/chotto de
'a little more, then -,' which reinforce the idea of 'almost.'
The verb is restricted to non-volitional verbs, that is, a verb that
expresses s.t. that is beyond human control, such as (kaze o) hiku 'to
catch (a cold)' (KS), oboreru 'to drown' (Ex.(a)), tsubureru 'to be
destroyed' (Ex.(c)), taoreru 'to fall down' (Ex.(d)). Since passive and
potential forms are regarded as a non-volitional verb, they can be also
used with sb ni naru, as shown in Exs.(b), (e) and (g). If the verb is a
volitional verb, Vrnasu sb ni naru cannot be used if the subject is the
speaker himself 1herself.
(1) a. *%L&~gB&&=f [:& fZ@, gg$l;@$$$g
-c 3 7 k
(When I was about to eat my lunch I received a call from
my friend.)
-c b7'& -
-
b. 7 f ~ @ ,8 9 3 LIZ,
* @ - h ' ~ & B & = f . j ~ ~ & @&<
(When I almost graduated from college, I lost my mother.)
-
-
s2
-
-
-
-
-
=
All the examples of Vrnasu sci ni naru can be replaced by rnci sukoshilchoito
-
de suru tokoro datta, except Exs.(f) - (g) in which Vmasu W ni naru is
used in a dependent clause. The latter expression focuses on both the
impending aspect of something and the point of time at which s.t. occurs,
-
-
Y but the former focuses only on the impending aspect.
sg
-=
=
-
- [I] a. $Lt&3ROF%,Y-lLT65 ( 9 L / 4 ~ 7 t T%1;C%&b
I t C
b f i 7 fz , (cf. Ex.(a))
-xini nam / sono ue 41 3
c. 8 3 I$L/B&721 Tffi~~'r62C-3~:~~;5"~->T&
(When I was just about to leave, a friend of mine visited me.)
1 Topic 1
(He looked for an apartment with me, and moreover, he even helped me
move.)
03)
(This job pays a good salary, and what's more, it offers opportunities to
go abroad from time to time.)
-
-
aWCt u th -
(a) ~ E ~ C ~ S A %DL,
T, &$T~~L.>L>*L J+L~G:&MLT~/>L
;,
(Everybody loves-her because she is not only pretty but also good-
natured (lit. because she is pretty, and what's more, she is good-
natured).)
ti?/,
m) Y&oi3 c : p L ~ ~ w a c : a 9 7 : l ; ,
L*iLr<
l i > h ' i > hFif-lxer>f:r?b>
~
T, %DL, ~k'aT~"%%iC:a91:,
(When I went to my professor's house to consult him about my job, he
gave me all kinds of advice, and on top of that, he even served me
dinner.)
'J s 20 j - t ; d & ~ i : f i 7 f i r ; , % a > e > + & ~ B T I Z ~ S ~ LTOJ-,
,
(C) LN *
X%!lV3TS+i?L;kL7'&
(When I went to see John at his place, he got me to help him paint his
house, and what's more, he even got me to mow the lawn.)
&*.IL*t;',
(d) ~ 0 7 1 9 - P IG&$c:%$JT~~~~%<, 5 0 m~f 3 - m a o
(This apartment is convenient for commuting and the rent is reason-
able. Moreover, it even has a parking space.)
+ ~ Sentence
e ~
*L11 3
(a) ~ L ~ o T E E ~ , @ ? ~ - . ~?~hcT~6 I3TI .F$ ,$ & ~ I : ,
(It was so hot that we turned on an electric fan, but it was still hot.)
Sore demo means that in spite of the circumstance expressed in the preced-
ing sentence something surprising or contradictory takes place. So if this
basic meaning is missing sore demo cannot be used.
(1) &dbkk%~b, {T.f/ CfhZ.f / LaaL/*?hT&l $$a"b;f%
&J?,
(I have work to do today. But I can take a day off tomorrow.)
537 IAbi%@-if&99, W L b a ,
(The parents are opposed to the couple's marriage. In spite of
that, they seem to intend to get married.) (= KS)
11. Sore demo can be rephrased by te mo as in:
[31 a. Ri%ijrXAa>%%l:EkkLTb~T6, IACi@@f Q Z J 9,
!I EI L L a , (cf. KS)
(Even if the parents are opposed to the couple's marriage,
they seem intent on getting married.) (cf. KS)
sore dokoroka ?$
ttE I
L 5 h' conj.
(Mr. Smith cannot write kanji. As a matter of fact, he cannot write even
hiragana satisfactorily.)
-
Vf L*< fib.
?kLFE5L::.e8blOb:, + @ I P K L < - c ,
(No way, I'm busy doing my homework, you know.)
Sore dokoro (ka I de wa nai Ija nai} can indicate a flat rejection of an invi-
tation 1request / command of the conversational partner as in KS(B), Exs.(e)
and (0. Sz gives an unusual circumstance which makes it impossible to
accept the invitation 1request / command.
sore dokoroka / sore ga 423
[Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
Sore dokoroka can be replaced by { Adj(i 1na) I V}inf. nonpast dokoroka or
N dokoroka, if the negative predicate of S1 is switched to an affiiative
predicate.
i
I
(Well, (no,) it looks difficult.)
424 sore ga
L lth
(a) A: %jeR,PjF37:?
(How was the exam?)
B: aw, f:lvrzo
(Well, (I'm sorry to say this, but) it was no good.)
lire
(b) A:
~MX. I: MA,
H&T@ lvT-ifhO <
(You're going to work in Japan next year, aren't you?)
B: WJP, W L W & G S Q < a9-c
~3 9 r : l v ~ - i f 0
(Well, no, it's turned out that I can't go.)
(c) A: &$K&3~$i!~i?lvi?6 5
(You met her and talked to her, right?)
B: e3r
+tw, ~ 2z ue3
r . l v r w P , &&I: &eS;ia <
a9-cL33-co
(Well, I did meet her, but when I saw her face, I couldn't say any-
thing.)
1. Sore ga can be used with or without an interjection such as iie, ie, or iya.
When an interjection is used, sore ga follows it, as in KS and Ex.(b).
2. Although sore ga is often used when the response is negative, it can be
used when the response is positive, as in (1).
A: %%, 7'?&29r:h'r?6i.
(You didn't pass the exam, I bet.)
ts
B: bl?, ?hiif,B3l:tLl?h0
(No, (the fact is that) I passed it!)
3. Because of the nature of the situations where sore ga is used, it is often
pronounced with a somewhat hesitant tone.
elated Expression]
In, contrast to sore ga, sore wa is used when the speaker provides an
sore ga / sore mo 425
* ~ e y Sentences
, +fib SET B ~ f i f .D
.PL<L t,
~ T 2W3@bh@91:, -
-sg
=
- -
=
(Because he spoke (lit. I was talked to) in English, and what's worse,
-
-
-
-
-
-
'
rapidly, I didn't understand anything.)
(B)
first-class ones.)
426 sore mo
(Because she has as many as five children, ahd moreover, they are all
very mischievous boys, Mrs. Noguchi is extremely busy every day.)
KLL\+M~C:. -~;~~%K$o&~~&IIEEc
%;<+=L T 92%
3 &I:,
(I was asked to translate a letter when I was busy at the end of the
semester, and what's worse, just before the deadline for my term
paper.)
(Because it was one hundred thousand yen in coins, and what's worse,
(they were) all ten-yen coins, it was terribly heavy.)
1. The phrases or clauses before and after sore mo are connected to the
same noun phrase, verbal, or clause which follows, as in KS(A) - (C).
2. Sore mo usually appears in mid-sentence position although it can appear
as an independent phrase as well, as in (1).
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(4
(The "morning set" here includes coffee and some toast; in addition,
there is a boiled egg (lit. it is accompanied by a boiled egg).)
(Even if we bought a car, there would be no place to park it, and more-
over, there would be few occasions to use it.)
- - - - - - -- -
ammm
( i ) N1 (k/G:/,l N2 Ik/G:/,l -5;ki:N,
I
F L Y , Z F L ; S , ?kLb:V7f j5%7
(a TV set, a stereo, and, in addition, a video camera)
(ii) S1 L, ?W: S2
I*?
r i bb
-
?a).ff$bi3$b tsbl L, 5;kG:#&d.'~bl,
(The job is boring, and what's worse, the pay is bad.)
(iii) S1, ?fib:, SzO
h ' U L 'IOi
5a)&~t2@ft%b!W..~ +;kt:, %d.'%bl,
(The old man is disabled. Furthermore, he is hard of hearing.)
btLf;%Li b i rib h t h
%Lo5-bG:t&%L F1,3?Rk3R;sCA, 5kLb:;i. 2 k 4 xd.'?Ef c ~ b l & .
(My family consists of my wife and me, and two children, and in addi-
tion, (there are) a cat and a dog.)
ILltL f-i
blbl.ff$fltsbl L, ?kL1:3Ab H$a)W&-&2 7?d.'3 7 b l & a ) ~ ,
~ $ 4 56k%=7b>&.,
(We are thinking of going back to Japan because there are no good jobs
here, and what's more, my child wants to go to a Japanese school.)
r " 7 / ' t s A f t ~ ~ ~ - ~ b %&b t$ t<s b l ~ -?ht:5
, %c$$~~DTE<
Ed.'&!I$*Ao -
%
=
-
-<
s =
(Even if we bought a piano, no one would play it, and moreover, there
would be no place to put it because our place is small.)
<
C071T- b t i # $ & 7i@7.,, 5kLt:&&&dao
(This apartment is light and clean. Furthermore, the rent is reasonable.)
~ tbrj b ~ ~ $ ~ ; : l a P + a r z ~ b ~ ~ ~ U ~ ~t #t l$~~ ,: ~ ;
Lr*L
Omake ni and sore ni are used in similar situations. The difference is that
omake ni introduces an emphatic statement while sore ni introduces a non-
emphatic statement. Thus, in [I] omake ni is acceptable because the addi-
tional statements can be emphatic.
sore ni / sore to 431
+Key Sentences
-
7 t 7 , +ht, / ~ t t t g * ysw,
(Give me three apples and two oranges, and three bananas, as well.)
(Speaking of sports, I play tennis and golf.)
Sentence2
F-1b2-f-X, - ? ; k t , s 7 - P - f ~ Y (beerandcheese,and
potato chips as well)
(ii) S1, -?;kt, SZ,
SAP<
*>~ A
: i t ~ - 9 xL Q T b a 3 $ , -?;kt, %&G9$71b- P ~ 5 ~ 9 4
3 L k , (Speaking of music, I am a member of a chorus. In addition,
I played flute a little when I was a student.)
(a) F I E S L , X ? S L , Y ~ s A , , W L ~ %
, # S L % ~ ~ % , ~4 K
3~~
G
(Mr. Yamada, Mr. Kinoshita, and Mr. Ueno are coming. And Mr. Taka-
hashi, too.)
d4r: < r
(b) M@git F4 Y g K 7 9 an,
K 1% - It*
-?;kk, E I & & ~ W L S W ~ T ~
(Talking about foreign languages, I can speak German and French, and
a little Japanese.)
.b ; t 6 m 3 4366
(c) @ - ~ + I = L L I $ ~ , ~ L ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s L ~-?;kt,
~ B % & $ & ~ %8
SLi5.1;~%%7E+T8b3-if0
(There were calls from Mr. Yamamura and Mr. Harnada while you
were out. Also, a letter came from Mr. Yoshida.)
sore to 433
$AS*? BAfV CAQw Vt
%ddOB8E3bi%!+kB P j t & d r t w jZ t T t , f h t , 9 , j L 9 ,
# f ; 7 0 ~ ~ m i % Y ; i ag 3*k0
~~i~a
(How to get a teacher is the urgent problem. And, for another thing, we
have to think about the classrom problem.)
z o n a P ~ 1~~ ~qa r 1<-fia?
LIZ5 6
c h, tfit, W H ~ T
3oil;o
sw..mmv$i&, %fir: ?
(Could you type this letter by noon? Oh, and did (lit. could) you get the
air tickets I asked for yesterday?)
Sore to appears only in spoken Japanese. It is often used when the speaker
wants to add an item or statement which s h e has forgotten to mention.
[Related ~x~ressions]
I. Sore ni is similar to sore to in that both introduce an additional item or
statement. The crucial difference is that sore ni is used when the pre-
ceding clause I phrase and the following clause I phrase are closely con-
nected while sore to is used when this connection is weak. Therefore,
sore ni cannot be used when the speaker adds an item or statement
which s h e has forgotten to mention.
I
(Give me three apples and two oranges. Oh, and three bananas,
too.)
=-
-
s=
--
-
--
--
On the other hand, sore to cannot be used when the preceding clause
or phrase has a continuative ending such as {V I Adj. I N + Cop.)te,
Vrnasu, Adj(i)ku, and S shi, as in [2] - [5].
61oc1 I ?LA
121 a. z ~ ~ ~ G ~ ~ % L I c L ~ T+
{?htz/*?htl , #&ha,
(She is married, and what's more, she has children.)
T L I;*
b. z07,\"- 1. C ~ F & T{?hE
, /*?htl%&FBL',
(This apartment is inconvenient, and what's more, the rent
is expensive.)
434 sore to / sore wa
ih.h i?kw< P&h&dl&4& C r i
[31 @ 3 2 % 9 ~ 8 $ 5 ~ 2 f+Bd% % L , ( t h E / * Q h 1t B$T
88%L T ~ Z2 &&a,
(He studied Japanese at college for three years, and in addition,
he worked (lit. has worked) in Japan.)
Lrlr?
[4] ED/J\RGixl.-~)-P%Lij<,{?hC=/*?h(I1
&'WT
'J'o
(This novel has an interesting story line, and moreover, it's easy
to read.)
P*i)lzi bh
[5] ?DttSC293 r ; Q b > L , I;fhCZ/*?h(Il
T$eNPEb~,
(That job is not interesting, and what's more, the pay is bad.)
(esore ni)
11. Sore kara can replace sore to without changing meaning, as in [6].
*Key Sentence
B:
(Aff. Int.)
(They surely would. They could never buy them (anywhere else)
for that price.)
?in? r i C ,
(c) A: % 7 ~ & + S B L . ~ % ; ~ .L' L j~ I? , ~ T
(You would prefer a higher salary, right?)
B: ? Y) -v (h)F i TTS-a,
(Naturally, I would, but. . .)
2. Interjections such as hai, ee and un can be used with sore wa. When
such an interjection is used, sore wa follows it, as in KS and Ex.(a).
3 . Sore wa in the following examples should not be confused with the sore
wa presented here. As a matter of fact, sore in these examples is a
demonstrative pronoun. That is, sore in (1) refers to A's idea and sore
in (2) refers to A's giving a gift.
(1) A: & Z ~ ; f % s & ~ l i c t h ~ f : a > ~ a % .
(Perhaps she doesn't love me any more.)
B: ;fhl&5L0
(That's not true.)
(2) [When giving a gift,]
A: ZkL, 36bth~16DTTif;JP~
(This is nothing special, but . . .)
B: ;fhlbzy!&c,
(That's very kind of you.)
Note that sore wa in these examples cannot be preceded by interjections
such as hai and ee.
+Key Sentences
(-4)
I I
(Each of the novels I read was interesting (in its own way).)
(Yoshiko, Mihoko, and Nobuo are 15,13, and 9 years old, respectively.)
xrm 2 t: I:,
+,+, b t L bWt
? - ; k ~ ; k-, - z H o ~ Jfir:,
b,btL%L
\%L~~ <
(Father gave me and my younger sister a 10,000 yen allowance each.)
t Lr+L <&$ti
+,; k ~ ; kwzi,
4 C;~&D$L&T,% I W ~ P T g
(Tom and I study in the dorm room and at the library, respectively.)
+f33
-
S 7 I i 4 X 2 , - t I i Y r < 2 , t ; k Q ; k & ~f:, ~ f
(Bob and Kazuo went out with Beth and Jemmy, respectively.)
t b liifiw
% L ~ R &&~+;k~;kE5.
jffrzc,
(We are brothers, but each of us has different interests.)
+,i5 L L *LLi
%T.B+;~Q;~EPS~~&EG~.
(Each of us has our strengths and weaknesses.)
ZO-?.?.~ ~ ~ X ~ ~ $ $ I i ? - ; k ? ; k h ~ ~ d j z i .
(Each of the buildings of this campus has its own individuality.)
43s sorezore
mmm
1. Sorezore is used to express an idea of 'each' or 'respectively.'
2. There are two types of construction that involve sorezore. One is the
construction that is a condensed version of two or more co-ordinated
sentences as in KS(A) ahd Exs.(a) - (d). For example, KS (A) is a
reduction from (1) below:
(1) LLIHS t v l ; t % % B R ~ T ,% * S / U C ; ~ % % ~ B E Q ~ : ,
(Yamada bought fruits and Suzuki bought cakes.)
This sentence can be condensed either into KS(A), (2) or (3).
(2) LLIBStvCiRYS1%, %*StvGi$GWB!331:0
(Yamada bought fruits, and Suzuki, cakes.)
(3) LLIBStvb~%CQ,%*StvGiB%3B, ?h?'hE-k,
(Yamada bought fruits, and Suzuki, cake, respectively.)
The other type is a construction that is not a reduction from a coordi-
-
=
. -
nated sentence as exemplified by KS(B) and Exs.(e) - (h).
2s
.
. -
-
.
-
- 3. Sorezore can be used as a pronoun as in Ex.(i). In this case sorezore is
used in a combination of sorezore no N. Two more examples follow:
(4) $ - ? X b~Giih~h(D&~B&3Tb~&~
(Orchestras have their own respective sounds.)
CTLL* ti:?
(5) ~ G ~ = ~ ~ Q ~ ( D Q S ~ T B ~
(Students come to school on their own bicycles.)
4. Sorezore can be used as a kind of noun as shown in (6) and (7) below.
$03 ItL $,A. 11.<
(6) '&~bli?h?'h~~,S'Slf i ~ , S ' S ?i&Tbl&,
l
(The stars of the universe are each pulling others by gravita-
tion.)
sorezore / sugu 439
[Related ~x~ression]
Meimei and ono'ono are similar in meaning to sorezore.
SOSO )5~)5b,
sugu bC adv.
-1
(a)
(b)
(The bank is right in front of the station.)
$3; i dwL+
avwmxji < 2.f C,
company.)
&&%&f:,
(The departmental head started to work as soon as he arrived at the
amm
1. Sugu in KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (f) means 'without much temporal dis-
tance,' whereas in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h) it means 'without much spa-
tial distance.'
2. - taralto sugu is used to mean 'as soon as -' as in KS(A), Exs.(a) and
(b), if the main verb is a volitional verb. Ex.(d) cannot mean 'as soon
as,' because the verb is a non-volitional verb. Another example follows:
(1) ? ~ s t Z % & d k % bC%k;h-h~3%<
, th~iF:,
(I got a stomachache straight after eating that shrimp.)
e elated Expression]
Mo sugu as in [I] is used to mean k t . is going to take place very soon since
a triggering event has already taken place.' Sentences [2] and [3] are unac-
ceptable because in [2] the triggering event (i.e., a telephone call) has not
taken place and in [3] the triggered event (Smith's coming) has already
taken place.
111 x:xs/vcazmLiF:+r;, +,~~c&adc,
(Because we have called Mr. Smith, he will come pretty soon.)
[21 *x :xs/vtam.t;kt%, tcsa dc.
(*If we call Mr. Smith, he will come pretty soon.)
[3] *x:xS/vt&%SLiF:b, & i b C W &
(*Mr. Smith came pretty soon when we called him.)
tabi ni f'U.'CZ conj.
+Key Sentences
(A)
!
Vinf. nonpast
Noun
mlmzm :a ?2z
(a) &a>~k~.ff:Uc'C=~i~i5~~~k3~~
(Each time I talk with her my heart softens.)
(b) z O % ~ & + ~ ~ V G Z ~ L La.& $ ~ ~ ,
(Each time I read this book I make new findings.)
t i P ~ ? _ , -
(c)
at
< f:VG:!%&O&??%$a6
#iiR~C-n- z k GZ LTb\&,
(I make it a point of visiting my professor's residence every time I go
to Tokyo.)
bkL *r ""
(d) + ~ 0 g i i 4 j f : ~ ~ ~ a u ~ ~ k ~ < ~ 7 ~ b > a ~
(My grandson is growing bigger than before each time I see him.)
SLVt CL*W UP*
(e) E-.;1 ~ I ~-OG$%F&<
L f:~~:~gss;5.t=a~~:ks.ta.
(Each time I listen to Mozart's music I feel my life is enriched.)
(f)
kh, C r l D
< ha*,
~ ~ H O ~ ~ U ~ ' ~ ~ & ~ C ; ~ : I ~ ~ O ~ B E ~ T
(On every birthday my husband buys me roses.)
b*?hr?D
(g) 5 3 ~ i k ~ ~ ~ E l O f : ~ PC~ ~' J ~T k% a& )B~L x~ %
(Our family eats at a restaurant in Ginza every payday.)
The paraphrasability between the two structures does not always mean
that they are synonymous. Since the tense of the verb that comes before
tabi ni is restricted to nonpast, Ex.(e), for example, is ambiguous as to
whether the speaker feels his life is enriched while listening to Mozart
or after he has finished listening to it. The two readings of Ex.(e) corre-
spond to [2a] and [2b] below.
[2] a. +-~rlLba)G%%W<$G:tiba9T9,A&;3'f$K?'h
9 t:X;3'-if 5.
+Key Sentences
(His only (one) defect is that he is not punctual (lit. he is slack about
time).)
-
.
- -
I
rva( a r i
&
-*
( I )2b 5 I ( I ) (S.O. is just a college professor ;
that's all.)
(c) j:jf+filflfOZkT~~B~k:~j:tv~.fd.,
(Did you fire him only for that reason?)
(d) f:~f&mt:~ ktf~f~e~~ba~%ggi;t.cba~
(There will be no progress if you do only what you are told to do.)
(el * ~ i ~ j z ~ E 3 2f 2i tLz T~ ~ ~ Z I ~ I ~ ~ Z ~
(I am just doing what I was asked to do; that's all.)
st:
(f) &O%i27?7?3 CkbjZkbaj E l f jz0
(He is just serious; he has no other merit.)
(g) % i : X ~ f i & & i 2 ~ ~ a t v ~ wftj
~ j t r '2, k h ~ ~ - c a j : ~ ~ f i t v ~
(It doesn't have any special meaning, but I just wanted to ask.)
SbLh Iig+j
(h) t:r.%wj z 2 ~k$bw:L - c ~ ~ - c ~ L ~ E I w ~ ~ & ~ ficvo
(If you simply swallow what other people say, you won't come up with
any interesting ideas.)
[Related ~xpressiod
Tatta can be used instead of tada when One + Counter immediately follows,
as in KS(A) and Ex.(a).
On the other hand, tada cannot be used to modify a number beyond one or
to mo'dify an adverb, as in [3] and [4].
v*d.i
[4] Ya2i;t. { k ~ f ~ / * 4 !~
9IE z i 2l@ 1 3 T - i f O
(John has just leftkome back (lit. leftlcome back just now).)
tada no 449
+Key Sentence
CLCV
I: ED%& (an ordinary teacher)
d . F Hb ItkliL
fzf?0rn%f?k,F,9-cb>f:b9 f l $ % f ? ~ f : ~
(I thought it was an ordinary cold, but it was pneumonia.)
& 0 ~ i i f : f ? D $ @ T t i h b l d : 5 T f h,
(He doesn't appear to be an ordinary scholar, does he?)
am
Tada no N is used when the speaker makes nothing out of s.t. I s.0. There-
fore, it can be used as a humble expression as in KS and Ex.(d).
- -
indeed but; certainly but;
idea "indeed - but" - -
truly but; it is true that but;
-
I admit that but; definitely -
but
-
[REL. koto wa -
-
tashikani ga 45 1
+Key Sentence
I I I I
TO+-? > SI
- D z 2 i ~ ~ w $ j w w: v~. . 9, r : e , ~ , ~ & + m b ~ o
(I certainly heard about the party, but I don't remember when it is
going to be.)
<i<
B W ~ K CL A
~S, %-
~2 i k + ; h w 9 ~ : ,
(It's true that I promised (to do it), but I didn't say that I would do it
right now.)
&BWB--EP g g <~a
i ? b w d b ~ LL r 3 IiLt 3
w , ;iPt~ii~a$h'a~,rz~~
(He definitely makes a bad first impression, but actually he is a nice
man.)
Z D $ $ @ C A B ~ G : W L + ~~E~~: , i & ~ ~ a - c w a b ~ ,
(Iadmit that this is a good school, but it's not suitable for me.)
a$jtr'b~#-h'$$d'31:d, TX,~~G:E~Z~G~GI,~IZ
(I admit that it was my fault (lit. I was bad.), but you shouldn't be that
mad.)
- (It it true that many Japanese go abroad now. There are also many who
speak other languages (lit. foreign languages) well. However, there are
still few who can be called "true internationalists.")
ta tokoro de 7: 2 L 3 T conj.
+Key Sentence
mamm
(a) 20'g%&IW7?2~6~, k%7Ff ~%6htf~cG-b1,
(Even if you took this medicine, it would not be the case that your cold
would be cured right away.)
1: 1% Y*~SW (LLV
(b) Z O % % % A ~ Z? 6~ T , € l $ O @ j % ~ ~ @ t k & ~ b G - b 1 7-j. 6
(Even if you read this book, you wouldn't understand the entire econ-
omy of Japan.)
V,9 Le5 * L b,% ?
(c) - % b 9 ~ : - b ~ b b ~ % ~ ~ 7 : k Z 5&;s:
~ , 9 % k t k G - b a ~ L d rj o
(Even if you exercise once a week, it won't be very effective.)
-
because I cannot afford to go to Japan.)
b 5 C r i I*
(g) L ~ L H ~ & L & Q ~ $~ $Z$ ~< ~T &, T L L ~ ,
(Even if we discussed it more, it would probably be futile.)
$LCw 8
(h) B07Efl&t97:k 2 6 T , $$b:t$.%%bkM~\bG-ba,
(Even if a problem arises, it will not cause you any trouble.)
1. The conjunction tokoro de is used with Vinf.past. The past form is used
here not as the past tense marker but as the counterfactual marker. So in
every case what is expressed in the tokoro de clause has not taken place
yet. What the conjunction really means is: 'even if one supposes an
action or a state in the clause has already taken place.'
2. The main clause usually takes an explicit negative marker nai, but there
454 ta tokoro de
are cases like KS and Ex.(g) in which the main clauses express some
thing undesirable.
elated Expression]
Vinf .past tokoro de can always be replaced by Vte mo.
However, there is a crucial difference between Vinf . past tokoro da and Vte
rno. The former has a clear counterfactual meaning, but the latter does not
have a clear counterfactual meaning.
There are a lot of cases where Vte rno cannot be replaced by Vinf . past
tokoro de owing to the crucial difference. Notice that in [2] below Vte mo
clearly expresses not something counterfactual but something factual.
LwCL b t L QL ?%*iW
[2] a. 2ACS.NNE?3& I L T S / * L f ~ t L 3 T f:C%Z%FkbQ
l
bh
(My husband won't quit smoking no matter how many times I
advise him.)
Another crucial difference is that the main clause for Vinf - past tokoro de
has to be negative either explicitly or implicitly; whereas the main clause for
te mo can be affirmative. (See Note 2.)
t7 S l . 3
[31 a. $$XH-H% I B % & < T & / ? ? B % & f i 3 7 f c t L 3$%Ck
Tl
&%ao
(I can graduate even if I don't take this course.)
ta tokoro de / te 455
c. %dr-2 {i5EA.Tif /*%A.EL:L?iTl ~ ~ I ; G - L G F . ~ ' ? ~ - F C
%isla,
(Even if you read a little you can tell that it is a boring book.)
(+te mo (DBJG: 468-70))
+Key Sentence
(How long have you been here / How many years is it since you came
here?)
-
am5m
Vte N (duration)
AT?+
(a)
(b)
bt: 0
ZA&W
(it has been two years since S.O. came)
I7LL
LTZ$&~:$~BL~':~
(The couple got married and two years later they got divorced.)
,B%&~~T&~XLL>~
Z L *
-
lti;5 ItC
(d) Z ~ ) M ~ T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T Z ; L13 a*,
L T ~ I + G = . ~
(It's been four years since I began to work at this company.)
hi+A.n
(el a E-
~c18i:g-c
~7
BB'JB
il*o
(It's my first week in this town.)
All the te forms in KS and Exs. can be replaced by te kara. The only differ-
ence is that te kara focuses on the point in time at which s.t. takes place;
whereas te focuses on the duration of time following te.
(ekaraZ(DBJG: 177-78))
+Key Sentence
V t e 8Jtb-C
k
%/vTa bT (only after you read)
-
(It is often not until you write down your idea that it becomes clear.)
Vr16
%~~:a9-cabT&~o%vESf19*bo
(It is only after you become ill that you realize the value of health.)
& a h T a b T S Lke&<f:,
(I ate sashimi for the first time in my life.)
Umarete hajirnete in Ex.(e) is an idiomatic phrase which means 'for the first
time in one's life.' Note that it does not mean 'only after one was born' or
'not until one was born.' This phrase also appears in the structure in (1)
below.
458 te hajimete / ten (de)
(1) [Before, while, or just after eating sashimi]
3 LJ+(%?&460)Ckik%h-ic#J@-ic-C-.f.
(This is the first time I've had sashimi.)
t e n (de) &(TI n.
(B)
60
(In terms of livability I like this city better than the one where I lived
before (this one).)
t Z ~ L rw+( I- &t/u +7r Q ~ b w t ,
B * O ~ $ C & ~ R - Td:L5.
WADEAS 2b l i ,GT:-~&
(In terms of punctuality the railway systems in Japan are probably the
best in the world.)
t v r w 17
4 ~ b ft&$$$??$&-2~5
i a&&g$@~dr (I &$~&a 2%
,~T&o%{
La,
(Dolphins can be said to be superior to other aquatic animals in that
they speak (language).)
~%%~s&~r~~~~5,6~#&~~&~-
BZw,r&!xj~~
(She and I share the same taste in that both of us like classical music.)
C f2l.r Pa r Lq623 TSKL
A < x&rtwwmm &&a 2blj,6~;i:t E1~3%E7'?~
(Mr. Smith is the right person for president in that he can anticipate the
trends of the times.)
-
-
=
T-
I
-3
c. mza)gg~ae%%e&%
LTP%~C=~IMI.B.
am attracted by this product in that it is future-oriented.)
(I
d. + a > a ~ ~ ~ \ - ( r BEe4mo
%Xm~~
(I was asked questions on that point by some people.)
[Related Expression]
The suffix -men and the noun ten express a similar idea. As their original
meanings (i.e., men 'face, side'; ten 'point') suggest, however, -men reflects
a more general, broader viewpoint than ten does, as in [I] and [2].
s c*2*/,
[I] a. w 02Xi;t:IB R EI / *WRDAI C P J ~6,~ W
(That company has problems in terms of technology.)
b. %~i;t:4?a)i.dl3\~:8~.3-c {ibi@(DA/ *ibi&EIl ~&hli%fb~>
9 kc,
[2] a. <
z a)'$& {M%H/ *BP(DAl 9% RlrHiSk L k 0
(This car was highly regarded in terms of performance.)
b. Za)$ii%k&WiEkLTb~& {A / *HI <RiEiSkLf&
(This car was highly regarded in terms of its excellent per-
formance (lit. the point that the performance is excellent).)
(+-men)
te wa Tlt conj.
1 (If you study that hard, you will ruin your health.)
1 (We cannot go out in this cold weather (lit. when it is this cold).)
1 (It's too bad that you hate your work that much.)
Vte bk
&dT bb (when I if one eats; to eat)
(ii) Adj(i l na)te Ck
% 3 < Tbk (when I if s.t. I s.0. is big)
%%Tl;f: (when / if s.t. is inconvenient)
(iii) N Tdb
%%,~bk(@&Qbb) (if s.0. is ill (I can't ask him to do s.t.))
- &D y& T i i &1=
question))
h 6 h b\)
L lWh.
?Lts t = % / v T b m , %,%b=%%L3%.lo
L?Ifb.
(that teacher (would be out of the
(If you are fooling around like that, you will fail the examination.)
;tjn%'j5'&-c ia3bc:as.
(If he comes he will get in our way.)
z/vact'&;trl~h-cia, ~ Z ~ = ~ 5 io ~ T L L
(If I'm forced to work like this, I will end up by becoming ill.)
..o
Z Lh1=gi3E$&
2.m
<Tii, 8%SLd."fi;i1:k!b:&f ;trlLb>,
(Because the room is messy like this, I feel ashamed when I have a
guest.)
fi
Xd."@&K$&$jTGi, r c i ~ ~ ~ b 1 ~ f h b ~ ~
(If everybody is individualistic, a country cannot get along well.)
z/vac::jF'~<-cia, kji%k&&a~,
(When one is this busy, one cannot read even the newspaper.)
r
hw
h/vtsZE;3f7- I - D B F T ~ ~f $, i i X k < t s 9 - w a m 5.
(If a woman like her is his date, he must feel intimidated.)
fi
a particle which makes an adver-
bial clause, with a verb of saying /
thinking 1 understood after it
(thinking / saying) that -; be-
cause; like; in such a way
that-
+Key Sentences
(With the intention of playing tennis (lit. Thinking that I will play ten-
nis) I went out, but on my way it started to rain.)
! Tiib?z$&~d:j~
Slrr%L$iai
%<D?zfl, 5353K$59T3?:0
(I felt at ease, thinking that my father still looked healthy, but suddenly
he began to grow weak.)
Lb
(v) N P r t N , . . .N P r t N ( + L T ) N P r t N t : ( b a i I l i / % l b:)V
92: *&ti
K dW Irl3d.bl
I ~ I B k,t k - ~ g t : ( ~ lI iL i / E L I I:), iii&~&a
(s.0. divides the rooms in such a way that men are placed upstairs and
women in the first floor)
(i) $ L i $ ~ ~ : b l b \ j ? 6 5 t , ~hit#g~
~ ~ b 1 a . f ~
(I thought it would make a small improvent to my body, so I am taking
walks these days.)
-
breakfast, noodles for lunch, and a western style dish for dinner.)
L r $23 *&IT9 Lo-Gr-5 Sf
, x 9 r 7 , ~ ~ ~ ; t . ; ) ~%1:s&
(m) + t ~ i t ~ ~ t m ; . y~E; i .i % / ~ t ,
ba0
(The president is busy making business trips, to London last month, to
Moscow this month, to Seoul next month, and so on.) -
-
-
- i
-
T
-
-
-
-
-
1. For all the sentences given in KS and Exs, the verbs of saying, think-
ing, feeling or doing are ellipted, except KS(E) and Exs.(k) - (m) in
which the entire iu y6ni / iu fU ni is deleted.
KS(A) type, i.e., Exs.(a) - (c), KS(B) type, i.e., Exs.(d) - (f), KS(C)
type, i.e., Exs.(g), (h), and KS(D) type, i.e., Exs.(i) and (j),usually take.
omoffe. They can take iffe, if the to-clause can be interpreted as a quote,
as in KS(A) and Ex.(a). Notice that Ex.(a) may take omoffe, but the
meaning is not the same as the original ellipted one. It means 'My
friend looked sad, wrongly assuming that a cat which she kept for a
long time died.' For that matter, one of the interpretations of KS(A) is
'Yukio is very happy assuming wrongly that he can buy a house next
year.' KS(C) type, i.e., Exs.(g) and (h), usually take omoffe and shite.
KS@) type, i.e., E x s . 0 - (m), take iu {ydni 1 fii ni}.
(ct> to3 (DBJG: 478-80))
2. In KS(A) type, the only type which allows ellipsis of iffe the main verb
is usually a psychological verb such as yorokobu 'rejoice' of KS(A),
kanashigam 'deplore' of Ex.(a), shinpaisom 'worry' of Ex.@), and
kuyashigam 'feel chagrined' of Ex.(c). Another notable thing about this
type is that the whole sentence refers not to the speaker's but to a third
person's psychological state.
-
==
Tg
--
(2) a. k;
2$
*#Ci%Pr$G&Zjjr.F Ei&
S / v T b > & (cf. KS(A))
= (I'm very happy that I can buy a house next year.)
b. *&kfb>Bn?@J9Tb1l:B;tr'EATL3
77: 2 , %L$9l:,
(cf. Ex.(a))
(I was sad that the cat I kept for a long time died.)
The acceptable versions of (2a) and (2b) are (3a) and (3b), respectively.
3. The omotte-ellipsis is possible when the preceding verb expresses the
speaker's volition with Vvol as in KS(C), Exs.(g) and (h) or his 1 her
conjecture as in KS(D), Exs.(i) and (j). However, if the preceding verb
does not express either volition or conjecture by means of dare (as
in Ex.(i)), kamoshirenai (as in Ex.(j)) and ydda (as in KS(D)), the
omotte-ellipsis does not usually occur.
(4) a.
:1 lmL--
B ~ ~ ~ & Q B3 &
*L 3 ~ 3
~ tT& a%> B E 3 O b > 2~ . 7 /*@I,
7 2%
a>EEl$TB$%B%3&Lk0
(Thinking that it would be interesting to study Japanese in
Japan, last summer I studied Japanese in Japan.)
a! B$%Q8$T%3$-if&oBE3Obatf3it { l 7 7/ @ I ,
w a > z a $ ~ s m e % ~LT:
&,
(Thinking that it might be interesting to study Japanese in
Japan, last summer I studied Japanese in Japan.)
fi h 3 he f d.bWbl rL i L r i
(5) a. ft&~ti&k&C:%%k'r'iTBLf:b>l:
~ : 3 t 3 %0 T L {,53.~7/*01, bb:
i&DE< oh'i4€B~C:ffi&lf f i ,
(Taro suddenly went to a travel agent near his house, want-
ing to make a trip abroad during the winter break.)
a'. k&Bii&%&b:%%%f'iTBLk32 ( ! 3 7 7 / * 0 1 , LC=
%a>% < a>Kfil€BEb:ffi;fr>lf 7'2,
(Taro suddenly went to a travel agent near his house, wish-
ing to make a trip abroad during the winter break.)
4. The shite-ellipsis out of Vvol to shite is possible only when the Vvol to
shite clause appears in a larger construction, as in KS(C), Exs.(g) and
(h). For example, in (6a) below, no action is described, so the shite-
ellipsis is impossible, whereas in (6a') an action is explicitly mentioned,
so the ellipsis is possible.
+Key Sentences
C b W < .t3 5 s i
(He got a job at a bank at the time of (lit. at the same time as) his grad-
uation from college.)
(B)
Vinf - nonpast
I I I
(The telephone rang (lit. at the same time) as I entered the room.)
g&'tH@b: (at the same time as s.o.3 arrival)
am!m
1. Na-adjectives and nouns with to d6ji ni (e.g., KS(C), Ex.(h)) usually
appear in written language or formal speech.
2. I-adjectives are usually not used with to d6ji ni, as in (1).
hb: *b
(1) Z0%$ii IJ!%T&~/ *%*t\l 2 W E F E $ W P E b ~ ,
(This equipment is dangerous and, at the same time, its per-
formance is bad.)
When a verb precedes to d6ji ni, to tomo ni can replace to d6ji ni only if the
474 to doji ni / to itte rno
two actions or events are not momentary actions or events. Thus, to torno ni
is acceptable in [3] but not acceptable in [4].
Note that if a noun precedes to d6ji ni, to torno ni can replace to d6ji ni even
if the two actions or events are momentary, as in [I]. Compare [I] to [5]
where verbs precede to d6ji ni.
[5] a. %$%-if6t
@iikf {ARC: /*#[:I WTI:E% L I Z ,
(cf. KS(A))
(He got a job at a bank when (lit. at the same time as) he grad-
uated from college.)
b. % & F % a t IHRCZ / *#Kl %ED-A7F@J1BlkLIc0 (cf. EX.@))
(We heard the shot and saw one of the policemen fall. (lit. One
of the policemen fell at the same time as the sound of a gun.))
Note also that to torno ni is usually used in written language.
(6to tomo ni)
Noun
be^ fwa(aw
% ~ u t + % m > a . t ,3% 2 5 . t $so
(B)
Adj .inf
Lei 3 3
b>k, ftL~\ & iH~bi&/v~b~a.t~b.
I (No, although people may say that I'm busy, I do not work on week- 1
I ends, so . . .) I
(i) N kS7Tb
+?,Lev
%& 2 S7 T & (although (I) say, "teacher")
{ k (although(I)saythatitis/was
quiet)
?&
&
j / @&7?9 ?:I k S- T & (although (I) say that s.0. is / was
ill)
aE!mmD
PLfF-3 -4 ItJ
(a) & i387?o Ljt)lL, 38 k B 9 T & Z02ikt37?%b~0
(It's already March. But even though I say, "March," it is still cold
around here.)
:tail frx
(b) xl&Lkb&3l?$3%b1~-ifk~ & 6 6 t Y , 5 b > k B 3 T & h f ( t T - $
7Fo
(Prof. Yarnazaki is still young. Of course, even though I said, "young,"
he is in his fifties (lit. he is in his fifties, though).)
(c) &37$!,9$3
~L k 0 k S = T & I $ - l- GtYT-iffF0
(I've found a job. Well, although I said, "job," it is a part-time job (lit.
it is a part-time job, though).)
6L;< E
(d) A: % ~ B ~ % G ~ Y LTi L ?
(You know Korean, right?)
1: hLx.4. S i 3
B: b.9, & q T b a & k g 3 T & I ~ $&LI:I?~~
@ T$$L;%L?zz
kt;f:&IIa*&,
(No, even though people say that I know it, my knowledge is
limited because I studied it only two years.)
~$~stY~~+T;3T<fi&?iT-ifk0
(I
heard that Mr. Tsujimura will help us.)
); 2L lf *L
T&, ~(ZqT<fihakg~T&*b~@b~ a I ,% B P L L ~ ~
(But, even though he says that he will help us, it will probably be
for a couple of hours at most.)
&O+ii?&b>T-ifk,,
(That boy is strong, you know.)
L~?atrw
LIP, $&bat: f 4T-5k.
Sq T &1~7j.;3r4\
toitterno 477
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(A)
1 (He shook his head as if to say that there was no way out.)
(Ihave been informed that Mr. Kawarnura cannot come. (lit. I have
been informed in such a way that I understand that Mr. Kawarnura can-
not come.))
( i ) Sinf kb\jEkC:
:L htf 6.6.
B-3I
:2 b>iEkC:4Q+Qkk (So. held his head in such a fashion as
to suggest that he didn't know what to do.)
(ii) X C i A, Y C i B 2 b~ &K 7
I f 3 l 5 t* 9. L 3 V
angaiav7/, A E ~ B ~ ; ~ : T Y j ~X~ ~
c g~+>i a & ' $ ~ y x Y - n f b j
a, (Yoshiko has a lesson every day-piano on Monday, dance on
Tuesday, and so on.)
elated Expression]
To iu y6ni can replace to iu fir ni without changing the meaning of a dis-
course.
[I] a. 4ECiFi L d r i % i F s b a t ~ \ i{ I / & i I C~E%$EQ~'Z~
(=KS(A))
-
baTb>ao
(=KS(B))
1 iC&5b>&5L1
+Key Sentences
(A)
Sinf Sinf
Tf-3 b? I
~7~ kbljz2ii f,g~kh5~0g&~ii1/1~1/l
2 1/15 z 2 7Z0
(The fact that the letter came back means that she no longer lives at this
address.)
Sinf
f C * l Z i 3 , L ~ 4LSi-3
21/19 Z 2 C2
B~'B~HCZE~*S%%%L~L\&L\
Sinf
$k~s*~&&-if~,&%1/> O& -
-
-
-
'TI
-
-
-
-
-
(The fact that he is not studying Japanese seriously means that he is not -=
-
serious about working in Japan.)
482 to iu koto wa
(g) jfk%$-h"kik
vl-d 'la Frs
% C L $ - C ~k~b& Z kc: GS ~ f z o E 6
l i t ~ c ~ @ ~ & Qb %
3,
(The fact that he is attending the class every day probably means that
he has decided to continue studying.)
[Related Expression]
Koto also changes a sentence into a noun clause. The difference between S
to iu koto and S koto is that the former is used when S represents a concept
rather than a fact (e.g., KS(A)) or when the speaker / writer views the con-
crete content of S at a conceptual level (e.g., KS(B) and (C)).On the other
hand, S koto is used when S represents a fact (or something nearly factual)
and the speaker / writer views it at a concrete level. The following examples
illustrate this point.
First, S koto cannot be used when S is unlikely to happen. In this case, S to
iu koto is used, as in [I].
Fourth, when verbs like kanjiru 'feel' and y6kyijsuru 'request; demand' are
484 to iu koto wa / to iu noni
used, the content of S should be concrete. In this case, S koto is used, as in
VI.
[5] a. @ J i ~ d ; <h b l Z k f l W Z U , 3 9 & 6 {0l*tL\iI L ~ % % c
5,
(I feel that something bad is happening.)
bfibh Leljti LcYw L i be3
b. &&b24fEfl%%T& { 0 / * t C \ 3 1 L t % E % L f = ,
(We demanded that the president apologize to us.)
However, as in [6], with verbs like tsutaenr 'convey; tell' and kiku 'hear; lis-
ten' both S to iu koto and S koto can be used because the content of S can be
either conceptual or concrete.
7C
[6] a. ?&7FZa)%317 G:%t?-ba I t L \ 3 /01 L t %ktLhKiZXf;,
(I told everybody that he would not come to this meeting.)
b. ? & f l Z @ % b9 1:%hb\ I t ~ \ /@I
3 Lt%W~\fc,
(I heard that he would not come to this meeting.)
(+koto2 (DBJG: 193-96))
to iu noni 2 L \ 5 U l CC conj.
+ ~ Sentence
e ~
1 Subordinate Clause 1 I
Sinf
hEf: 5a )
itfixtr
a tzangw,
I (It is April, but still chilly (lit. cold on the skin).)
I
to iu noni 485
mm!mD
Sinf k ba i 0 b:
rL *
b>b.X%j? 2 bb 5 0K (although it is a fine day)
%&& k L.3 5 Q:t (although someone is coming)
kk7'f k b>i a)b: (although it is a waste)
gts ba k b.5 a)1: (although it is dangerous)
(Your teacher kindly loaned a book to you, but you haven't read it?)
9 3 LTLI>&
%<*V VLIr'
~&b&&Ekb>j Dl:, $&b>b:S$& ho
(Students are said to be poor, but they are driving around in pretty good
cars, aren't they?)
486 to iu noni
All the Sinf to iu noni in KS and Exs can be replaced by Sinf noni without
changing the essential meaning, because both of them express the meaning
of 'although.'
tion is not fully expressed as in [2a], the use of Sinf to iu noni becomes mar-
ginal. In [2b] in which ample information is given to make the contrast clear,
to iu noni becomes acceptable.
SL* 61bZ
b. q & $ t ~ o , g ~ ~ k ; e & tarha
a ~cocz/ t : ~ \ j a t z }ts
+G+BStb'J~,
(He is the son of a man of property, and he has money more
than he can use, but he does not part with it readily.)
I
+
preting, explaining, or defining a
word, a phrase, or a sentence
~ Sentences
e ~
I -
what means is
[REL.to iu koto wa]
Noun Noun
I Sinf
(2~15) ZkE0
(Ashi ga dem (lit. a foot sticks out) means that an expense exceeds the
amount budgeted.)
Sinf
-
r%&&;h,%k%~J
2b>j a ) l i
Sinf
C r i 7
1asX~dr:i&1Sir;~ac
~:fifaa 2 w j 22 rz0
(Sam mo ki kara ochim (lit. even monkeys fall from trees) means that
even a skillful person sometimes makes a mistake.)
-
(liili3~Fkf-C:) h 8 Z k tf (- means 'to become skillful in st.')
( v ) {VP/APIS]inf k b 2 j Z k l f
%ld.b:#C;f'd.9 % & T ~ & % F L h b l k b l Zi k t f (-means that one
sees only details and does not see the whole)
7 4 ?J- k b l j a)i&kX$&9Tb~8($02k E 0
(Maikii (lit. my car) means a car owned by an individual.)
iSCIII*if< f9:i I*v
h $22 b l j 0 ~ & & ~ % & 1 $ t S b l ~ $ 2 @ CZ: ~k872,
(Uraguchi-nyiigaku (lit. entering school through the back door) means
to enter a school without taking an entrance exam.)
(Kuchi ga karui (lit. one's mouth is light) means easily telling others
things one shouldn't.) -
=
-
-
- -
-
--
-
-
bI7 Lt 3 1tLrSL.ld.L*
?$$%#&A kba j a > i & b > b r 7 4 7 47 % & + j k L T - & b + f ;
i
&(kblj)Zktfo
(Atama o shiboru (lit. squeeze one's head) means to think hard to get
good ideas.)
( H a m yori dango (lit. dumplings rather than blossoms) means that edi-
ble dumplings are better than pretty but inedible blossoms; i.e., one
should take substance over appearance.)
B. ? J 4 ; 5 ? 7 7 ?
(What's karaoke?)
(Related ~ x ~ r e s s i o n ]
X to iu koto wa Y to iu koto da also means that X means Y. However, this
structure is used to provide an interpretation of a fact (or something nearly
factual), and is not used to provide a definition, an explanation, or an inter-
pretation of a word, a phrase, or a sentence. Thus, to iu koto wa is acceptable
in [I], but not in [2], and to iu no wa is acceptable in [2], but not in [I].
492 to iu no wa - koto da / to iu to
- -
when mention; if say that
which so. has mentioned causes -
-; when say that -; when it
comes to
-
- [REL. to ieba]
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
Noun
927925x2 5 2, ;&,O?T-JIL?S-%%~)&T~
t 1
I I I
Sentence
(It sounds impressive when I say that I can speak Japanese, but the fact
is that all I can do is exchange simple greetings.)
ammm
(i) N 223 2
Rdrl*
El@ I: S j I: (when it comes to Nagasaki)
(ii) Sinf I: S j I:
V i *
%?el9 7: 2 S j I: (if I say that I've bought a house)
Ffi * %S
If1) 2 S j 2 , $Tba9%b:1&,0~7
~ rlI$~,s,,I/\&d\<&j',',;5
3,
(When someone mentions Paris, the (lit. that) Eiffel Tower is the fist
thing likely to come to everyone's mind.)
t*? P" p E 6 h k Lw', dr<ebb t Frx
% & I : z 5 2 , +%El%#% L?:Y&%R??#Rb~LtlTo
(When it comes to judo, I remember my school days when I used to
practice it every day.)
dr
dm I:Si 2 & & K t & x b ;bj&lr, & k L ~ i ; t i j k L ~ % ~ ~ ~ a ) ~ f ~
(Some people ridicule comics (lit. Some people despise you when you
mention comics), but comics are interesting in their own way.)
t 5 fib,?? bfiL Xk $ 1 5
I:%+F i : ~ z ; i & ~$ L, L . B
R%+I:s~
fig 7CV1 c ~~
~ ~~~S&L
&w:9
wnfi
(It sounds great when I say that I am a graduate of the University of
Tokyo, but I was (in fact) a poor student who didn't study at all.)
+il I % k 3
(el &'~EQ&&~zk ~ k %i % $ b l b l / v ~ ~j~llib~.%llib~%+@
s, ~ * b k ~ t ~
LTTdr,
(It sounds good when he says that he quit his company, but the truth of
the matter is that he was fired (lit. was made to quit).)
[2] A: $, +~'J~~'J>X=I$>L;~%$&T~~&/~TT~
(I have a friend from San Francisco visiting me now.)
to iu to / to iu yori (wa) 495
(Speaking of San Francisco, I heard that Mr. Tanaka is going to
be transferred there.)
It should also be noted that to ieba cannot be used to question the meaning
of a word or phrase, as in Note 2.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
I (One should say that sake drinks him rather than he drinks sake.)
I
-
(When I talk with him I feel that unilaterally I am forced to listen to his
talk rather than being engaged in conversation.)
+L@U+,Lf?kbajk b , 6~ 5 f , % O % . h . ' $ L ~ d-C&l:A,T-itif.
.lf
(It's more of a case of her having invited herself than me having
invited her.)
+Key Sentence
(Mr. Takagi didn't show up at the party, saying something like he was
going to make a business trip to Osaka.)
-
-
-
-
-
Te
-
--
- k %+& < 2 s
#a:?
(b)
W C L
(a) kAD+'rfflbrfk4a>$52
T (saying something like s.0. is going to Japan)
~ @ P ITcj Gb3 2 iPT (saying something like the school is boring)
-
(The 4th-year Japanese class has been cancelled for some reason like
the enrollment was low.)
P7C/uKL if v17 t v il
i i $ f i i ~ ~ ~ ~ i :2 2k>&~&~ *K~ S: ~wZ : ~
I
(e) , B
(Tamura was arrested by the police allegedly because he happened to
be at the scene of the murder or something like that.)
2. Since toka de is used to express what the speaker / writer has heard
from someone as a reason for an action / state, the subject cannot be the
speaker 1writer himself.
(1) { 7 3 > / * * L / * & * t ~ l i i & g s & & 2 * ~ % f i i : q ? * & b ~ ~
(John / *I / *You will not go see the movie, saying something
like he has things to do.)
Toka de and kara /node are crucially different in that the former is used to
express an uncertain hearsay reason; whereas the latter two conjunctions for
reason / cause have nothing to do with hearsay. Therefore in (1) above kara /
node can be used regardless of the person (i.e., the first person or the third
-
+~z
=4-
person) of the subject, as shown in [I].
[l] (73> / a /
&&t;) biBPfl&& {A3% / D T ) %@i:6*,-8b~o
(cf. (1))
(Because {John has / I have / you have) work to do he / I / you
won't go see a movie.)
(+kara3(DBJG: 179-81); node (DBJG: 328-31))
500 tokoro
when; then
express the idea that when S.O. did [REL. -tam]
+Key Sentence
to
S%ri
8EEC=%AT&f: k Z 3 , *&%T$I3&$T <
;kk,
(When I asked my boss (lit. department chief), he was glad to do it.)
thl;'3 go
fjigC:%Lf:k Z 5 , LCf 6 < ~ ~ S W C C ~ L ~ ~ ~ % C I ~ :
(When I told one of my friends (about that), he said he would like to
think (lit. would like me to let him think) (about it) for a while.)
+AX& IfA
~ ~ L Z T T C : & W ~ : ~L~I ~: ~~z A6 C
, &%:k
G- &;kf:, <
(When I published a book of the papers that I had written (lit. till this
time), it sold unexpectedly well.)
Ut Dcri " d.
AMJ@ 6;k-c 3 ~ Q ~ I2 I 3:, g z ~ t d ~ w zmk&bQ
a
f: ,
(I started yoga because someone recommended it; then, I realized it
had a great effect.)
tokOf0 501
Clj*/u
Z%C99%g TS9f:k Z 6 , % b & & & k : a 9 ~ ' g b W &
(I'm surprised that what I said as a joke had unexpected consequences'
(lit. that when I said it as a joke, it brought about an unexpected
result).)
L Zt SriA
?o~~$c:B!@D&~!$, g g % & L f : k 2 6 , -~cG:=B Lkblk
0 2 & f l & 9k,
(When I wrote to them saying that I was interested in the job, I got a
letter immediately saying they wanted to interview me.)
V tam (i.e., Vinf-past ra) can be used in place of Vinf .past tokoro, as in [I].
However, V tokom is more formal than V tara and is usually used in formal
speech and writing, while V tam is used in both formal and informal lan-
guage.
It is noted that V tara does not have the restrictions listed in Notes 1, 2, and
3. Thus, the following sentences are all acceptable.
-
(+ tara (DBJG: 452-57))
tokoro ga 503
however; but
present what in fact happened or [REL. daga; keredo(m0); shikashi;
what is in fact the case when sore gal
*Key Sentences
Sentence,
t Z67F, 7?&9rz77<iLrz0
b
( i ) Slo t L S $ , Szo (SeeKS(A).)
(ii) A: Slo
B: k L 5 j5', Sz, (See KS(B).)
azmm
2 2 5 5 , b%
W:L ttn
+ ~ c r ) $ ~ t i 171 215 t:~la83;kbla%&eE~~~at:~
-%QT9g&tztzQbli ~ ~ : 3 j k b ~ t : ~ j k T ~ 3 ~ ? z ,
(My daughter was speaking beautiful English when she was in Amer-
ica. However, she forgot it completely within a year (lit. even before
one year elapsed) after we came back to Japan.)
~mjnb. t h r v
~%@b&t:*%a%&Dg;k$&& k 3 *L*L
cr)T&-3
b
T & k 0 t z 5$,
? c r ) % & i & ~ % ~ ~ ? + T ? ~ % % 9 T b ~ & D ~ ~a&@%9 %
k 0@ b
(Because I heard that there was going to be a lecture by a famous pro-
fessor from Japan, I went (to listen to it). However, his English was so
bad that I didn't understand what he was saying at all.)
bCL f r i
Z06,
% ~ i i ~ ~ g i : & $ d ~ ~ i & b l i y a b l k % k kbzz h~ st z, ~
C d.L?l
%BBEJBb:fT9-C&&
!J k%&bi3.&~b~,@-3.~
(Our teacher repeatedly told us that we mustn't be late for his class.
However, when I went to his class on time the next day, he was not yet
there.)
7211fi+&jkt2bi< r ; ~ & & % i i b j & k s ; h ; k t : ~t z 3 s , ST&
& k 7 % ~ 1 5 5 b i ~ k ' ~ ~ ~ ~ & ~ ~ b i Q ; 5 ~ ~ 1 : ,
(I was told that if I came to America, there would be a lot of jobs.
However, when I came, there were no jobs anywhere because of the
depression.)
7 %11 ~ S T ~ ~~ D ~ &~L TF&V I &t , ~ ~ H s Z ~ ,- W C ~ $ I ~ ~ T
(In America you push a saw in order to cut; however, in Japan you pull
one to cut.)
f &If&
A: C l D ~ \ . - Y l . - , $ $ b S T < h & ; l a o [malespeech]
(You can come to tonight's party, too, can't you?)
tokoro ga 505
B: <
k Z 3 -h', &b>b: fTCf Qbr 0 , [female speech]
(No, I'm afraid I can't.)
(g) A: %&&I&& L 7 b 1 6 /t IC" L d: 5 ? [female or polite male speech]
(She is married, isn't she?)
B: ? i k f b I C " ~i~? k Z 3 7 1 ' , UP-+->^,
[female speech]
(She looks like it, doesn't she? But I heard that she's still single.)
[I] El$&o)?l[lbC:%3 0 1 : b ~ k , B , ~ U ~ k @ B 3 k LI I :t E
~3fJf/
f;"# / /CfhZS/ L h ' L l , BSkL7':dECi%&f?91:,
(=KS(A)) -
=
- -
-
However, daga, keredo(mo), and shikashi cannot replace tokoro ga l 3
-
-
when "Tokoro ga, S" is a reply to a question, as in [2].
Tokoro ga, on the other hand, cannot be used when the situation does
not involve unexpectedness, as in [3].
506 tokoro ga
c: ZZD$&L.~, If;*fl//CthZ&/L.t>L/*&L3fl}2
+J
kkE! L b l 0
(It's cold here in winter. But it's cool in summer.)
(edaga; keredomo (DBJG: 187-88))
11. Sore ga is also used when the speaker is going to provide an unex-
pected response to a question. In fact, tokoro ga in such situations can
be replaced by sore ga, as in [4].
However, unlike tokoro ga, sore ga can be used when the second
speaker is not sure what the first speaker expects to hear in the second
speaker's response. For example, in [5]sore ga can be used even when
B is not sure what A expects, while tokoro ga can be used only when B
knows that A expects a good result. (+sore ga)
B: I?h.tf/tL3tr'I I ? d l . ~ I z L I ? ,
((Well, you might expect a good result but 1Contrary to
what you expect) it was no good.)
torno 2% conj. <w>
-
no matter may be; even if; at
that is used to express a concession - -est
[REL. te mo; tatte]
+Key Sentences
Wh-word Vvol
-rLSri
b:<@G&Ll:i3>1;, &El: A W&ifjsi idr5
fib, t k i b :
t B AXkRo
(Since I studied hard I feel confident no matter what problem shows up
on the test.)
(No matter how busy she was with housekeeping, my mother never
uttered a single complaint.)
1 (No matter how healthy you are, you should have a checkup once a year.) 1
(Dl
ZD7"U?r? bt&
(At the latest, this project will be complete in April of next year.)
Wh-word + Vvol 2 b
F Z .c\& Z j 2 b (no matter where s.0. may go)
$2 k L52b (no matter what s.0. may eat)
h6 5 2 b (no matter what may happen)
Wh-word + Adj(i)stem < / ;5.l 9 I 2b
{ ~ \ ; ~ . G : / ~ ~ A J Q c : I %{ <L / ~ S j 2l % (nomatterhow
difficult s.t. may be)
Wh-word + Adj(na)stem Ti3 6 5 2 b
{b\fib:/FAJQG:l & 3 ~ & 5 i k b (nomatterhowmuchs.~.
likes s.t.)
Adj(i)stem <2b
<2b (at the earliest)
66
&ist i t ~ 1 3 i t F B Lt - c ~ J ~ ~
~ t $ ~ @1
(My father is always very calm no matter what is impending.)
bf;L+brr
$L~W%OFZC:&~ t b z i % j ~ c & b ~ ~ \ ,
(I do not care at all where in the world I live.)
I/u'.~BL?lt.lr~
Z - X W ~ L Li 2 6 , %&ti:% 3L;&-c~~~>vQL>,
(Even if by any chance you fail you shouldn't give up easily.)
torno 509
(No matter how cheap merchandise may be, if the quality is poor, you
will end up throwing away money.)
C*? rl.
&.nf+aar < / s 6 i I 2 6, E&&LL+z~cA~~
(Even without enough money we should be able to enjoy life.)
rtvac:W.n.'&s~bjs
5 2 6, ~@O-??I?F~A;~~L->TE~
(No matter how much one may like exercise, too much of it is bad.)
< 1;&w< 2 ~ a - a ~ a ; h i t ~ : ~ i ~ + a ~ ~
z0F&iibja7~m1
(I cannot let you read this letter, no matter how much you want to read
it.)
v3hl. $v%w L.33~5
%cab < 2 6--+1=3~~im 2Ld.b.
ffi GQL - C ~ ~ - ~ T ~
(I make business trips abroad at least three times a year.)
become
that s.0. or s.t. becomes s.t.
+Key Sentence
Noun
I I
(After the war, (the period of) compulsory education was changed to
(lit. became) nine years.)
I -:A VITST,~ I a a
?tbak%bi%@~mhk~kh9r:~
(Their marriage ended in tragedy (lit. became a tragic result).)
d.h LJ~: ht*iSA ti SW
mi mi^+ a-mn2 a 7:.
(For lack of evidence, he was found (lit. became) innocent.)
-f-ag$ti%aa,fi3+X2
tb9rZa
(The game was cancelled (lit. became a cancellation) due to rain.)
mmm
1. To naru is similar in meaning to ni naru. To naru, however, is more
formal and is used exclusively in written language.
512 tonaru / tonaruto
-
-
(B)
==
T
-
-
-
- Sinf
=
d.h r -fi
I$@P67:,T<h * L \ 2 Q & lr %&t3-n~~X&$b ~ j j l a b 1 ~
(If it's true that he is not going to help us, we'll have no alternative but
to ask someone else.)
( i ) N lr'tsb2
%&2 b lr (when it comes to movies)
tonamto 513
%i~-r;c7/~2ab2~;3"&b=~~di.
(When it comes to gambling, Tsutomu becomes another person.)
+ ?Y<LP
b % & & k a + + y g ~kr$a&aw a bli~;r;;k-c{b o
(When it comes to scientists who can speak Japanese, the number is
quite limited.)
&&32aa 2%aboiiaw,
(Nothing is easy (lit. There is nothing easy) when it comes to work.)
*La a*
q~t&$i~3tb~l2
2aCaO I- ~
; P U Y ~ ~ i g ; i ~ ~ ~ - ~ j t ~
'J'O
(If it turns out that he cannot participate (in this project), we'll'have to
reconsider it.)
V kl lfb%+( -A:?
2 Q a 2 z oMmti@ZL a bjkLG2-aI; a b 1 ,
?!%-nihtLf:
(If it is true that the secret (of this plan) has leaked, we must change it.)
~fi$%wt-k~~b
Ll lr.)
2 k k ~ ~b@bb?f6i0
~ ~ ' a
I v z r 4 t i LL
-
(If he turns out to be the new president, the management policy will
probably be considerably different.)
L'to It?: ' ti...\L
z o.tt~tiR&i c:A;ia$, -nwa 2 a a 2 i&hz~f,
(This job looks easy, but if (it is the case that) you do it by yourself, it
will be quite tough.)
-
-
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
(4
Q-x%l LL
(I did it as the manual shows (lit. in the same way as the manual), but
it didn't work.)
(Please move your body as I tell you to (lit. in the same way as I tell
Y 0~1.)
(C)
Vinf
d .b +%L VSliLd3
Vinf
.t +i
#&c~JP~&.II 9BLf; 3 9 f?-k0
1 . X tori means either that someone does something in the same way as X
(e.g., KS(A) and (B)) [manner], or that something agrees with X (e.g.,
KS(C) and (D)) [concordance]. In the first case, the particle ni may fol-
low tori, but in the second case, no particle follows, as in (1).
ten (ni) 51 7
b. z k t ~ & % ~ (=3203
u r) ) O ~ ~ T T ,
(This is a scheduled activity (lit. an activity which is the
same as we scheduled).)
e elated Expression]
In some contexts, yoni, the adverb form of y6da, also expresses the idea "in
such a way." However, X yoni basically means that the way someone does
something or something takes place is like X, while X tori means that the
way someone does something or something takes place is the same as X.
Thus, in contexts where the way is practically the same as X, y6ni and t 6 i
are almost interchangeable; otherwise, they are not. In [I], for example, the
y6ni sentences and the t 6 i sentences mean practically the same thing, except
that the tori sentences stress "exactness."
(Assuming that we can drive 500 miles a day, how many days will it
take to get there?)
(0
Vinf past
-
(iii) Sinf .past 2 T 6
%'.(XP~% 1;9 I: 2 L d; 5 (Suppose you received Y1,000,000.)
$I 2 B El &$I? 2 Sht1.7': t 3- & (Let's suppose that you were told
you only had 100 days left to live.)
(a) T, w.t&El2%$RT
<i$Tw:i fr L
3 a % 0 t 3- & 0
(We let the units of the 9-week intensive Japanese course in summer
count for 6 units.)
(f) $&ld$3.5% t-ifa,
(Let the interest rate be 3.5 % anually.)
dl : i r k
(g) ~&3idc~o-a-a~~a"~e1:r&
t-ifa2 , H + Z Y - L \ % J P ~ ~ - C G ~
&;a?&$% Lt~hba,
(If we assume that the Japanese economy keeps going down as it is
now, the Japanese language boom may eventually come to an end.)
(h) H*&$? E%&a@jr: 2 T ~ L %%i,C ~ , qii 9 , &tX$sm@
2%L&7?5io
(If we assume that Japan is a country of groupism, then Europe and the
States can be said to be countries of individualism.)
1. The common meaning for all the uses of sun! in KS and Exs is the.
speaker's assumption about something. Vinfapast to suru is a hypotheti-
--I cal assumption. Excepting the cases where to sun! is used in the sense
T=
-
-- -
of 'regard as -,' practically all the uses of to suru can take both non-
past and past tenses.
The choice of the past tense over the non-past tense serves to indicate a
greater degree of hypothesis, because the past tense expresses s.t. as if a
I
given situation already existed.The similar contrast that is found in basic
-
grammar is hd ga ii as in (2).
(2) -$c {47</ E 9 k l %@WL
(You should /had better go there right away.)
2. In terms of the choice of particles there are three patterns for the N
(da / dearu) to sum structure: that is, N1 {ga / o / wa} NZ (da / deam)
to sum.
The most basic one is the ga-version, i.e., (3b) and it means 'Let's
assume that (not something else but) the temperature is constant.' In the
o-version, i.e., (3c), the original subject of (3b) has been changed to a
direct object o. The o-version translates into English as 'Let's assume
the temperature to be constant' in which the original subject has
changed to the direct object, just as in the Japanese version. In (3a) 'the
temperature' is presented as the topic of the sentence. The similar parti-
cle choice is observed in the omou construction.
c. QO@meEtBb>k,R5
believe the movie to be interesting.)
(I
Note also that in (3) the copula da can be dropped in (3a) and (3c), but
not in (3b).
I. Compare N to sum in [la] and [2a] and N ni sum in [lb] and [2b].
b. iEf2-2E3-5,
(We will make the temperature constant.)
8/rV+< h < C * 3
[2] a. - 1.'JbCZE k t P 3 2 3 - 6 .
(Let 1 dollar be Y360.)
b. -1.'~l.cEBk-tP3CcbB,
(We will make 1 dollar Y360.)
The choice of the particle ni indicates that the speaker causes the
change, whereas the choice of the particle to indicates that the speaker
simply assumes a certain state of the matter. So if the speaker cannot
make an assumption about something, the use of to is ungrammatical,
as shown in [3] and [4].
Z)JP AT
[3] ikQ* (E / * 2 1 3-5,
(We make ice into water.)
[41 IEEW~~~SJLB?%E.
? lt3=+
~ C / C* & I ~ 5 ,
(The wizard will change a frog into a prince.)
11. To sureba /sum to can be contrasted with to nareba / naru to, with dif-
ference of meaning. The former expresses an assumption, but the latter
expresses a reality, as shown in [5] and [6] below:
I 1 Sound Symbolism 1 1
I I
Sound Symbolism 2 $- b
~ bCJ lr f b (s.o. feels s.t. slippery)
la 9 t f b (s.o. feels relieved)
(a) W O % ~ O A G ~ n 1~ ~LTLIZ,,
) t: ~ ' F ~
(He has goggling eyes.)
*h *L
(b) 4iIil2EPrfb9 2 LTLlb,
(My older sister has slender legs.)
Sound-symbolical word + to sum is used to mean 'to look -' or 'to feel -.'
The sound-symbolical word (i.e., a phono-mime, pheno-mime and psycho-
mime) expresses sensory experience as in Exs.(a) - (c) or psychological
experience as in KS and Exs.(d) - (i). The following is an inexhaustive list
of such sound-symbolical words that take to sum.
Cb: T 7 2 -if& (to become limp) -if$>->2 -if& (to feel very refreshed)
L 9 lv 2 -if b (to feel despondent) Qlv 2 -if b (to look standoffish)
3 < 7 t-if b (to feel shocked) 3 L 7 2 -if& (to be startled)
e7 2 9-6 (to stay still) 196 u) 2 -if& (to be moved to tears)
F 3 7 2 -if b (to be startled) < 6 7 2 -if& (to feel dizzy)
?< 7 2 -if b (to shiver with cold) T 5 7 2 Tb (to feel refreshed)
Unlike the ones listed above, most of the sound symbolical words are based
on reduplication, that is, they take the form of X-X as in:
3 6 3 6 ((shine) sparklingly) Z 6 Z 6 ((small objects) roll)
to sutw2 / totan (ni) 525
Ilk I l l :
((large amount of liquid) drips) ah b ah b (slimy)
F< F< ((cut) a heavy, thick object) ;3.%;3.% ((freeze) hard)
L 2 L 2 ((it rains) quietly) -if b -if b ((slide) smoothly)
< <
& b ((turn) round and round) Z Z + +
((escape) secretly)
But all the sound symbolical words with reduplication cannot normally fit
into the to sun! pattern.
em3
(1) 42i;f% 5 I:,
b,%~:*,
-El ~ ~ 3 % ~ ~ ~ i P L - C b ~ l &
(Today all day long it was nice and warm like spring.)
(2) &a)%%ht;f€i15'6%6% LTL.~~,
(That woman's eyes are sparkling.)
:I 1% Lf L&
<
(I,) ? o ~ * ~ q g e ~ f z % % ( b : ) & & b : & b ~ f 2z 9 j z o
(I wanted to see my family the moment I saw that Japanese photo-
graph.)
totan (ni) 527
k l i C*i c/,S
(d) 2 : J * 2 1- %&L&AI%, %%I:% +0~4;ifl&kf:,
(The moment I put the plug in, all the lights went out in the house.)
(el
I*il:*i
+D+ ~ L % & A I ? ~ , ~~t:R&G+&LI:,
(As soon as I drank the milk, my stomach started to ache.)
(0 %*91:k,R91:o ?0&%(K),
(I thought I was saved; then (lit. at that moment), my strength was gone
and I lost consciousness.)
amw
1. In "V1 totan (ni) -
V2," V2 must represent an uncontrollable action,
although when the subject of V2 is the third person, a controllable verb
is acceptable. Compare KS(A) to (1). .
(1) a. *%Lli%&o)B%BI:iS$%, Zqkfl9,?:
(I stood up the moment I saw my teacher.)
b. $+i&%&0B%BI:%%, Z 6 W 9 I:o
(Yoko stood up the moment she saw her teacher.)
2. The demonstrative adjective sono 'that' can precede totan, as in Ex.(f).
The demonstrative adjectives kono and ano cannot be used before totan.
3. The particle ni is optional when totan is modified by a verb or by sono
'that.'
so elated Expression]
-
-
To dCji ni expresses an idea similar to totan (ni). For example, KS(A) and (B)
can be rephrased as in [I] without changing the meaning of the discourse
except that to d6ji ni focuses on simultaneous action and totan (ni) on sud-
denness.
528 totan (ni) / toto
TO d6ji ni, however, does not have the restriction described in Note 1, as seen
in [2].
[2] ?JJ;tfk&D@?? {IZQ t AeE / *JiZk%3, I Zt;k7F9 r:,
(I stood up when (lit. at the same time as) I saw my teacher.)
To doji ni can also express concurrent states, while totan (ni) is used only for
actions, as in [3].
& <:c
[31 &g9ts / *RRk%G(cz)l%&o%hkz
IRR5tArei~:
2a0
(A crowd can be seen in the distance and, at the same time, (sounds
of) drums can be heard.)
It should also be noted that to d6ji ni can be preceded by nouns and adjec-
tives while totan (ni) occurs only with verbs and the demonstrative sono
'that.'
(+to dciji ni)
tat6 I? 5 I? 5 adv.
+Key Sentence
I I
(It's been threatening to rain since the morning and finally it started to
rain. (lit. The rain which threatened to fall from the morning finally
started to fall.))
Wcit r, L T Cwi '
(a) %c&E%D,$,~ ~ & & t b b l T f : CL f Q&b$bf, k 5 k j#&,LG:tb
~-cL397?~
(My younger brother didn't take his doctor's advice and kept smoking
until he finally got lung cancer.)
1: I Z L r *Lev
(b) ~*ZSD%&i(r'gbG:%&~&7f:~lb,+?0$&ii25kiEl$%$
IS
%b1b:?'s9TL%9f:,
(Because his Japanese instructor was so strict the student eventually
came to hate the Japanese language.)
f %< b&PV ?/r ' d.L
(c) k i~ k~i ~%~b bbt,
+ ? D & Y D B ~ ~ % ~ ~ M & M ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ & ~
TL39f:o
(I wasn't able to solve the mathematical problem after spending many
hours on it, so I finally gave up.)
1. The adverb t6t6 is used to express that an expected situation has come
about after an extended period of time. The resulted situation is often
negative in nature, but not always, as shown in Exs.(g) and (h).
2. The main verb that is used with toto often takes Vte shimau, an auxil-
iary verb that indicates completion of something about which the
speaker is emotive. (+shimau (DBJG: 403-06))
I. Toto is crucially different from yatto in that the former often indicates a
negative situation that came about spontaneously, but the latter indi-
cates a positive situation that has been realized with the greatest efforts.
So, every toto in the KS and Exs. cannot be replaced by yatto, except
Exs.(g) and (h).
However, if the final verb is a verb that expresses s.t. positive that has
resulted by human efforts, then yatto can be used but not toto. Note that
the final verbs in [2a] and [Zb] are non-volitional verbs. If the verbs are
volitional as in [2af] and [2bf], both yatto and t6to become acceptable.
In this case yatto and tot6 indicate difficulty in the process and the
sense of accomplishment, respectively.
h56
[6] a. 3-r'J-di( 7 L \ t Z / t i t i / * T 7 t 1 1f--7i--K%
tx;rsj5x97L
(Cathy didn't show up at the party after all.)
532 t6t6 / to torno ni
Tsui ni focuses on the final moment, whereas t6t6 focuses on the process
that leads to the final moment, but in actual use they are virtually inter-
changeable.
+ ~ Sentences
e ~
1 b t L
ait
I
1 Lr<ll
ruolslagPi l t i t 3
I
I tm:
I
/ COY-FI:~ILC,
(D)
Noun
$2
T *<La
2%~: +$+gi~h&~f:~
(He was a philosopher as well as a scientist.)
N k#l:
* 3 f i CLCV
111EB%& 2 $$kc (as well as Mr. Yamada; with Mr. Yamada)
k*,L 1 <
8 % 2 # :G (at the same time as one's retirement)
?it? -.L+
%lED@lk2 #I: (with the climate change; as the climate changes)
Vinf .nonpast 2 # :b
g&
,w.xu3TI@$ & 2 # :C (as business recovers)
{N I Adj(na)stem} T 85 % 2 St;- :C
k&& 6 2 #b: (as well as being a doctor)
kg~i~t~
I b.BbT1
T & 6 2 &I.: (as well as being economical)
Adj(i)inf .nonpast 2 # :C
erin hd.
@Tki%?b> 2 Sttb: (as well as being interesting)
If.$ L') I < el *
~ 3 j J i i 6 @k#b?g@!aL2~lb?-%$7?~
(Atomic energy, as well as petroleum, is an important energy source.)
ZIPL
~ d k # b = . ' i s . Y b&flhu1'&91:,
(A jet flew off with a roaring sound.)
*w $ * 5 1%.l?L*W
&&pi! & C ~ ~k#b:kFf&
B#I
(The samurai class died with the feudal system.)
L*it L DtVt *+
$ $ % ~ # I L % L L2 ~7 ~k f l h &QB.;,I:,
(Severe inflation hit people when the war ended (lit. with the end of the
war).)
L7pIr517 P
%Aa>B@k#b:% % t f l T S 9 T 3 k ,
(As business is recovering (lit. With the recovery of business), the
unemployment rate is coming down.)
gQk&k#l:g&< a9T3k0
(As I get older, I am losing my hearing.)
325 . 7Z7S t7
n$;sr~+t:~t?&~~1+zfl~&~:M~;;s~b:a9~~~~
(As the investigation progressed, one new fact after another was
revealed.)
SLIfi P< Lw5 4L.325 f,T
2 E Q @ 8 - S a k#I:i&a>B S&$SkLTciGL;7'bb\,
(While you review grammar, you must not forget to study kanji.)
k i pICe7 *L 915
at&
%%o~;~.I~.?-$uHE~~Q & k#b:k~b~r;i.~b?-%Q~
-3-zk d & k T & a o
(It is urgent that we improve current energy utilization technology
while looking for a new energy source.)
r ~ h kltLe7~6 d.< * b T r i
?@%%tiBLB9T&& k#kC:f @ @ T & 9 k 0
(The discovery was revolutionary as well as constructive.)
am
The meaning of to torno ni changes depending on the sentence pattern and
context.
to tomo ni 535
When to tomo ni means 'as well as' [(I) in Note], it can be rephrased
as to onajiku or to narande.
[I] X5'47/';.r3C&-< 7731.4 {t#CZ/ t W C < / 2 % ~
TI 7 2 '1 3 C%&~%?ZO-A~?~(=KS(A))
When to tomo ni means 'with ; along with' [(2) in Note], it can be
rephrased as to issho ni.
(=KS(B))
Note, however, that to issho ni is more colloquial than to tomo ni. -
-
=
-
=
.
When to tom0 ni means 'as' [(3) and (4) in Note], it can be rephrased
as ni tsurete, ni tomonatte, or ni shitagatte.
L. btr
r
131 E a m a ME / C Z ~/ E~~ TT ~C ? ~T? ~ T I ~m
7'FF'7'F7 T 3 k0 (=Ex.(e))
141 %%PH@?6 I t # E / K C 9 7 / CZ7hT / 6 # 9 T } &
%% h it T 3 f: (=KS(C))
(+ni shitagattelshitagai; ni tsureteltsure)
536 to wa kagiranai
(It is not necessarily the case that people are good at Japanese because
they have lived in Japan a long time.)
to wa kagiranai 537
@)
Sinf
Sconc
E l El$ZWk%t:?26 2 CiPEI;Gb>,
I Sinf
I
Scond
I I
(You will not (lit. cannot) necessarily be happy if you have money.)
%p-?<z97:% 2g9T?&pz~bl2ii~Ebab>~
(It is not necessarily correct just because the teacher said so.)
<to
d ~ & ~ ~ f i b ba h <
k ~g : ~M ~F ~E ~ ~ w ~
(You do not necessarily get better because you take medicine.)
gwd:< T %A&C:E%T~ t: i m b a ~ > ~
hf;t Ch,*b% *LIZ5
(You do not necessarily succeed in your life even if you are smart.)
C=I)*< L= F r i
%LbF&9T%* %Lab>2iiPEbabao
(It is not necessarily true that you won't lose your job even if you have
ability.)
x+ T V d ~ L$ 2 5 .FC
Eblz~~%C:~Tifa~~~ b~~
2 iiFEb ~l:aa
able
(It is not necessarily true that children become bad if they grow up in a
bad family environment.)
L *!-.
E!%97Fl: <
3 ~ . & & i f b l b @ & F & f 2 CiRb a b > ,
(It is not necessarily true that you can write a good paper if you have a
lot of time.)
tsumari 9% 6J adv.
NP Noun
fi2L Ifii Stit: %W$L 0 Z L
$LOBO%, 934, kk 7WiZ%&L7L
(My mother's younger brother, that is to say, my uncle, has recently
divorced.)
hb .t L
B: t j Ria, b a b a Y n ' i r 3 bl.k,F,,i I f i f , 7.$$if,i &ia;i,
(Well, I think it's a fine project, but you know how the budget is.)
A. 9 3 9 , t t ) j f f a b > k b > j Z k T f i a ,
(In short, we cannot do it, right?)
ZZh*
(dl ~ ~ ~ ~ m i t P a r r & ~ u > & U cs&aame*c:
1: l%L
r2a&~,
j+a9-cw0-3 v , x ~ $ % k b > , zi k r z ,
(Japanese fathers leave home while their children are still asleep and
come home after they have gone to sleep. This is, in short, an absence
of fathers.)
(e) A: f$g, % 7 & b l K & - 9 ~ & ,$ 3 O ~ L < Tf L a b l h T T l o
(I go to see her, but she doesn't talk much to me, you know.)
B: t m , 9 3 !I, E o z 2 ; 3 ' & b a a t v r z ~ ~
(That means, she doesn't like you.)
1. The adverb tsumari is used when the speaker / writer wants to summa-
rize or rephrase s.t. that has been mentioned / stated in the preceding
discourse.
2. Tsumari is often used in tsumari - to iu koto da as in KS(A),
Exs.(a) - (d) and (i).
3. Tsumari can be used to rephrase the preceding noun phrase as in KS(B)
and Exs.(f), (g) and (h).
(Related ~x~ressions]
I. Tsumari can be replaced by sunawachi 'namely' in all the examples
except Exs.(c), (e) and (i) where tsumari is used to summarize what the
conversational partner has said.
(=Ex.(e)) ST;
=
! (A)
i -
tvhi
emm~c: C*iL*i
Vrnasu
+?.$A
L 9 ha,
1 (A typhoon is approaching Kyushu.)
1 - -
('3
quit.)
Vrnasu 99
ti l
EL ~ C9
J (while thinking)
(a) Y j r , ~ l i ~ $ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ v ~ & ~ 9 ~ ; t i a o
(The new headquarters building is drawing to completion.)
(b) 7? 11 2 V Y 7@h%v&&99&ao
(The Olympic facilities are being completed.)
544 tsutsu
(Although I was thinking that I had to write the paper soon, I watched
TV today, too.)
biL $3 I323 VL wt
(g) ~ L ~ . ~ ; X O & + b%9 %
9 % Ri:3,b~7Zo
(I humed to the hospital hoping that my father was all right.)
d.h 2*. - C XI* d'<*=
(h) j ~ i a t @ a ~ ~ m q ~ t:;B 5Y #' L2 ~~~ Z ~ Q~ ) ~& Q & ~ I : ~
(He died while insisting until the last moment that his theory was
correct.)
3. Tsutsu is not used to describe such everyday actions as those in (2) and
(3).
(2) a. ??$LC&$,$~*%%;439(8~,
(I'm eating my dinner.)
tsutsu 545
b. ? ? 7 47di+, &BcZ%&BfJ31f77&Zi0
(Dave is calling his friend now.)
(3) a. ??$LF~,~V--IL~&ATTYLC~W,I:.
(I watched TV while drinking beer.)
b. ? ? & % b i 3 3 7 7 7 . f ~ 311 -4 B&eTb\b,
(Taro is eating ice cream while walking.)
4. The auxiliary verb iru cannot precede tsutsu, as in (4).
O k Z
c. :,w.Pbs'i+,fir;.it&Pe I L / * L ~ L \ 77,
I -8 6%
,p
n B=
~;h;fbb\~
(Even though she does (lit. is doing) that much work every
day, she doesn't complain a bit.)
I. The auxiliary verb iru also expresses an action in progress. However, iru
cannot be used with punctual verbs and movement verbs to express an
action in progress, as in [I]. In this case, tsutsu is used, as in [2].
[I] a. $&~&F&L\TL\Q,
(The (stage) curtain is up (lit. open). / *The (stage) curtain
is opening.)
QLXL ' JLkG (E **
b. %~bih53BOBlbc!M~7~\~~
(The refugees are back in their own country. /*The
refugees are returning to their own country.)
[2] a. %&~%$&ild77i+,b0
(The (stage) curtain is going up.)
b. %El2$%~D~CZ!Jfl~177i+,Q0
(The refugees are returning to their country.)
(+inr2 (DBJG: 155-57))
II. Nagara also expresses concurrent actions by one person. Thus, nagara
and tsutsu in this use are interchangeable, as in [3].
a 0
(no) ue de LP
(0) comp. prt.
-
upon -; after
express a preparatory action for a [REL. te kara]
+Key Sentences
Vinf .past
k < >7?L3T0
1 (I will reply upon careful consideration.) 1
-
Noun
1
I (I would like to draw a conclusion after discussion.)
I
( i ) Vinf.past kT
&/v??k?l(upon
" reading)
If/uS*i
@f% L ?zkT (upon conducting research)
(ii) NokT
L
k!&a)k'~;(after investigation)
%&o~T (after discussion)
(b) $ 3 4 L~ k l T , L S l *m
& % O ~ L S9 3 ; ~ E L L ~ ' ~ I 1s;~L7'sb>,
L~;P?~
(We have to prove the correctness of the theory after conducting an
experiment.)
C ItLJLdr< L a i L hLJ/r fivb<
(c) EIACZYOX:X ~ ~ % ~ # L I : _ B
~ ~T P, * o w H Q . ~ ~ &LL:~
~,
(I decided the topic of my M.A. thesis after consulting with Japanese
literature Professor Smith.)
b,3hL+L:5 Sb,
(d) T i 2 2 b&&&@ L T , --+BL72RLl:kT, !&i&~:&&
Ia L
7: ,
(I decided to get married after meeting her through an arranged match
and dating her for one year.)
Vte kara is close in meaning to Vinf .past ue de, in that both express two
actions in sequence. In fact, all the KS and Exs. can be rephrased using Vte
kara, as long as the verbs are volitional. See Note 2.
550 (no) ue de
(Besides the fact that this movie has an interesting storyline, the cast is
good.)
(B)
1 Topic I
I I I
Topic Noun
aotr - r&b&
(Em 7 9 ;/xs-h' S
BEl a k(K) ,\'I) 1:Lbfr; <&/v~bV:$r;,
7 9 ;/2$573~4949f~,
%Ksr/vl~%src:&%sk~f:k(~:)~~zt:X-f:~
(Not only was Mr. Yoshioka divorced by his wife, he also (lit. even)
lost his job.)
h*L t L
+LWQ
2 --Cw&k(b:)&b:&%$ a b a o ) T , h@Gd$k$flR3jil'
bakao
(Because I am not only old but also have no special skills, it is hard to
find a job.)
(63 i L r i
<
~ a > $ l A & l $ f l ~ ~ b ~ k ( G : ) ~ ~ i t r f b ~ b ~ o ) T ,bc &kL-Cba&,
(This car sells well because (besides the fact that) it seldom needs
repairs (lit. seldom has trouble) and furthermore it gets good mileage.)
E
%071+- & o a ~ ( i = ) L I<~+hfi&:,& OT. .d#s r ~ & % ,
g-ch b? ~ ~ % f l t c b ~ ,
(Besides being small, my apartment has a lot of furniture, so there is no
space for guests to sleep when they come.)
%LO7 1 f - 1. iA$&b:g$~7'sk(t:)&gflgba~
(My apartment is convenient for commuting to work and, furthermore,
the rent is inexpensive.)
:f W r C A C k 3 hL
H+%&ii&kZflk%Ck(b:)%&O@@JQ
3.e LIZ 3-1. *(CW
1 R&jil'b, 2 T
* A P ~
< $x
&7Fi&,&.
-
(Ms. Tanaka is very popular because she is good not only at teaching
but also at taking care of her students.)
%&kt%P- P$ET%~f:%, 9
ti I h A b r
%%%o)L(b:)8G~@=
*It
-Cklf:,
(When he was caught for speeding, he had no driver's license (i.e., he
was not licensed) and, moreover, he was drunk.)
Ni after ue is optional.
(Related Expression]
Ue (ni) can be rephrased using bakari de (wa) naku - (mo) or dake de (wa)
-
naku (mo), as in [I].
*Key Sentences
Since the basic meaning of uruleru is the existence of possibility (not abil-
ity), it cannot be used in a sentence that expresses pure ability as shown in
PI.
and; -ing
which means "V and . . ." (REL. v t e ]
*Key Sentences
(A)
1
Vmasu
7Y-25 -&%Li
ys7iib%~ Bzh, %ia-?r-smmpm~~~t:,
(John was born in Japan and studied at a Japanese school until he was
ten.)
1 (My father works for a bank and my mother has a boutique near my house.)
(In Japan we've been in the rainy season for a week (lit. since a week
ago) and had gloomy days every day.)
Vmasu 557
r t= L*i)hL I hL
(d) % % O X + H + ~ & L , ~ ~ ~ f - ~ 4 - e ~ 3
(Commemorating this school's fiftieth anniversary, we are going to
have a celebration party.)
?tibL br L4 b L -%LC L
(e) E %63E%C:2 13, k % t 3 # F ~ k t : 2 3 t &
(My first son became a doctor and my second, a lawyer.)
w.a 9
(f) % ~ 9 $ ~ O # a > % ~ < ~ 3 ? % b , *P&~%&L?':,
(The man pulled the strap in front of the cart and the woman pushed it
from behind.)
The te-forms of verbs (Vte) are also used to mean 'V and -.' The difference
between Vmasu and Vte is as follows.
-
Basically, in "Vlte V2)' there is a close relationship between the action in
V1 and that in V2. No such relationship exists between V1 and V2 in
-
"Vlmasu V2." Usage restrictions differ depending on the subjects of V1
and V2.
A. When-the subjects of V1 and V2 are the same:
A-1. Vte
-
In general, "Vlte VT is used when the two actions are closely related and
the sequence is important. More specifically, Vte is used in situations like
those in [I] - [3].
[I] When one action (V2) cannot take place until another action (V1)
takes place, as in (a) and (b):
bkL
a. %.C3%$7/f- b". I & T T /*fi3) &b>&?? L a b f k ~ C f a1;
ab', -
-
- G
b. $a$??
GT/*JU ~ 3 $ ~ 5 $ & @ t : b a ~
(I'd like to decide whether to buy it or not after I see the real
thing.)
558 Vrnasu
[2] When V1 represents the cause of Vz (a special case of [1]), as in (a)
and (b):
*5f ib
a. $,I2 [ G S T ~ T/???l%BbbTS?@ % % L T L 3 - k 0
(He damaged his health by overworking.)
b. { A 7 /???%I
%/v%IW,ak$% :st:&$& L ~ Z ,
(Seeing my face, the baby suddenly began to cry.)
A-2. Vrnasu
In general, "Vlrnasu. . . V2)' is used when two actions or states are not
directly related. More specifically, Vrnasu is used when the times of two
independent actions or states overlap, as in [4] and [5].
[4] Overlapping actions
a. %&I& k < IBB/ *@L\TI,k < %go
(Yukio works hard and plays a lot.)
b. ~/vi+s~;t~aXi~;+i-c: iik /*wL\-cI,%LAX,
(Everybody was surprised and saddened by the news.)
[5] Overlapping states
LL.F3&
%%%B k ( 9 - T
& $ ~ & P ~ ? Y P % % B{%&/*RAT),
b>60
(Jiro likes classical music and knows many performers, too.)
%,.,2?&% {$L /*9LTI, %$%!i+,
(We love peace and hate war.)
Vrnasu 559
A-3. Additional information before Vz and acceptability of Vlmasu
When the action of V1 precedes that of Vz, Vte is preferred. However, when
additional information precedes Vz, Vrnasu is acceptable even when the
action of V1 occurs before that of Vz (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (c)). Com-
pare (a) and (b) in [6] and [7].
[6] a. rk?t&%B I c ~ \ T / * @ d 0k!7&3-ifo
l,
(As for shrimp, you take their shells off and fry them.)
[61 a. z k ~ t ; f E {&L\T
A ~ / * W I e &ea,
(You eat this after grilling it over charcoal. (lit. This, you grill it
over charcoal and eat it.))
b. ZkLtiZAT I B L \ ~ / B S IL, b . i & Q { & V ~ / * i $ c t l e
h~3-Fo
(You eat this with soy sauce after grilling it over charcoal. (lit.
This, you grill it over charcoal, dip it into soy sauce, and eat it.))
The acceptability of Vlmasu in this situation may be due to the fact that
when additional information occurs before V2, the focus shifts from the rela-
tionship between the two verbs to the additional information before Vz.
7:
(Today I'm planning to go to the department store first to do some
560 Vmasu
shopping, then, to stop by the bank to open a new account, and on
my way back, to meet a friend of mine at a coffee shop to return her
book.)
In conversation, however, such stylistic control is difficult and, therefore, te-
forms often occur for every verb. This is the reason why in some situations
the use of Vte sounds colloquial and the use of Vmasu sounds formal.
+ ~ e ySentences
Vmasu (=N)
d%d'
~$ti%&Wb, *R $$&
I (Because he is still young, his thoughts are shallow.) 1
I (It is relatively easy to speak Japanese, but reading and writing are hard.) I
(We went to Tokyo Disneyland but it took more than five hours to get
there and back.)
(el XEtiht;&~t~~~~
(Life is a series of wins and losses.)
562 Vmasu as a Noun
Qam
1. The Vmasu of practically all the verbs can be used as a noun, except
Sino-Japanese sum-verbs. Some of the verb stems (Vmasu) are treated
like real nouns and listed as such in dictionaries, taking the topic marker
wa, the subject marker ga, the direct object marker o, etc. It is strongly
suggested that the non-native speaker / writer check each use of Vrnasu
as a noun in the dictionary.
(1) G:kjbx 'smell' 4% ih 13 'replacement'
d%d'
k 'thought' & 'leave-taking'
%v 'street'
*b
,R L.1 'feeling I love'
;tT? d.L
W6 'upbringing' bC 'feeling'
~frr~ or
3 'talk' 3k 'hope'
39 'rule / regulation' %3 'continuation / sequel'
2 9 'beginning' Rk 'holiday I rest'
&b v 'en8
& 'answer'
i h9 'change' 'encounter'
2. Some verb stems (Vmasu) can be used in a compound of the Vrnasu
Vrnasu form as exemplified by KS(B) and Exs.(c) - (e). In this case, the
two Vmasu show contrastive meaning. More examples follow:
(2) V ?0 'ups and downs'
&3 'comings and goings'
-?9 2 13 'give and take'
& LA& 'taking in and out 1 depositing and withdrawing'
& 3 'sleeping and waking up / living'
& 3 %k 'up and down' (lit, floating and sinking)
Vmasu as a N O U ~ 563
3. Some Vmasu cannot be used as a noun in isolation, but can be used as
such in a compound.
(3) &h "l 'an erudite person'
?QS $ $3 'slow walking'
X& 'dying in vain'
Zfi 'the viewing of cherry blossoms'
[emphatic] { d o 1does l did) V ;
affirms or negates the proposition will V, {am 1are l is 1was l
represented by the preceding ver- were} Adj. I N ; (not) V I Adj. I
bal and other related elements N
[REL. koto wa]
+Key Sentences
(A)
Vmasu
g3 at 15r, %bFT"na+t,~.
(I am going (there) but I cannot help you, all right?)
(C)
Vmasu
_=
(That guy would not understand even if you explained it to him.)
(Those pants are cheap but they are a little too old-fashioned.)
(This book is not expensive at all when you consider its content.)
amm
LCA { j- (75') / L 2 b \ 1 (s.o. will tell (but) I will not tell)
(I will take the exam (and see what will happen), but I have no
confidence that I will pass it.)
(e) % & b i m ~ ~ ~ - c h ~ $ ~ a ~ a ~ 1 ~
(He does not listen, no matter what we tell him.)
(f) m&%Gi&< ci&ad', +;kf?lfo&&~ci&a~
(This vase is expensive but it is valuable to that extent.)
(g) zoK&eid:<g;i;kePE~
<c~~L~c~TT;',
(If you think carefully, this problem should not be difficult.)
a3 La5
SZaz
(h) &o%eiE%-mi&9tzi3~, k B ~ t < o ~ g i : a 9 f z ~
(He was smart but he was fired because he did something illegal.)
6 ItLCL
(i) @G&H$ATb;f&4;tr', & 3 r) H $ S ? ? 3 + ? ~ b ~ o
(He is Japanese but cannot speak Japanese well.)
6
-
Exs. $7'i F L at\ (iki wa shinai ikya shinab
? L & L \ (kai wa shinai -.kaya shinab
b. Gr. 2 verbs and irregular verbs:
(C)V wa shinai + -
(C)Vya shinai
2%
Exs. B? L & L \ (mi wa shinai -- miya shinai)
&d? L
-
t \ (tabe wa shinai tabeya shinai)
+
Sentences with the emphatic particle wa can be rephrased using the structure
X koto wa X, as in [I]; however, X koto wa X is more emphatic than wa.
+Key Sentence
-
brains.)
(a)
I:lf/r t i
El$.tiki=&CiSi 2T& < , %&Rxc:&~~~
D t l i td.
&<fbk',
(Julian is a vegetarian, so he doesn't eat fish or chicken, let alone beef.)
wa iu made mo naku 569
aceb. ~16a0 *fr* *
(e) .?bof&car~+tiSi
d T B G < , WE$,, ~;-16i%P;ih1;8b>,
(That student doesn't know even hiragana and katakana, let alone
kanji.)
Qm
The adverbial phrase X wa iu made mo naku is a continuative form of wa -
iu made mo nai, which means 'it is needless to say X; it goes without saying
X' as in:
P<Li fib.'
(1) ~ W A 2 i~t m *ZT * ~ L \ ~
(It is needless to say that reading books is very important.)
(2) X"d~:t$3Ea7~6aowz5 BT&&L\,
(It goes without saying that there are ups and downs in life.)
e elated Expression]
- -
Both bakari de (wa) naku (mo) 'not only -,' wa mochiron 'of course -'
and wa iu ni oyobazu 'to say nothing of -' can replace wa iu made mo naku.
+ K ~ YSentences
(As you know, we lost our leader with Prof. Fukuda's death. From now
on we have to advance this group by ourselves.)
Sentence?
e L fh
= si~wo~tr~aart~?& fz0
l.1
~t:k-i:~\f= ihcf
(Today, even children know that the earth is round, but the truth of the
matter is that before Columbus everybody thought that it was flat.)
(ii) Adj(na)stem I 2 / f? 9 7: 1 ih C f f?
/ BiPf? -> 7':) ih C f 72 (st. is I was quiet, as you know)
dlfi **I:&
@ a B E { T & b / f ? ~ f : ( o r T & 3 7 : ) ]b b f R (s.t.is1washis
responsibility, as you know)
:ht"bl ZiLr3
(a) F @ G ~ F ~ + E I Og%i i ~ L? > ? ~ & ~ z G Q T L ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ L
z ; k i P r ; B 2 g i ; f % b f ~ L 1 < 9 9V, T T ,
(Unfortunately, the negotiation this time, as you know, ended up with a
result like this, but we are planning to keep negotiating from now on,
you know, but whether or not all of it has brought us happiness is ques-
tionable.)
rim- It!.. 1 ~ 5
(c) %LiA@%a)x<=L?-5?2%.Wf%LTb'&;hlfTTdf, Za).WfR
j3.bb'6b'6%&'Z kfl53j3.O b T o
(I've been doing research on animal communication, as you know, and
various interesting facts have become known from this research.)
(As you know, whatever you do, whether or not you have built a firm
foundation for that is a key to your progress, and in fact, you can say
the same thing about foreign language study.)
h* lri e XL ts -21x
(e) %A%iA$53~i;fb a)%S;habl$, B L d . i f b k L ~ b l & @ ~ ~ ~ ? ' & %
B LTblbbCflF?,
(Babies, themselves, do not talk, but the truth of the matter is that they
are learning language when they are spoken to.)
(f) & * i A + x > cf ~ih!..ll?ti
-9%%OIi?bhakI:%rZ6i=Z~-C~b51f
k t r b , +i5>1;7-+m~i;f:~'~~=-9a ~-w~-w~;.;hi~r~,
(We would be in trouble immediately if computers were taken away
from us now, but the fact is that we were getting by without them a
decade ago.)
2. Wake da, as introduced here, should not be confused with the use in
which two propositions X and Y have the relationship "given X, one is
wake da 573
In some situations no da also conveys the idea "the fact is that -." For exam-
ple, KS(A) and (C) could be rephrased as [I] and [2], respectively, only [I]
does not convey as strongly the speaker's expectation that the proposition
represented by the preceding sentence is known to the hearer and [2] does
not give as much emphasis to the fact represented by the preceding sentence.
574 wake da / wake de wa nai
Wake de cannot be rephrased as no de, however, because no de conveys a
sense of reason or cause. [3], for example, does not mean the same thing as
KS(B).
+Key Sentences
(It is very difficult to solve this problem. But that does not mean that it
is impossible (to solve).)
Vinf
0
* L *&*
E%-$Q ;t3bfTl&Qb> ,'jj
(I don't mean to oppose your idea, but I wonder if things will go well
using that approach.)
Sentence
I I
(Obtaining a good result is not enough. (lit. It is not that it is all right if
just the result is good.))
576 wake de wa nai
LlliW
7I
%%I?: b Cf T 63.8b l (It does not mean that s.t. was a failure.)
{%%(I?) / I?- I:] k b1-j bGf T b i 8 b l (It does not mean that s.t.
is /was a failure.)
ammm
(a) maws W: < 3 L ~ ~ G L V F& , ~
hfiL 8~l3L L (kc
C ~ L ~ ~ C ~ T C ~ ; ~ S I
(I do not eat much these days, but it doesn't mean that I have no
appetite.)
K 2AAaLW..
(b) 201, 34$BPblTb>;thb1;5', iC 7 2 ; P k b l j
ihGfT1i8bl0
(I haven't written a book for the last few years, but it doesn't mean that
-
-
=
ws I am in a slump.)
-=
-
-
(c)
PL r i<
2 0 7 ' 0 Y ~ 3~ C ~ ~ & + E ~ I : ~ $ $ & P ~ L & Z ~ C : L ~&~ IL ,Z ~
tr e
T~TLT~I:: to*
k c ~ < m ~ t = a a ; h ~ f ~ c i a ~ ,
(It's been decided that this project is going to be stopped because of a
wake de wa nai 577
(I
don't mean that I don't like him, but I do not want to many him.)
Z b k L k i k f . l f LTb1k b-?kLTb>b> k b > j bGfTC&hb>,
(Doing only what you are told to do is just not enough.)
-
Vri I:!.
A: ~ 0 h%
e&&< @d~btsb>/vT-$-d..
(Can't this patient be saved (lit. at all)?)
B: b l 0 , -? 3 b l j bcf TI&& 0 3*/v,
(No, it is not that he can't be saved.)
1. Wake de wa nai, the negative form of wake da, denies what is implied
either in the previous statement (e.g., KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d)) or in the
following statement (e.g., KS(B) and Exs.(e) - (g)). In either case, wake
de wa nai sentences and the previous (or following) sentences are often
connected by conjunctions like ga and shikashi. -
'
=
-
-WI
--
-
-
--
--
+Key Sentences
f-/Vaz
2 tt L-CblblbIfm2blo
(No one is allowed to do that kind of thing. (lit. There is no reason why
it is all right to do such a thing.))
Dt kh:
f-tvaz2 B ~ ~ - c A P ~ ~ : ; ~ c ~ P ~ ~ ~ ,
(There is no reason for people to be pleased if you say such a thing to
them.)
@hvtvarrrblz 2 Qgi bCfP$b>,
(There is no reason for her to say such a terrible thing. I It is impossi-
ble for her to say such a terrible thing.)
fi.,triX
@Lih/V$K&9 ~ba-Ck
~kGbif;ir'$bl,
(Being that drunk, he cannot be all right.)
h a ) g ~ g P Az
,$ C&;hbf fl$b'o
WC~~~~)L
F~I~
C 73% __
(Things at that shop cannot be this cheap.)
+ %A ~L : b l & ; h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l o
(It is impossible for her to be in such a place at this time (of the day).)
f,'=:-
@3F~a)?&a)$$ &T&&;kCfPhb~,
*9 ZL?*V
-
-
--
-
-
--
-
-
-
Qm
Wake ga nai basically negates either (a) the existence of a reason to believe
that someone will do / does something, will be / i s in some state, or some-
thing will happen / happens, or (b) a possibility of someone's future / present
action or state, or a future / present event. Thus, sentences before wake ga
nai are always nonpast. However, wake ga nai can indirectly negate the
existence of a reason to believe that someone did something or was in
some state, or that something happened, or negate the possibility of a past
action or state by presenting the negation in a statement about a common
belief, a habitual action or state, or one's ability. For example, KS(B) can
be used in a context as in (1).
(1) A: F Y - I ~ X P ~ ~ T H ~ S ~ T X P - L ~ : F ~ ~ : L ,
(I heard that Charles mastered Japanese in a year.)
B: W ~ E j,S E ~ * : ~ ~ + / ~TQXCP Z
-&B%
<Z,~C~#~~\,
(=KS(BN
(You are kidding! It is impossible to be able to master Japanese
that quickly.)
e elated ~xpressionl
However, hazu ga nai can be used with past sentences and it negates the pos-
sibility of a past action, state, or event, as in [2].(See Note.)
[2] a. {lt%/???;blfI #&L\,
%Ekis.+/tQZ29Lf.
(It is impossible for her to have done such a thing.)
YPI i.ttLl
b. %E~@b&fiTtZ ICtT/???;bCfl #*L\,
(It is impossible for him to have been an excellent student.)
wake ni wa ikanai 581
(i >
(ii)
582 wake ni wa ikanai
ii dl bb) Vtd!
(a) .rtva&Qts%??B< bbf bZbibl?i 3%L,
(I have no reason to receive such an expensive gift.)
(b) P O L j jb~b~~jj~+Lfh~&G:&fi~6bb~t:Cib~?i a-t?tv,
(A young person like me cannot attend such a meeting.)
1. Wake ni wa ikanai is used to express the meaning that one cannot do s.t.
because of an external circumstance. So, the phrase cannot be used to
indicate a simple fact of incompetence. For example, (la) presents a
simple case incompetence, whereas (lb) presents a case in which one
cannot play the piano owing to some circumstance (e.g. a baby is
asleep). Actually (lb) presupposes that the speaker can play the piano.
(1) a. % t i ~7 / & ~ C T Q L \ .
(I cannot play the piano.)
b. # t i V 7 / B%< bCf ? ~ i t L ~ ~ ~ * L \ ,
(I cannot play the piano (owing to some circumstance).)
wake ni wa ikanai 583
2. -nai wake ni wa ikanai is used to express the meaning that 's.o. has no
other choice but s.t.,' as shown in KS(B), Exs.(g) and (h).
3. There is no affirmative counterpart of wake ni wa ikanai.
I r i T I
(2) 4 EI ~ i r / ~ r / ~ %Fk-rx~ ~
w cx ;s ,. a / * t i - t b ; b ~ t ~ ~ \
< lo
(It's a fine day, so we can play tennis.)
e elated ~x~ressions]
Regular expressions of potential, (i.e., rareru and koto ga dekiru) can
replace wake ni wa ikanai as shown in [I].
[I] a. *;%LCi%%S&d'bj @ b , 393% t2 {PK&L\ / P S Z
2 It X%&L\Io (cf. KS(A))
b. Z;kiPbB@iL2Gf;kCf29 3+?h.@b,% B {l%@be
n / E G Z L : M X ~ % ~(cf.A IEX.^)
.
c. {%;kb+?iL/ % &
37?.tt.$;sfR-;,Tbb&DT, Z kCitt)%
3 +?A),(cf. Ex.(e))
But rareru and koto ga dekiru cannot replace wake ni wa ikanai unless an
external circumustance which blocks s.0. from doing s.t. exists, as noted
in Note 1.
(+rareru2 (DBJG: 370-73); koto ga dekiru (DBJG: 200-01))
+Key Sentences
Noun(cigarette/alcoholic drink)
1 %kt-? I
*Ll 9
k (dt z ?? 99-c'JlbLIZo
1 (I was smoking up until last month.)
6
(i ) s.0. 75' S.O. B place I:-?b
btL t,t : bW:<
$L?F,B,T
B%H I: 9b (I will send my son to a foreign country.)
(ii) S.O. ;5' S.O. I: s.t. B -? b
b%jk
@75'#I:
l:!.,3~5
A $2 9 b . (I will give my younger sister a doll.)
tbfS .-LC L
&%?FAlrt-B 9 6, (My friend is (lit. doing) a lawyer.)
upiLFLbr<
(a) , B ~ B % E g c : - ? ~ --c!, f & B & ~ ~ & l - @ l ~ ,
(I sent my son to the post office and had him buy stamps.)
(b) ~ ~ ~ : z a , ; i s ~ - ? ~ - c ~ ,
(Give this food to the cat, OK?)
(c) %%B-?!Ib LIZ&,
(Did you do your homework?)
(d) + ~ X B 9 6 ? & 0
(Shall we play chess?)
586 yam1
(el % E ~ ~ x ~ $ a*,
GPo
(We will have (lit. do) a class reunion next month.)
(g) m d i h r z t f t $ 9 a*&, o
(I neither drink nor smoke.)
(h) + L I ~ % % ~ L ; & ~ ~ % B J P ~ T L > ~ * ,
( have been learning flower arrangement since last year.)
I
-
( i ) B c A ~ : ' P L . & ~ > ~ L . >P~ GL% a
I Z ,~ B Q
(When I was a kid I suffered from various diseases.)
(j) S E ~ Y T X & & G P ~ T L > ~ ~
(My friend is running a jazz cafe.)
2. Yam has the meaning of 'drink,' 'eat,' and 'smoke' but the usage is very
much restricted, as shown in (1).
+Key Sentence
1 (I teased Tadashi.) 1
? + CLbL.ti C
(a) I~-A%- ~ S ~ E Q ~ ~ B K %
L ~ J~ Q~ ~O~ T T, - Y : ~
(Because my roommate never cleans our room, I complained (to her
about it).)
(b) %jjt;~=&~ r ) ~ ; ~ t & 7 j : O ~ ,!I9 l i T T 7 f : ,
(I was so mad at him that I shouted at him.)
(c) %$o&c~
T & & ? c " F ' ~k O
(I had drinks at my company's expense.)
l l i Uf, k' LS.
! I T f j 7 2 6 % %iLfx-b~&T?L,
(d) % ~ & ~ L Y ~ ' - A C ~ $ L -ER7
TT3T??5baa
(mom a wife to her husband] Hiroshi always plays video games (lit. EYE
TV games) and doesn't study at all. Will you talk to him (lit. tell him
off) about it (lit. once)?)
*: *?
(el giz ~ B ~ ~ G - $ ~ ~ I ; $ L @ L T F ; ~ ~
(If he doesn't listen, threaten him a little.)
1. Yam is one of the "giving" auxiliary verbs meaning 'do s.t. for KO.'
However, it is also used when A does something undesirable to B
knowing that A's deed will cause B difficulty. For example, KS states
that the speaker teased Tadashi, with the implication that he knew that it
would make trouble for Tadashi. Compare KS with (I), which is a neu-
tral statement and conveys no such implication.
(1) $L122%fi'%fi'7ko
(I teased Tadashi.)
( + a g e d (DBJG: 65-67))
2. The subject of Vte yam is the first person in declarative sentences and
the second person in interrogative sentences, commands, requests, or
suggestions. (2) is ungrammatical unless the speaker / writer is totally
empathetic with Taro.
I. The auxiliary verb kurem, which usually means 'do s.t. for me,' is also
used when an action causes difficulty, as in [I]. Here, kurem expresses
strong feelings of unhappiness, anger, etc., on the side of the person
who is affected by the action.
[I] a. 'SrlI - d ~ k i L T e G - b ~ Z k % L 7 < f i k 0
+Key Sentences
- -
-
I I -
-
=YE
-
-
-
=
-
-
=
finally finished writing my Japanese history term paper.)
(I -
-
I (This street is so narrow that one car can barely go through.) I
Vinf - nonpast
t7kL
$LO ~ * & l ~ T l ~ & b ~ ~ 9db
% 0 $ 9-2 Tj-o
(i) 972Vinf
97 2 132& / 2 %7: I (I am / was finally able to meet him.)
(ii) 9 7 2 Vinf
9 7 2 { % h & / % h 7 ~ 1 (can/couldbarelyride)
I i L t L 6.e
+plDEbl&$$!$ih9 T , 99 2@;3'b>%Kfb9 jz,
(The long winter that lasted for half a year has ended and finally the
warm spring is here.)
ba$iaL+A -;L d t i
Et$T-+rdEt$%?m %Lf:b, ?9 k , H$%$&X
1 3 Kfb
9 ?zo
(After I studied Japanese for a year in Japan, I finally reached the point
where I could make myself understood in Japanese.)
-P-~ 2~$ b% l~ jf :z ~
~ ~ ? i i i ~ b l s ~ ~ b ~ k X s & ~3 j?,
kL
(The couple have been together for a very long time, but it seems that
they finally got married.)
w s k s 2 zi
E b l 8 d ~ ~ 1 ? 9 1 z % ~ k ' i ~ : k? 69b f 5 3 E o
(It seems that finally I can travel abroad which was a dream I cherished
for a long time.)
L b lf l f L tLL1
Z f i b & 3 T % 9 T 9? 9 k , - k % % D % @ d LPa- - P o
(I ran to the station from my house, and I just caught the 7:30 train.)
+ ?< k E L lib,
ZEP~APJP j i a X ~ ~ l 7 , q1.-G Z 7A~ : ~~
k &T& . ~ .L
(We moved into a small apartment which can barely accommodate a
family of four.)
%iii%%&~bl&Z
~ ~D
, ih ~
?2I%n Y r f . F j D j j r ? ~2 T r f .
(My father is suffering from pain in the lower back, and he can barely
walk around the house.)
6. LI P L br e r i
99 2 D z 2 T , ~ * , l , D d k b : % b %
(With the greatest effort, we reached the top of Mt. Fuji.)
1. The adverb yatto can be used with Vinf when s.t. desirable has been -
finally achieved, as exemplified by KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d). If s.t. neg-
-
-
-
-
ative has been brought about the adverb cannot be used. -
-
(1) a. @ I ~ & + B ~ % O $ # B & G ~ T L ~ ~( : *; ~~' ,23/ 2 5 2 5 /
-X\CZI ~ L ~T a9r:,
(He was receiving treatment for cancer for four years, but
he finally died.)
fi&
b. @bIk%k?$*%$>b~$>9f:;5',{ * T 32 / 2 3 2 5 / 3
L\CZl ~ L T L L-a?:,
(They have been unhappily married for some time, but
finally they got divorced.)
2. The adverb can also mean 'barely' as in KS(B), (C), Exs.(e), (f) and (g).
3. Yatto no koto de is a set phrase that emphasizes the time and efforts it
takes for s.t. positive to come about, as exemplified by KS(D) and
Ex.@). The English translations are 'at long last,' 'with the greatest
effort,' 'with the greatest trouble.'
I. Yatto and y6yaku are very close in that both of them indicate eventual
completion of something positive; the only difference is that y6yaku
sounds more formal and is usually written.
.
b. T&KQ3-C,
*5
IT'=& / * h > 5 3 L " T l * W t 7 Y l&%%;3.'
t L*
HL>J&
(Ten o'clock came round and finally the office opened.)
111. Tsui ni is another adverb which indicates that either s.t. desirable or
undesirable has finally come about or will come about after a relatively
long process. It can replace yatto in KS(A), Exs.(b) and (c). If the
result is a natural one as in Ex.(a) yatto is preferable to tsui ni. Also, if
the focus is placed more on current difficulty rather than on a long
process as in KS(B), (C), Exs.(f) and (g), the replacement is impossi-
ble. (See Note 1.)
-
-
-
-
- .
.
a 1the way to; a 1the way of -
-
- .
-
Y
-
means a way (of doing s.t.) -ing; the way (s.0. does s.t.)
[REL. -kata]
+Key Sentences
(A)
Vrnasu
(B)
NP I Adj(na)stem Vrnasu
Vrnasu
Vrnasu b; i
- 3 15 (a way to write)
z~L.I~,K;s::~;~L j SQL~,
(There is no other way to think (about it).)
:
1: I%&
E~$z;s'&/UGG:?$L.~ ~5 L L 5 & Q L ~ ,
(There is no hope to do with such poor Japanese. (lit. There is no way
even to do if his Japanese is that poor.))
2
~ ~ + ~ F S W Q L . ~ / V(=a>~ii)&&DS+?d:
CT j SQL~,
(There is no way to have him work if he cannot read kanji.)
ZX/GG:~LW$
*<*I, hh
< -~~i&;i
LjS Q L ~ ~
(There is no way to teach if there are this many students.)
?/"Qh3%%StL?:b%;iL jSQbao
(I cannot answer if you ask (lit. I am asked) that way.)
b L L h+L
*LG:%9-C& b 9 T & L L j S Q b l 0
(There is no point apologizing to me (lit. even if you apologize to me).)
GZ*l:Jr 0 L 5 GiQbaOE6 5 dlo
(Isn't there any other way to do it, I wonder?)
f i c % b Q b W c i @ ~ Lj~~%b~/U?;'L.
(It's because your way of searching (for it) is wrong that you cannot
find it.)
T*A VLL
% % L j G : L ~ - C 6 i Z a > ~ $ & i i B ft & t ; k & .
(Depending on how you read it, this letter can be taken as a suicide
note.)
amm
1. Vmasu-y6 is most commonly used with ga nai 'there is no way to V,
cannot V.'
2. Although Vmasu-y6 can be used in affirmative sentences (e.g., Exs.(h)
and (i)), it is most commonly used in negative sentences.
-
=
-
-
Y
-
-
-
3. Vrnaswy6 often appears with conditional clauses ending in -te wa,
-tam, or -te mo, as in KS(B) - (D) and Exs.(b) - (f).
Vmasu-kata also means 'a I the way to V; a I the way of V-ing.' However,
Vmasu-kata cannot be used with ga nai to mean 'there is no way to V; can-
not V,' as in [I].
4L
b. gSo@Bo L {Z/ *A 3 1 fl&&b @b>,
(I don't know how to study kanji.)
It is also noted that Vmasu-kata is used to mean 'way' either in terms of
method or manner, as in [2] and [3], while Vmaswy6 is usually used to mean
'method.'
d.0 tt If.*
[3] a. ~LCi@?xo)%L { % / ? ? d r i,E&,I?r' j ;
(I like the way she talks.)
d.h HbLh
b. ~BJ~ESIL&< 12/ ? ? d ; ie~t a o
(He eats in a funny fashion.)
(+-kata (DBJG: 183-84))
probably; likely; must be;
the writer's conjecture about some should; ought; naturally
potentiality or his certainty about a [REL. dar6; deshd]
given state of affairs
*Key Sentences
(A)
I I I
(If you walk around without wearing an overcoat on such a cold day, it
is a matter of course that you will catch a cold.
I I
(i)
-yo2
&$dr 5
(so. (probably) can write s.t.)
(so. (probably) can do s.t.)
, , d .5~.; i
~ 0 ~ ~ 7 ~ l : . = , k ~ - r i a k ~ s k ~ 6 ~ ? ~ ~ 9 ~ &b;kh
(Regarding this problem, all sorts of political solutions can (probably)
be considered.)
~ O r " 7 / ' / - f b f ? ~ f : l ; ~ # l : & & l fio
dr
(Even a child should be able to play this piano sonata.)
lii:<Lr 5WLe1 3 L L i l?
ZO%SPGi% % O & 9 B dTC:Wlf A 5
(We should be able to write this report by next Friday.)
t ZtrLLL.1
&Ob7--~:%Lbf, fU2~759dr<A;idr?.
(If you go up that tower, you should be able to see the entire city.)
^iw d.Ll b1 +bWL a%v -v b
%YH&O@ST, l&%O~~!JGdk&&%dr5
(With the improvement of US.-Russia relations, it is likely that world
peace can be maintained.)
W X / ~ ~ ~ : U . Y L ~ Z ~ .b~&~ tS .~5.L I : ~ ,
(If you are treated as badly as that you naturally get mad.)
<
~ ~ L ~ Z I ~ G TG& T$ L ~ c ~%, ~ c : B Q ~ j.
(If you work as crazy as that, you will naturally get ill.)
O t Ohh
(h) ZD%!I Tc&D--A$~ C&&T&?J 3.
(In this neighborhood it is probably I must be dangerous to walk alone
at night.)
1. The auxiliary verb -yo is used to express either the writer's conjecture
that s.t. can be done or his belief that s.t, should happen. The struc-
-
ture N + Prt + Vvol, always expresses certainty, as shown in KS(B),
Exs.(f) and (g). Adverbs such as sazo 'surely' and kitto 'certainly' also
indicate conjecture with a feeling of certainty. Otherwise, the auxiliary
verb is subject to either interpretation.
2. The auxiliary verb -yo is primarily used in written Japanese.
3. The Adj(na) version of -yd is Adj(na)stem + deard. For the Adj(i)
version, see kar6of this volume.
4. The negative versions of -y6 are Vinf-nonpastrnai (V: a non-controllable
verb), Adj(17stem + ku arumai, Adj(na)stem + de wa arurnai, respec-
tively.
Lt.lb<Qb>
(1) a. Z A G % Lb\;SC@t;t/J\
$%kb=.t253d~a%~\~
(An elementary school child might not comprehend such a
difficult passage.)
b. @o%&tiEi8 < &JB%L\O
(His lecture might not be interesting.)
+vL< L +03
c. % ~ o E I @ ~ & ~ ~ ; ~ R6?% TL \c~~ & ~
(Economic recovery might not be impossible.)
(+mai)
e elated Expression]
Dar6, the informal, spoken I written form of deshd, is a contracted form of
deard and can replace all the uses of the -yo without changing the meaning.
Deshd, the formal spoken version of dare also can replace all the uses of -r6.
(+daM (DBJG: 100-02))
[I] a. If53 3 / T L a
Ea)$?ba)A@Q 6 El;$;~a>-~&T%~@'IZJ
3 1, (cf. KS(A))
C. (f.33 / T L A 3 I,
Ea)@&&Bo7IQ#$&~ZJO~i@B
(cf. KS(C))
yori 1) adv.
-
more (than now; than s.t. at
parative of an adjective or an present; than otherwise)
-
adverb to mean 'more than now [REL. motto]
*Key Sentences
-
Adj.
+&$&=h~-T@2?+?a
sh d.hb
gfl $25 w<+?L
(i) k V Adj.
k I1%L$h bl (more interesting)
(ii) k b Adv.
*k+<
k 4 iE@K (more accurately)
%%&
k b&\,
f%r5?rl
dc 13kBSfa>E?$&EtOR%fl%<
Sh(+.)3
E53.
d.Wi9 99
1. The adverb yon was derived from the particle yon 'than.' Yon
Adj. IAdv. expresses the idea 'more Adj. IAdv. than now or than
otherwise' and is used to make a general comparison rather than a com-
parison between two specific entities. For example, KS(A), (B), and (C)
are equivalent to (I), (2), and (3), respectively.
bh*
(1) ~ L B I ~ L ~ Q IJ a w - F X O > B H G : W T ~ ~ ~ - $ ~
(We are always trying to offer better services than (we do) now.)
(2) fiHZ3Gi% LLlE%iB$UHtkLlf, f 3 LtbL\&I)WR09G:&k
6Zkflffi%60
(If we utilize new technology, we can teach foreign languages
more effectively (lit. than not doing so).)
(3) 3 H B K $%T%;i S+?&Afl, f 3 Ltbc\kI1&BBW?,
(To have children think for themselves is more educational (lit.
than not doing so).)
(+yoril (DBJG: 564-67))
Motto also expresses the concept of 'more.' However, motto is more collo-
quial than yori. Thus, the combination of motto and yoi, the literal version of
ii 'good,' is awkward, as in [I].
yon' 605
On the other hand, motto can be used when a specific item of comparison
kore l are l sore yori 'than this I that I that' is known from the situation or
context, whereas yori is unacceptable in this situation, as in [2].
121 a. {%->t/ * ~ v %3t>a,iih~
I a-ervjl.,
(Do you have a bigger one (than this)?)
b. &a)&&i ( 6 7 2/*kc)}msb~k,E,9-?rbl?:a)If71f, $g
g#f& p0
(I thought that that movie would be more interesting (than that),
but it was disappointing.)
Note also that when X h6 ga 'X is (more)' is present, motto implies 'much
more,' while yori is simply for emphasis. (See Note 2.) Compare [3a] and
Vbl.
[31 a. 7 t%Wb!~T.f~
1fXTBBfb3tr'%
(Commuting to work by bus is much more economical.)
606 zaru o enai
+ ~ e ySentence
(It was a textbook so I had no choice but to buy it, although it was
expensive.)
L*'ld.L Lf;P
(a) i%-ticjif, EI~FOW~E~:@;~FQQ~+QL>,
(If you go to Japan you cannot help but adapt yourself to Japanese
customs.)
(b) Z
' %JK&~K?~Z 5 k+$;ht~t~if, QI+Q~/>~
(If a subordinate is told by his superior to go out drinking he cannot
help going with him.)
It.& to3 2V
(c) ~ & f ? l f O X ~ ~ ~ ~ E S & ~ i bw ~% 6& 0Q f~U~& ~
L <b ,
zaru o enai 607
fib
2 2 i-~ - l b - & F a % q w - b ~ k E i 3 ~
(Because this many people have been murdered by guns, I feel that we
cannot help but control possession of guns more strictly.)
LXL h < -k+
(d) =
Y ~ ; / & $ T . B * & PTA,ebl
~~;*~;%++T, ~ R ~ R L ; ~ & ~ L ~ K G - ,
*I<
I. Vneg zaru o enai can be replaced by Vneg nakereba naranai when the
latter means 'have to do s.t. because there is no other choice.'
608 zaru o enai
11. Vneg zaru o enai can be also replaced by Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai and
V shika nai as shown in [4].
Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai can be used in both no-choice and obligation
situations, and implies the speaker's unwillingness to do s.t. indicated
zaru o enai / zo 609
by the verb, whereas both Vneg zaru o enai and V shika nai are used
only in a no-choice situation. So in an obligation situation as in [2]
above, Vneg wake ni (wa) ikanai can be used but not V shika nai.
20 +? prt. <s>
* ~ e ySentences
Sinf
eb. a.
dj;k, B M ~ Z L L I ~ ~ T Q,L Z ~ ~
1 (Hey, my purse has gone somewhere!)
(B)
S L I ~ ~ X L \ ~ ~ C = ~ J E ~ B
(If you don't hurry, you'll be late for the bus, you know.)
{V1Adj(i))inf Q
ITL 3
Z%f?T0 (S.O. is healthy.)
Z % f ? 7 f:?, (S.O. was healthy.)
(By God, this time I will get the Education Ministry's Scholarship.)
:
1: ifh.
<
(d) . ? E l ~ E l & Z + D ~ & b a i 3 b>7f:?-"o
(Thank God, today's Japanese exam went well!)
P tr
(e) +El ii%b>eh, $ - I $ - ??4~&7
f:%#b>b>~~
(It's cold today, so you'd better go out with an overcoat on.)
Sh
(f) Zo?-+, &<iFbb>iFbl;, %-nlh~t;.riQ,
(If you don't eat this cake, I will.)
uD.S
(g) $$t$&>gg - j " " j & ~ ~ z b , ~ ~ Q L . > Q ,
(If you make the same mistake again, I'm not going to forgive you.)
(h) %b>, zo!& %< iFbb>T0
(Hey, this sake isn't hot enough!)
( i ) +%& ~ c & aamEt"i~?--c~
(It's rude of you to come here without any advance notice. Do you
know that?)
-
1. The sentence-final particle zo is used only by male speakers in informal
speech to express either the speaker's strong feeling about something in
a monologue or a strong desire to draw the hearer's attention to some-
thing.
2. KS(A) and Exs.(a) - (d) are examples of a monologue in which the
male speaker is expressing his emotion such as dismay (KS(A)), joy
(Ex.(a)), surprise (Ex.@)), determination (Ex.(c)), etc. KS(B) and Exs.
(e) - (i), on the other hand, are examples of other-directed speech in
which the speaker wants to draw the hearer's attention to something
assumed to be unknown to the hearer. For example, in KS(B), a father
can be the speaker who wants to draw his wife's or children's attention
to the fact that the bus's scheduled time for departure is drawing near.
3. The particle zo is used in informal speech only. When it is used to draw
s.o.'s attention to s.t., the addressee has to be either the male speaker's
equal or inferior. So, for example, a male child cannot use zo to his
parents.
There are four differences between the sentence-final particles zo and yo.
First, the latter cannot be used in a monologue but the former can, as shown
in [I] below.
[I] a. *hi%,% & W ~ Z + - ? ~ Q TLa 37?.k0 (cf. KS(A))
b. *+HC;lrhD327-bd"X%bkO
(cf.Ex.(a))
c. *@I?&, kEDafid"bD&3KR;ibo
(cf. Ex.(b))
In other words, yo is always other-directed, but zo can be used either self-
directed or other-directed way. Therefore, in all the other-directed examples
zo can be replaced by yo.
[2] a. %A%blkltXG:;i9i!I BkLbkO(cf. KS(B))
The choice of yo in the above sentences sounds much less persuasive and
informal than the choice of zo. Note that the sentences of [I] are all unac-
ceptable as self-directed sentences (i.e., monologues) but acceptable if they
are other-directed sentences. The second difference between the two sen-
tence-final particles is that yo can be used by both male and female speakers
but zo is used only by male speakers. The third difference is shown in [3]
below. In the sentence-final combination of yo ne (assertion + confirmation)
yo cannot be replaced by zo.
*m*L K 1% *v t
[3] a. @h!3*a)&&b&f L ~ L ~ & ; ~ ~ I :{ah/ *?%I],
(Japanese politics has undergone tremendous change, hasn't it?)
:1 IiLCL * lj,LTb,
b. { H a/ * ? % I ,
B$.AcWW~~I:.~&
(Japanese people are concerned about how they appear to the
world, aren't they?)
The fourth and the last difference stems from the fact that zo can be used
only with informal forms as indicated in Formation. In contrast, the particle
yo can be used either with informal or formal forms.
-
Exs. service + +f P X
seat -+ 2 - 1-
switch + 2 4 r -f
sex+sr 3 X
socks + 2 r 3 X
616 APPENDIX l
thankyou++f'J3=-
think tank + 2 ;/ 3 b 'J 3
theory + 2 f 1) -
Rule 2: Both [z] and [a] (the voiced version of [el) are represented by -tf*
P;C-t?i'.
Exs. Zambia + 'f'2 F7
zigzag + 'J737
zoom + A - A
zero + 2 0
zone 4 2.- 2
juice +
Johnson +
=
jumbojet+crI'$Y~
-X
I' Y 7
Y b
[ei] paper + -1 f -
image + 4 2 9
inflation + 4 2 7 L 9 3 2
date -,7-b
[D:] chalk + .f s - 3
story + X L ' ) -
hall * e ) b
ball +
[xrl form -, 7 f - k
sports + X ;f;"- 9
cord + x F
pork + ;f;"-3
[ou] boat 4 & b
show +
note -+ / b
coat 4 i-
Note: The diphthong [ail can be represented not by the length-
ening marker by Japanese [ail as in:
spy + XI\".l
wine + ' 7 2
pie + ,\".I
Rule 10: If the original English word has a word structure of [. . . Short
Vowel + Consonant . . .I, then 9 is inserted before the conso-
nant, The original consonants are [p, t, d, k, s, tJ, d3, J, tsl at a
word-final position and [p, t , k, s, tJ, S] at a word-medial posi-
tion.
620 APPENDIX 1
campus [ k m a s l + 4 ??I cx
companion [ k a x p w ~ j z- C $2
], Z I ~ I r
lamp [laemp] + 7 2 7"
-
and their English counterparts are as follows:
English Japanese Examples
(palatalized
sounds)
+-T cash [kaeS]+ r 2 i'~
- 1.
+3.
>-T
>i'J
cute [kju:t] +
chandelier uaendalia] +
shoot uu:t] + - 1.
= 'J 711 7
A compound verb is a verb that consists of two verbs creating a specific mean-
ing not always predictable from the meanings of each element. The compound
verb has only one accentual peak and no other elements can enter between the
two verbs. The compound verb is either Vte + V as in 4- 'to buy s.t.
for s.o.,' 'to buy s.t. on an experimental basis,' k@iG& 'to buy s.t.
in advance,' or Vrnasu + V. In this segment only the latter will be exemplified
and explained.
The Vmasu to which another verb is affixed acquires additional meaning
such as 'to start to do s.t.,' 'to finish doing s.t.,' 'to continue to do s.t.,' etc. On
one hand there are some compound verbs that are so productive (i.e., they can
be almost freely produced according to the pattern) that they are not listed in a
dictionary. For example, Vrnasu + hajirneru 'to begin to do s.t.,' Vrnasu +
sugiru 'to do s.t. too much' are not listed in a dictionary. On the other hand,
there are other verb compounds that are so unproductive that they are listed in
a dictionary. For example, tori-kaeru 'to exchange,' kaki-naosu 'to rewrite,'
etc.
The following are a list of frequently used compound verbs with the pattern
of V1 (= Vmasu) + Vz. For each compound verb given below the basic mean-
ing is given in brackets and the conjugation type is given in parentheses, fol-
lowed by English glosses (which are omitted when there is no close equiva-
lent). The symbols v.i. and v.t. stand for an intransitive verb and a transitive
verb, respectively. Generally speaking, the entire compound verb is an intran-
sitive verb, if V1 is intransitive, and a transitive verb if VI is transitive.
h
, a
A -
3 v.i. / v.t. [to do s.t. mutually] (Gr.1) do s.t. together; do s.t. with
each other
IPAti tbC3
~ ~ f +< 7 7 %L&+->T < ; k & h f l $ % ~ ~ ~ l ? ,
26:
a. ;k&x,
(A person who will rejoice with you and grieve with you is a true
friend.)
a? P 3v b,
b. I h b b j \ S ts t t C%b1f+7Tbako
(The two were arguing with each other over a trifle.)
APPENDIX 2 627
- t&k3
c. ZO&~T.b~$%2~~~75'dc<~~&~.
(In this family the parents and the children frequently talk with
each other.)
d. L B ~ T , 71f- 1- 94%b ~ b \ & ,
%%bi%z~&
(We jointly contribute money to rent an apartment.)
cIer : i Z I
e. 93k7F2~04;/.f~&3f377b3&~
(A man and a woman are embracing on a bench in the park.)
10
--+$a v.i. [an action takes place upward] (Gr.1) up -
Note: V1 is an intransitive verb and is almost limited to a movement
verb.
a.
*t:
WI~&M-=T, ~
hb,3*<
~ L?:, ~ $ &
(The man stood up and shook hands with the visitor.)
b. % ~ k i r ; t ? b ~ ~ ~ t ~ % - h " ; : /~v 7&
'f C ~ A V M J ~ ~ ~ C ~
(When I accidentally stamped on its tail, the cat jumped up.)
c. % ~ c i % 3 O E E 9 i b c f k #t3Z O
(I ran up the stairs of the temple.)
d. 8.3~blf:275'%\C:@;kk$?k~
.t5 C w i If
- ~ h 8 v.i. I v.t. [to get s.t. into some place] (Gr. 2) in; into
a. c7/ 9~C:~vAh.ao;3.'~&~3~&
(It was hard to carry the piano into the house.)
L%iL i T L b IfhZJ
b. Z Z ~ ~ 4 $ f i ~ ~ ~ % ~ % ~ 3 ~ h 7 ~ ~
(Please write in here the address and the telephone number.)
c.
rj +TO
2a>%3 :1
~7;&;3.'WPC 9,g!IA h 6 i k T E .
(The subway is expected to extend into this area, too.)
h
W E ' 7% 1: I I L 4VS'
d. ~ ? k & 4 t b : ~ $ k k ~ i $ & b b ~ 4 k l 6 t s & % & !~
I h ~ ,
(During the Meiji era Japan adopted all sorts of things from the
West.)
c 3 i i h?L tLr<
e. ~~~b;f%~~d~%%h3hh&fi~~fz~
(The president didn't accept my resignation.)
ti<
-%a v.t. [to send or send off after doing s.t.1 (Gr. 1) send; - off
Note: V, is very much limited.
lilt T %*
a. f3~%$lk%$?i%7f~~
(I sent a letter to my mother.)
b. ggg.&-p&g7fLO
(I saw my friend off at the airport.)
+?LlTi
c. %fjl:bk+o%b%!i~)'d~dj.
(I will write them to that effect.)
-&% 6 v.i. [s.t./s.o. falls down in a certain manner] (Gr. 2)
ThCri 9*i (f
a. ~ > ~ ~ J - P ~ > x # ~ ~ c ~ ~ c : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ T
(The concrete ceiling suddenly collapsed on us.)
b. I~~(+TY,T-- F .n'&f~%t:,
(The department store burned down in a fire.)
t ll 11wf;'h
c. ~ W E R ~ ~ G t~
Y : X B
(My grandmother fell down the stairway.)
630 APPENDIX 2
d. *gT.zd'$&j & 13 ~ ~ f i ,
(The books slipped off the bookshelves because of the earth-
quake.)
H
-R 1) 75 v.i. [to descend in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) down
Note: V, is very much limited.
a. @ ~ L ~ B , & Ifi,Y R ~ )
(I ran down the mountain.)
b. *#Oi$, E*r;kv@w-,
(At the time of the earthquake I jumped out of the window.)
H
-7736 v.t. [to lower s.t.1s.o. in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) down -
a. $ d : % t z & ~ ~ 1 3 7 ; 3L ~ L ~
(I pulled down the cat that had climbed up the tree.)
b. ~ ~ i L ~ - f ~ K @ f $ % $ LJ k607 ; 6
(The policemen struck down demonstrators with their clubs.)
ihhL b ~ i hTik t:h _z
c. %LOZiLit! & = f i 7 ; 3 i t f i b - x 9 ~ ~ G ~
(My house stands at a place that overlooks a lake.)
d. ~O%&~%t:b~%d'&37;3L T ? ~ & ~
(A cold wind blows down from the mountain.)
Note: The following example has the specific meaning of 'to write a
new novel or play.'
Lri*? + dle5
e. /J\%RC~%LI/~/I\%B$~T;~L~;,
(The novelist wrote a new novel.)
H B
--&.b6 / 8 x 7 5 v.t. [a process of doing s.t. comes to its end] (Gr. 1)
finish
Note: - owaru can be replaced without changing the meaning by
using - oeru.
It< L hLJL
a, @kt.a*???92&3 l&.b=fi/SXkl,
(I finally finished writing my doctoral dissertation.)
APPENDIX 2 631
*A $ >k.- t7
b. PlLXi--1.0 ~%k&t:W~l ??&k1@;h7f=/%A.kl0
(I finished reading Tolstoy's War and Peace.)
c. &%??A {@;h?k / @%kl 8,
%?k~??&??~b~k~
(When I finished watching the movie it was already past mid-
night.)
Note: -R;i & cannot be used in spoken Japanese.
Note: In the following example the VI has lost its original meaning of
'to reel threads' using a weaving machine.
Hti HO
e. h a a ~ m e t:z a?$&ehr7~it.,
(He repeats the same thing again and again.)
d.
-#!% b v.i. I v.t. [to replace s.t.1s.o. by s.t.1s.o. else] (Gr. 2) change; re-
Note: -kaeru means replacement of s.t. by s.t. else but -naosu means
redoing of the same thing. For example, ki-kaerulki-gaeru
means to put on different clothing, but ki-naosu means to put on
the same clothing again, so that it is worn properly.
632 APPENDIX 2
(I have read various papers and compared them, but after all the
New York Times is the best.)
It
-At v.t. [to cancel or negate s.t. in a certain manner] (Gr. 1) cancel;
deny
APPENDIX 2 635
(Mr. Yamada strongly denied his involvement with the scandal.)
c.
I3 ZALr
%fTl2dcJTl.af:kif.~ %k!t $A%Lko
(The pedestrian rubbed out with his foot the cigarette he was
smoking.)
- v.i. 1 v.t. [an action takes place deep in s.t.Is.o.1 (Gr. 1) into; deeply
St: B
a. b 1;ar/a~.nfma:Xv u.T&~L:~
R
b. (ar:o
(The first train was so crowded that I let it pass by.)
TI.,Ilmi t r
c. &-cmoY~&-cbar:~, b%oeg R & ~ V B Z L ~a
T
9 r:,
(I was tired and was sleeping in the bus and ended up by passing
my bus stop.)
d. ~ & C ~ S B Z~a
L - CI:,
(I overslept this morning.)
- it
v.i. / v.t. [to go on doing s.t. or to proceed in a certain manner]
(Gr. 1) keep on -ing; progress
1% SbLJ
a. F O ) $ I ~ ~ S L . ~PX,PX.%~&JAEA.E,
O)T,
(It was interesting, so I kept on reading it at a fast pace.)
I vd% 1iLI:h. tf*L trd.
b. ~ B I ~ A B ~ L . ~~ Y~ PJ B~ &~ ~~ ~I AC. ,E ,
(The policeman dashed through the forest in pursuit of the culprit.)
dbh Lti*? ItLbih. tl VriS
c. q ~ i ; ~ . / ~ \ ~ ~ + ~ ~ ~ ; b ~ anm:a9-cLa9
-r-&sz~ra
r:
(After he had progressed half way through writing his novel, he
fell ill.)
ti
-%a6 v.t. [to go on doing s.t.1 keep on -ing
Note: V1is very much limited.
APPENDIX 2 637
LBT'Jl9 7'L
(To complete this undersea tunnel they kept on digging down till
they reached a depth of 300 meters.)
r) hL b< C ItL1~3
c. Z~~%0#&djrT@
%F~ & L Z L B - C ' J9~ %
< )1 tZo
(I intend to continue my research using this theoretical frame-
work.)
e:
--%a 5 v.i. 1v.t. [to fail to do s.t. or to come near doing s.t.1 (Gr. 1)
fail -
105 v a
a. E~FEIIL,~%LL~ - C~, - - T ~ - C : & S ~ E Q L \ L \ ~ L ~ ; ~
(I failed to go to the party, because I was busy last night.)
b. & ~ L - C ~ ~ ~ $ D ~ ~ ~ L & Q ~ E & ~ ~ Z ,
(I overslept and failed to catch the regular train.)
1
c. = ~ - ~ - - ? ~ - ~ I L I T ) J ; / S ~ -b- 2 H ? i f j j & 7 k O
(I failed to listen to the New York Philharmonic Orchestra's con-
cert.)
-
Note: In the following example sokonau has a meaning of 'almost.'
d. ffiirtgi+ :
& &TkbL%f2 7 k 0
(He was almost killed in a traffic accident.)
-2d v.t. [to do s.t. additionally] (Gr. 1) additionally; add
a. 6 1 9 t : f i i j . ~ f r ~ trfici&,%
~ ~ z ' ~t av ~ ? f i f , ' ~ 1 ' ~ l ~ ? f i a ~
(I have something to add, but is it alright?)
r *
b.6
b. -Ef' J l - C ~ r ; ,K ~ P S Z L ~ ; . ,
(After writing once I have added (in writing) quite a bit.)
c. 11 2 y&-=A9 tzfi~,dj t:2-=w"'~lz~t~.
st:
a. US;".L/Y ] \ $ b t d 7 e & ~ 1 i i ~ - t , &v$+~Ts~:,
(The man took out a knife from his pocket and jumped upon me.)
b. .Z-/f--h~&b>!&iZfi$2?$b, X $L
E~T$T&L'~~!&%&
7 y ~ b ' ~
(I'm going to the supermarket, so please list the items you want me
to buy.)
c.
DtVt
A~C&+~;&&V x
L ~ I ~ L - F~ATw~.
(People are leaning out of the windows, looking at the parade.)
zit *.A@
d. E D 7 4 7 4 7Ci%;tr'%;iIiiLkAT?;31,
(Who came up with this idea?)
Pb'Li Hb
e.
dWCL
8
%Eilffrkh:@ah:,9?~a);5'rE??9f:$,RbrXe&L\.
(I cannot remember where I met her first.)
f. h#$Th%$DFe&?l xLk0
(I checked out a Japanese history book from the library.)
fi
- 2 v.i. [whatever has been figuratively lying down stands up] (Gr.1)
- UP
itRL
& D A D E ~ <~ 2$ 4I , & 3 ; t r ' % ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Dt
a.
(When I listen to his talk my mind gets stirred up.)
b. ~ $ ~ c J & ~h:&~f
T I ~
T&V&7
~ I ko
(She flew off to (lit. flew up toward) Paris on business.)
33 Hb
c. xCi,%baaT2-P &;?ax7?o
(When my father thinks of doing something, he puts it into prac-
tice right away.)
d. %d~$2&t&77, %fie.i!~i:~~r:,,
(Today I went to see a movie in the company of my wife.)
t;
-,5?tlE1 v.i. [to be sufficient] (Gr. 2) sufficient; enough
Note: If - tariru is affirmative, then rnichi-tariru is the only combina-
tion, but if - tariru is negative, VI can be any verb, except
*shini-tarinai.
APPENDIX 2 639
bPL W,+?
a. $L~&%Fibi&~Ztl T ' J ~ ~ .
(I am fully content with my life.)
L 3 I: d.L
d. $~Fibi-t;@m~~i&a~~a~\~
(For me seven hours of sleep is not sufficient.)
33'
- 3 75 [to make an error in doing st.] (Gr. 2) make a mistake in -ing
bkL + Pi .3
a. W ~ F B ~ D # ~ BQA&
T LQI ~ F . ,
(I misunderstood the point of the letter.)
b. g%%&S?3kt.tb~c, ~ & l i $ $ ; t r . $ ; t r . 7 f . ~
(Because I made a mistake in writing the address, the letter didn't
get there.)
c. &%bi&~36G3F3 kLr/1~=?23
TcO
(She has become so beautiful that I cannot recognize her.)
3
--a5 T v.t. [to do s.t. without any sense of direction or discretion] (Gr. 1)
a. ~mc: 9 ~CCL\TYSL>,
~ 5
(Please don't rant and rave.)
b. E I ~ R ~ D E ' J ~ $ G ~ %9 I : T~~ t~ I,:
P I & bl
(When my father was in a bad mood, he worked off his bad tem-
per on everybody.)
bf;L Lbl' L r i v -t.l +LA
c. $LOA&&~%I:~-R$~B-~-~&$~%L~,
(My child scribbled kanji on my important papers.)
--kc v.i. 1v.t. [to continue on to s.t. else without a break] (Gr. 1)
Note: V, is very much limited.
x -PLX Kg 9 ##L\T, @,EEt&$d T.67k ,
LA. C*( *O t;
a. % @;ii~6ZEEix3
(transferred
I to the Narita Express at Shinjuku and went to Narita
f2,
640 APPENDIX 2
Airport.)
+~t:ft* n 103 CI: d.h.4~
b. J l l $ @ i E i i ~ V ~~%- b a ~
< ~&~BL\T~sHJ%%EL~
7;' ,
(Kawabata Yasunari is said to have completed his Snow Country
by writing several episodes successively.)
-&tf b v.i. / v.t. [to be accustomed to doing st.] (Gr. 2)
Notes: 1. V1 can be any verb as long as it indicates a repeatable
action.
2. tsukeru in examples (a) and (b) retain the original meaning
of 'to attach s.t. to s.t. else.'
a. LOF~-VB&VW~~T<~Q?
(Will you put this tire on?)
b. 6 BF@& ~iwtz,
(I wrote the appointment date in my notebook.)
1L
c. & o @ & ~ ~ T w w ~w
; a, - t t t v ,
(I'm familiar with that town, so I won't get lost.)
d. &<7tf 9 ~ 1 % 011~&4tsb~~flb>ba~
(It's better not to eat things you are not used to eating.)
e. ~ 0 ~ > ~ x - ~ i i @ b a 7 t f ~ b a ~ e0 b3-tttvo
,
(I'm used to this computer, so there is no problem.)
f. k$+&ik&04tf7b1tsb>$ab,-$ &-YT l/3b>3?F0
(I'm not used to flying, so I get sick easily.)
76
-ECf 5 v.i. I v.t. [an action continues] (Gr. 2) keep k g ; continue
bt;L *li t d . L *$
a. $ L ~ J - R B E F ~ B ~ % S R$C~~T~ L O
~TT,? : ,
(I kept swimming for as long as one hour, so I got tired.)
hrlfihn
g&a)&%l&gll.~mflk I! I C ~
hdc
b.
(During the rainy season this year it kept raining for a long time.)
4: 1% - <h.$i?
c. $ L ~ J : : ~ ~ ~ % H ~ P % Q ~ ~ B L R ~ ~ ~
(I intend to keep studying Japanese even from now on.)
APPENDIX 2 641
--3,StT v.i. [to crush s.t. in a certain manner or to use s.t. until it becomes
useless] (Gr. 1)
Note: - tsubusu means literally 'to crush s.t. in a certain manner' as
in (a)-(c) or it means 'to use s.t. until it becomes useless' as in
(d) and (e).
TLLC bd. bf;L
a. 4 7 > ~ ~ ~ - O Z $ . O $ T $ L ~ ~ ~ LKf2=ko
L ~ S S ~ + ~
(I almost got crushed in a rush hour train.)
fib%Y:h
c. wie FA 0 Y+Y 11 Q & . F ~ Sk,
L
(I smashed a cockroach in the kitchen by treading on it with my
foot.)
Ilt b.1 < h f C*iF'r,
d. #~~+$TC:$.B+&C~~~%V~,S:L~L~
(Up until now I've gone through (lit. driven and worn out) about
ten cars.)
b L + t It
e. %Ld273~ 7 7 7 2 ~ k b ~ 7@J7~2b~, ~ ~ ? i 7 S L " t ~ j 5 1 ~ ~ b f 2
(Since I started jogging I don't know how many shoes I've worn
out.)
t)i
--YT v.i. 1v.t. [to continue doing s.t. until the last moment] (Gr. 1)
- through; finish -ing
b% Loi d%
a. LO%C~&.F~TOI:- fi B W ~ ~L -$,C =:I
(It took me one week to read through this book.)
b. @ti=b~~:307'1' ILQ%V % ~ k ,
(I finally finished running 30 miles.)
*iL fib.*'( * hLd%
c. @Wk%9B$W71b/f4 I. Q LGCb, %&V24Lfzo
(While working part time, he stuck out four years in college.)
+wc d. ' rh *&dr
d. ? a > ~ i ~ % t i b 5 3 OQ$PL%LTL,
%f
(The politician pushed his ideas through.)
e. FK ILO@W~O~$@Q&~~L~~,
(The bullet of the pistol pierced through his heart.)
642 APPENDIX 2
RH
v.i. / v.t. [to do s.t. all over again because of failure or dis-
satisfaction] (Gr. 1) re-; again -
Note: The verb used with -naosu is a controllable action verb.
a. fi"2a&~~z~t~~
(I rewrote my composition.)
b. * Q & ~ L T ~ W i ~ &, & $ d : <&ficjafi9~z,
(I read the sentence again, but I still couldn't understand the mean-
ing properly.)
c. ~ ~ % ~bafcdr
~ s h? &OT,
% ~St$$% L E Ltco
(My calculation appeared to be wrong, so I did the calculation
again.)
d. ad~~9tz~ &~ -Br ,L ~ L
(It was still early, so I went to sleep again.)
*73'
-;%b v.t. [to let s.t. go by] (Gr. 1)
a. Y ~ Y ~ ~ ' O ? ~ O ~ B > - ~ T ~ - T % ~ ~ I L ~ L ~
(After jogging I washed away the sweat in the shower.)
IiltHI liRL
b. + o ) + c ~ i w o? ~ ~ P~
L TIL ~ T &
(The child paid no attention to what his mother had to say.)
It< lo3 d.H<
c. %? ~ W ~ ~ Q ~ L % L ~ ~
(The muddy water swept away the houses.)
:I 6% - T
d. x: X ~ ~ ~ ~ T E I * ~ O F $ ~ Q ~ ~ % ~
(Professor Smith can write letters in Japanese with ease.)
R
-Sh b v.i. / v.t. [to be used to do s.t.1 (Gr. 2) get used to
a. & & ~ h k > jJ'B&T,
s ??4-tfx%?a)~7xlc+3T?k1:,
(I left Chicago in which I got used to live and came to Dallas in
Texas.)
b. %$~~&3@h8$T&&$fifi&,
(It takes time to get used to a dialect.)
APPENDIX 2 643
a. &~WLTIAWWL,
(Don't leave your food half-eaten.)
b. & ~ ~ ~ r s w ~ t&j f i~ a rt :; ~, ~ w ,
(There are some things I omitted writing about, so I will write you
tomorrow again.)
C. ~ba~~k;k$%&Q3.t.~
(There is one thing that I failed to say.)
d. ~ ~ ' ? ~ % % c l j & a t s ~ /&a 7
k%, b:&i)~cl~gfi-c~a~1a
(If you do not read newspapers at least, you will be left behind the
times.)
.Z S h :hlf
e. %~ 7i
% T f i % ~ t ~ % 5 3 3 - ~ +b &Q ~ & 7
(I intend to watch the portion of the video I didn't watch yester-
day.)
Chew C*i S L t 0 i36
f. A & % + P b L A f ? $ b , ,F,baBbZ kbA--7b tsba,
(I have nothing to regret, because I have enjoyed my life very
much.)
0:
(I was very busy today walking around the city of Tokyo all day
long.)
d.fi LziWl*tPV 7 2
q ~ i i ~ ~ ; i ~ &$t !m
e k~m
~=~ --zc. ,~ ~ ~
4
-be v.i. [s.t. uncontrollable comes to its end] (Gr. 1) stop -ing; ceases to -
?
Definition
While "content words," such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, convey
content information about people, things, their actions and states, etc.,
"function words," such as particles and conjunctions, indicate grammati-
cal relations between sentence elements or propositional relations
between statements. Compound particles are function words which con-
sist of two or more words and function as single particles in that they are
interpreted as a unit rather than word by word.
Common structures
Common structures for compound particles are as follows:
(1) Prt. + Vte (a))/ Vrnasu / Vinf.nonpast. (Exs. LT(a));bW
: L;
c:w-+a)
f*i L A
(2) Prt. + N + Prt. (Exs. a) 7: b;:1 Q @ L\K)
(3) N + Prt. (Exs. X&T; Y T )
Preceding elements
Many compound particles mark only nouns; some compound particles
mark verbs or sentences as well as nouns; [NJ, [V -1, [S 1, and
[Sq _I indicate what element precedes the compound particle. (Sq indi-
cates an interrogative sentence.)
Forms
Compound particles appear either in preverbal or prenominal forms.
Compound particles in preverbal forms modify the following verbal, and
compound particles in prenominal forms modify the following noun.
Prenominal forms are listed with N at the end of the compound particle
(e.g., KW-FaN).
Topic marker
Some preverbal compound particles are followed by the topic marker wa
lfT kt;: C 3 b T 12)
to introduce topical phrases. (Exs. b: i+
APPENDIX 3 649
f. Formal forms
In formal speech, Prt. + Vmasu mashite is occasionally used instead of
Prt.+Vte. (Exs. G:&+$aLT; l:-$a LTGi)
g. More notations
= : Expressions which are interchangeable
= : Expressions which are similar but not always interchangeable
.........................................................................................................
The entries below are listed in a-i-u-e-o
order.
xT [V -1 upon; after; in -ing
-L.- .
1 ( 3 2 ~:LPGI&L a -+,
(I will respond to you after thinking it over.)
I: L t
C o>b%%Gi El$&W&
:I l % L -
8T&+TA%@G:23,
Cw-LB< f;
kgT [N _I depending on
6 F&%TEI*O/I\ ~CEIXT&XJ
I: It/,
&Lj
Li3% l
0
11hlL
A. a-s-
(Depending on your effort, you can (lit. will become able to) read
Japanese novels in Japanese.)
2%; 2SOlN [N -1 against; contrary to; reverse; opposite
d%li bfibh LLZilii:?
~$~k~@47kr;i~2@~;&b>Tb>&.
(The wind is blowing against us (lit. against the direction of our
650 APPENDIX 3
course).)
d.h *kL
@siaem&%a
L?:,
(He viewed it in the opposite way from me.)
Note: kBh~~isrnorefomalthankB-3T.
&L7 [N J as; in the capacity of
a ~ s / v s 2 + - ~ b Z ~L2T&% ~ S & ? : ~
(Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.)
7 . 1 Z 4 ~ 3 t k % 1 ~ t : 4 % ; h & $ ~ ~ & ~ ~ ~ < $ ~ ~ ~ & T
(Plastic is widely used as a substitute (lit. a substitute material) for
glass.)
(+to shite (DBJG: 501))
t: LTlt [N J for
I- t: L T ~ S ~ L ~ ~ T :
zar;t:t?%t'o,r~+-
(For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.)
(+to shite wa (DBJG: 502-03))
~ I % ~ T / ; Bk ~3 3\ N
I ;l tjS7fiN [N _I unlike; different from
TI1 % .L?
82s/ ~ c ~ ~ I : ~ B ~ T F x ~ % H ? ? ~
(Unlike me, Mr. Noguchi is skilled with his hands.)
YE!2s2%im3t:gka&-3Tb%,
(John has different ideas from mine.)
&Z~&C: [N / V J at the (same) time; when: as; while; as well as
d-nC~. It=:/*
j~f;kta~~~~r~czZ4i~&~1:~
(She quit her company at the time of her marriage.)
&&&a ~ t e c c m jzo
w~~ t Lb B
CIiL FwDrJ ?
~ Y ~ ~ - ~ ~ $ ? & ~ ~ & A T H $ ~ ~ ~ ~ X % - Y
(Soccer, as well as baseball, is now one of the major sports in Japan.)
N'd% ti*? XAd'< Ptiii
&fiti~~tu,s:~~$*~a,~~~~,
(Ogai, as well as Soseki, is a giant in Japanese literature (lit. a giant
peak in Japanese literature who stands side by side with Soseki).)
&ZZL* rnJ parallel to
<(it) [N J without
L~@T.c#~ LT~~EGZ-P~
a ~ ,
(In this town you cannot live without a car.)
(+nashi de wa)
rw & t L C i
aik~o~iwt
~~=iszo&%~i%b
r;habro
(This project cannot be advanced without support from the govern-
652 APPENDIX 3
ment.)
(c3nashi de wa)
7 /k ;7
[N / V J when; at; in; on the occasion of; before; prior to
- I W
GLRL(7)
-.,
I.4:"y * c r ~ t 2~frd.cLcW CLKL .
7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o m s ~ & ~ f f : 0
(Before studying in Germany, I received advice from Prof. Tanaka.)
4 l i I t C I: B L l L i L OL d.<lt
%Lb\&&%%bb~Zlt:77, I$.~sF~~s~~)&&Q?$% LIL~c
&if
ILb r; ILbb),
(Before starting a new business, I have to secure Y20,000,000 in funds.)
L *%A? LniI:L Llk,L +L4w
$#&t ~ D R I E ~ Z P ~ ~ T ~ > ~ ~ ~ P ~ ~ & ? ~5R?fO
CL@%~$
I
(The new president's speech (lit. greeting) on the occasion of the
assumption of his duties appears to have moved the employees.)
$L l w i
%%,KI*%!$k.r,T / E L ~ I ~ ) & & <Q ~ & L T ~ ~ ~ T ? s ~
(Please master how to deal with (the situation in case of) an emer-
gency.)
(e ni atattelatan)
h
CZQ9e7 [N J according to; to
+~~Q9e7&As%tvff~
(We selected furniture according to our budget.)
t,tLT?f HLdI<
$L ~ i i @ % C Z e b e 7 % - 3 ?z0
(We danced to the music.)
CZ&L\T; CZ&(tBN / tZ&L\TON [NJ at; on; in; during
~ ~ 7 m 3 t a 9=s rs o rI.~7~. ; ~ ~ F I L E ~ L \ T ~ Y ~ ~ ; ~ & ~
SVhL t5d.b.
(+ni Oitelokeru)
L % G ( - CC=GL'L"t;N/t=&Gt-C-CN
); [N _I in proportion to; in
accordance with; according to; depending on; in compliance with; in
response to
8 i*S Le+
i! 5WL~LW&
& @U&L"-CE&
.E!&.E!b:.f;'-9-~#%~~;kk,
(Bonuses were paid to all the employees according to their perfor-
mances.)
idv 25 S*i O r iC*LL*58 i C d.L f;lL Lm<
~ ~ O Z * C Z & L ' T ~ % % F A & % ~ ~S #f iB&%Z k K & 9 k
(In compliance with the union's request, it has been decided that the
standard working hours will be reduced.)
Lsitai b i l r
1 ~ hC=&L'L"'fE
r jEQ%-:?3 TT,
(You should choose a house according to your income.)
%tPfi'b%Q
[N I Sq
- Kh b T
regardless of; independently of; whether or not
Lli ' L A ? LL
Z a > ~ $ $ T i i ? $ % ~ ~ ~ ' f i aISJ&&:W.
b%~, B T a,~
(In this company people can be promoted equally regardless of sex.)
bnbh CrtvCL
~ ~ t i ~ ~ ~ f i ~ $ ~ & j 5 Z
l O
~ Yj Df -i; ~~I .~
~ ; f i ' ~ ~ I.B$J&
a 9 e rl R,
(We will advance this project whether we get a grant or not.)
%c:{*fivm%.r-- / & % T I , k$da~Q~t;%t&+t1;fi&~
(Regardless of who it is, a person who violates the rules will be
punished.)
CZfiafiabb N [N _I related to; concerning
C*5 rw '
Z hbi&kC:M'bbS- k+E,
(This is an important matter which concerns life and death.)
C&f -1 not limited to; not only
2% ab,lj?:L I: IZL
? @ e € J Bm=KJ%Q, c 3 f i ~ o E ~ e ? ? b ; k ~ b ~ & ,
(Arranged marriage is not limited to Japan; it is practiced in other coun-
tries, too.)
(e ni kagirazu)
654 APPENDIX 3
cmt7(~ [N _I to; over; when it comes to; in; at; in the matter of;
as for
q i f : &&& g qi, F$$&, jo
.
(There was heavy rain today covering Tokai and Kanto (lit. from Tokai
to Kanto).)
~!$ZE~P,,C-~T~'J;/ }-;/~:i$3df,
(I'm going to Washington, D.C. over the weekend.)
8%5 G ~ I z ~ \ [ ~~' ~n TEu , ~ ~ ~ x ~ R ,
l P +/*Ib.
(In place of Prof. Yamada, who is ill, Prof. Suzuki taught us.)
d. d'<L* +?P lm
~++~~~~~~~zR;~,~J.;~.ILY-%B%L
(Scientists are looking for an energy source to replace oil.)
(+ni kawatte; kawan' ni (DBJG: 184-87))
) ; I T ~ N / C Z M L T ~ D N [N _I concerning; with
~:KL(T(~Z)L
regard to; with respect to; regarding; about; on; as for; as to; in terms
of; in connection with, in reference to
& r i V w+! i + t i V I A h 0 9
$4 W%C:M~79~%aljiLd"~e
LI.,
(With regard to the sales tax, the opinions of the leading party and the
APPENDIX 3 655
opposition parties conflicted.)
i:LIfL
A ~ ~ C Q8
IfL
Z &C:
- L*3 t
S M L T U 3 E%%CQz 2 $ # w o
(Concerning human language acquisition, there are still many unknown
things.)
+iLL*iti Sri %r?TL?' *%*w VG
% 3 R RTB ~ & = B B ~ B Y B ~ : M ~ ~ ~ ; ~ I : .
(Last week a conference on superconductivity was held in Tokyo.)
(+ni kanshitelkansum)
~B;iit(~) [N _I in addition to
2.L S P r <
f i Z c & % c = f i n i t ~ i m f i ~ w c LP,
;
(In addition to her beauty, she has superb acting talent.)
t z k ~ ( 7 ) CZRLTDN
; = K { ~ ~ Q /- 37:
C !II; K ? ! ~ ~ T T O N
[N 1V _I in case of; on; when; at; in
+?&&LA s ; i P ~ <
Z ~ ~ ! C : R L T I "'I j5$ C ~Q G-B ~~~ C~Q D~fi ~
&l&
(In this experiment we obtained cooperation from some American
experts.)
ILltL IiQ d. Sb,?' C CL b rbL
S$~#;~&C=RL%M~&QBB~~LI:,
(When leaving Japan, I got rid of all my household goods.)
I L s*i
%$?.C=(RLr / * S T L T J T I ~ & ~ % L< ! ! $ & ~ T $ 3 b l T % ~ ~ ~
(Please master how to deal with (the situation in case of) an emer-
gency.)
656 APPENDIX 3
C Z ~ / %L\)
~ T [N / V _I as; with; in accordance with; in propotion
to; following
+ % r i nvtw
$@I& ~o+acc%7-irr:rzt; KT=? C=.&X/JL
(In accordance with the president's order, Sawada flew to Manila
immediately.)
<
1: I ~ L I VSV 0 1 9l. c It/. 'd'< L e i L+
s*okwmn< a ~ h t z ~ i ~ 3 ~ s ~ & ~ ~ ~ ~
(As Japan's economic power gets stronger, the number of Japanese lan-
guage learners has increased.)
(+ni shitagattelshitagai)
L e Lt
f & ~ i : j f l ~ f=&L%2LT?S b3,
(Please teach in accordance with the teacher's manual.)
fib,
KHL(-T:(LL));K%JTQN/t=HLTON [N _I toward; to; for;
against; in; per; in contrast with1 to; compared with; while; whereas;
with regard to; about
r r8 rv (
~%c~R%ccHLTM$R@c& fz0
~Q&~T~
(Japan has adopted a closed policy toward foreign countries up to now.)
+L% 3.L F*l x +
7 % * ~ I i k & t c H ~ Q % L 3 f l k * z b3fzo 9~
(People's views about divorce have changed considerably in America.)
APPENDIX 3 657
(c3 ni totte)
t: L ( 7 ) 6; 8 t B N [N-] contrary to; in contrast to; against; in
violation of; while; whereas
dsb, Lalh3Ls
~ & I ~ + % cLz TET ttlw4m9I:,
(Contrary to expectations, few people attended the meeting.)
10 Lo7
t ~ v w~i e f i v ~ r / ) b a ) ~ : ~ ~ ~ 3 % a ) & k ~
a 0
t
Cckfi'77 [N _I toward; to; at; heading for
fib,*.? ' +<SAC?
~;.lca&~z+-+~~%~~!Eccfifi~7~%tv~~~a.
(The typhoon is advancing toward the north at a speed of 30 kilometers
per hour.)
LACf ( 7 ) ; CZl;ilCtT'(DN [N _I toward; for; aimed at
d.7 $3 hblhL f w Y < C*i L bi'%Cri
$ n % c i % + ~ k Yh 3%Act7f% S&L-~b1a.
(Kazuo is working very hard for the college entrance exams next year.)
ITLSW cs r It/rS*i tt
$El&, ;611cck;ha%~b1=;i\1k~-k%eckCf 7 0 % %#ifEdi) 1;h-c
baa0
(Research aimed at the development of new energy to replace oil is
presently underway .)
CZ+,fiV~>;h%f [N I S _I in spite of; despite; although; though
L hb' 1-3
; hr%
% ~ ~ . 1 % ~ + , f i > f i a9 i~ j- = , ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ b ~
(Despite the fierce rain, the soccer game continued.)
3~ c&&&( % ~ - c ~ f i ~ ~ f i t f%
06L
i ak $; ~b a~i l~l ~, ~ : ,
(In spite of the fact that Hiroshi loved Miki deeply, he didn't marry
her.)
(+ni mo kakawarazu)
zo$@ea779- b % $ t c g ~ ~ \ ~ Q i l l ; k t)L:a,-r-&a.
(This report was (written) based on a (questionnaire) survey.)
Z 0+<hLLt L I r i IfL L e i
Z;kG&ZB QFitiDe $4 Ce455<% % I.,
(This is a study based on historical documents from 500 years ago.)
(+ni motozuitelmotozuku)
K ~ & 7 7 / k ~ ) LI &
; 6N [N 1Sq J due to; owing to; because of;
-
according to; depending on; from to -; by; by means of; with; on the
basis of
660 APPENDIX 3
B $ K ~ ? T % B E~ <7
if& i
: ~
(I lost my father due to the war.)
++LC*, H L d.fi -2,
%46k~T$,k2.%&.~7,
(Teaching methods differ from teacher to teacher.)
VLi Pvb +
FZ~:&~~-~'E&T-C~H$;~~E;~~.
(The cost differs considerably depending on where you stay.)
It& S o i Ct : I It/.ifL.~ L e707
ZDRRfitiEl&&RCZk-r,78CShI:,
(This research institute was established by the Japanese government.)
< , j~L&,1Cck6@)$~a;ka0
(A resolution not by force but by discussion is hoped for.)
iZk%% =: C 7 M b ; h r;-T
[N J regardless of; independently of; (what)ever it may be; whether
or not
db.L? d'<h*
~ o w w ~ c r a ~ ~ , Z?k;;~;kir~X$a&&~+t-c < ha.
(If you are capable, this company assigns you important tasks regard-
less of your educational background.)
,It-= d. hL5 <
$%=k ~ - ~ w R c ~ M + L ~ T ,
(We'll inform you of the results whether we hire you or not.)
%Z rk 5% / * W M G - ~ I k86&~1;%i&+tr;~a.
(Regardless of who it is, a person who violates the rules will be pun-
ished.)
CZkB 2 [N _1 according to
**
% % ~ c ~2.,a$'d
h
7 n 11 n:g.nzp+, 7 ; ~ ij;.,
(According to the newspaper, it snowed in Florida yesterday.)
(c3sWa1,Note 2 (DBJG: 409))
C Z ( b f ~ 7 /7/ * I l l ;
Ebf';.N/ /Zbf;.?T-CN [N -1 extending
for 1over 1through; for; over
v* <
~z -
1bCZbfr~7$$~$~hl;,
(The break in the levee extended for 100 meters. (lit. The levee was
APPENDIX 3 661
broken extending over100 meters.))
r.7 L e i $4.
a
F O ~ 4 ~ c 2 ~~~cw.-.v%$is;kjz~
-
(The drama was telecast for one week.)
I: 179 :i l r i + L Lo5 H
_iJ>Ic=.;br~B:3 - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ a ~ ; b 9 f z
(The musical, whose run was extended for two months, ended last
week.)
ah(#) -
[N -1 as far as is concerned; as far as goes; from the -
viewpoint of; according to; in terms of
2 ~ $ f % c i g C a _ t - ~ . ~ t h $ i5f s+ -jI:,
(There seems to be no problem with this plan as far as the documents
are concerned.)
(+no ue de wa)
TON
(+kawari ni (DBJG: 184-87))
(Because of the recession, cars are not selling well this year.)
(r3 sei)
(D%C [N J every time; each time
bhL L If& *A& A< L*)
% L ! ~ % , % ( I > B ~ ~ %B- LQcf
F B ~ tL~%?2
r;tsb>,
(I have to review kanji every time we have a test.)
(r3 tabi ni)
a f : b ( t Z ) ; a>f;&aN [N J for the purpose of; in order to; because
of; owing to; for the benefit of; for the sake of; on behalf of
%$w % a k & c = b%+ < +ZT.-$-,
hblhLltL P*?
(Prof, Tanaka gave an orientation for the students who are going to
Japan.)
~ ~ ~ X a > t c ~ g & ~ ~ & & \3' -j-, i c ~ >
(I'm writing a fapanese-English dictionary for foreigners.)
(+ni yottelyori, Related Expression In; tame (ni) (DBJG: 447-5 1))
f i $ y i &?% t: 2 b a 0
(Because it was a discussion using (lit. through) an interpreter, we are
unsure about whether or not our ideas were fully conveyed to the other
party.)
Lltvt *w*7
z ~ L ~ ; o & & { * ~ ~ L T / ~ L T ~ ~ . ) ~ & O A ~ O t&
~,%Q N S Z
50
(Through these photos we can relive the lives of people in those days.)
$*i'
$EP .el:
LA.
[N J -
around; with as the center
i # * i f:Wt? P t,
fiU$iiARBEP&CZB-3 Tba5.
(The earth revolves around the sun.)
:L r LbGi d%ti
+EOBR~~MRQEP~~~ZX"$B&~;~I:~
(The last typhoon brought heavy rain around the Kanto area.)
B%L"(T);E%L"TO)N
TON; B + L k N / B e L T O N
-
Q%L(T); B%L(T); BjiQLf:N/ Q B L
J through; throughout
b S L */rdW
$J 9 & ~ B ~ L " - & + J ~ ~ : ~ @ & Q L&,E,
$
(I asked for an interview with Mr. Kimura through an acquaintance.)
Z ~ L G ; ~ $ ~ B % L " - CL&%.20Ti&&bbf
O$ b:~ib'$tbb'~
(We are engaged in research into (lit. aiming at) clean energy.)
8.677 [N -1 with; by means of; using; as of
0;iLai LI I2 L r i L r
Z D @ R B ~ . ~ ~ ~ R ~ B G : ( ~ ~ S * T ~ ~ ~ Z ?
(We use this receipt as a warranty (lit. replace a warranty with this
receipt).)
I2h.J-wdw -k+v
~ta&~~$k@aw%~aT,
(With this we will close this meeting.)
L* i L mbd'77vf;i L l % z i L*iI:L
&~&kk-~-Et8.677&dz~hk
Et:RESkL3To
(Mr. Shimada will become our company president as of January 1.)
666 APPENDIX 4
Appendix 4 Conjunctions
ut ~rYY~-ct.c.
bl t
(There are so many things that I want to do. But life is short.)
QO < %! / disjunctive, accusatory, contemptfull
~$ii$&$~bb~9~%~T Q bOa<&
%!,, &&%2k3tsbr0
(He is insisting on his rights. But he does not perform his
duties.)
AWCI V.t *i
@!i&~$&O~TIf b a l i 1 ~2 l i ~ d 1 1 % ~ T b ai h
O~< %!,
TCiZW ;f;r%gTbl&07'f0
(She is saying nothing but nice things in front of people. But
behind their backs she is speaking ill of them.)
Qh T S /highly disjunctive I (418-20)
( 3 h) E& h 5 f 1highly disjunctive; accusatory; surprise;
dissatisfaction <w> I
Qh f& O E / highly disjunctive, accusatory; surprise; dissatisfaction /
*v*=
q m ~ ~ c i & P a # ~ .i rh~IaT ~S otrS;n,aah5f/ t
+it
v % l = % r r + C. iPhihr7
OCC), -H-RB~~@I%
LTbla0
(His life is extremely busy. Yet he exercises one hour every
day.)
Qh CC L 7 CZ / disjunctive, unexpectedness 1
EIi B $ ~ % O @**F ~ Z ?7FZ?, +QhtZ
:4 l % l w<w e L b L
~ LTLl, %&O%%bi%
&%?9 7:h0
(I was told that he is an expert on the Japanese economy. But
his lecture was awful, wasn't it?)
APPENDIX 4 671
(You were hospitalized until yesterday, right? But you look so
healthy !)
Q fi CT L 7% I disjunctive, partial acceptance of S1 content /
& o ~ b & b > 9 & ~ < 3 k b t v r p . i f dqchQl z L T 6 , % d ~ a - T b >
&tv~b~T.ifbL
(He always shows up late. But he's very late today, isn't he?)
4&09~tiij'-g.&b o128dh~b1~
(There is a lot of cholesterol in eggs. But it is absurd to stop eat-
ing eggs completely.)
b1
1 (DBJG: 416-19)
'
i: I%& L*< f i b >
X&a~s$&m
~2 LIZ, ;ffiaa5, %ib~A~=&;~.ctf:,
674 APPENDIX 4
?h IJ fia 1 addition I
I. 7 7 :11 -timm&ar-Eat:&-c ~ 2 I , ~ W P
b0 t; (i:'
<
< b6Lh t:h
IJT& / ?hldfiaIJ fi*] ~ ' 8 1 / ~ 6 b ~ 6 ~ ~ b ' % t : & ; k ~ & . >
< kko
(My host family kindly came to pick me up at Narita Airport.
And it didn't stop there. They also took me around every day to
all sorts of interesting places.)
3 t; 1 addition 1
fib Ith.l*i
@ I ~ ' @ L~r :%
i r a% % / U C = ? . > T It ~k' &
, ~X k 6 % < ~& 3 & - 3 ~ ,
tsd.h d . ? e m l ? ,
(He is doing research vigorously. Moreover, he is quite outgo-
ing, associating with people very closely.)
(D) Conjunctions which mean 'OR':
? h I: & 1 alternative /
% C$ I alternativeI (17 1-74)
8j 6L Cb 1 alternative I
APPENDIX 4 675
F-IW: ~ a - 6 . n . ~m t i f & h : ~ ~ f i ~ ,
(Would you like beer? Or would you prefer sake?)
+%T%
(This concludes sports-related news. Moving on, next we have
the weather forecast.)
t L 3T / change of subject /
? h Id ? 3 2 / change of subject <s> /
(It's been so warm up until last week, but it's cold this week,
isn't it? By the way, your son is going to take a college entrance
examination next year, right?)
676 APPENDIX 4
T 3 a Lfi,
(Cinderella left the castle in a hurry, losing one of her shoes on
the way. Meanwhile back at Cinderella's house, her sisters had
come home disappointed.)
(F) Conjunctions which indicate PARAPHRASING:
~ L \ & R6 L: / rephrasing /
f z k ? Z B ! k i k*, 87=4;/B&9&~61:75',& $ * ~ 8
-Fa k 7 N 2 L3+?Ao
(I do not do things that are harmful to my body. {For exam-
ple / To give examples}, I do not smoke, nor take in too much
caffeine, nor sit up until late at night.)
QQh>&ZXC%/reason why /
d.h,i,'
, &~tia~plo-~+~~X
%AaA#k>a. I f & f /3hEML-Cl ItCpl;3>1;, T4L56-p
ai..:$Et:%;i.rk~aAbk~s.
(There are people who believe that learners of Japanese should
start with roman letters first. On the other hand, there are also
people who believe that one should start with hiragam.)
APPENDIX 5 679
Fk! (a moment)
<
2k d%(counterproductive); 3 3 - X (re-
re<: 5s
counter-; reverse
verse course)
r
[polite prefix] ((your) family); (marriage); i~ikt~
I .,EL
voyage)
half; semi- zE%1(half hour); $g (semicircle); $d
4th. L: d%
4 (semiautomatic)
It/* L l d . b , ' Z S It& P L i
anti-; counter- E?f8@I (antisocial); El+H (counterac-
tion)
0 s ~ r c D + A ~ < + ~
non-; un- 3b&E (nonmetal); ~F#-~WJ
(unscientific)
0 It I f L L * 0 L Iic,b.l:L
-ed; -ee BEIW (the (person) insured); 419%#A. A
(payee); &k@& (dividend)
L *r*>+(
un-; in-; dis- (unnatural); EiER (inaccurate); $
(discontent)
L < t ? b t 3 525 h< S '
vice-; deputy; HA% % (pic,e*$yident); 1 911& (deputy
additional d
governor); 4Fl A (additional income)
right; due; pure ky (right above); k%(due north);
LS
E! (pure white)
APPENDIX S 681
1w
@ every; per 8%(every morning); p " / u
(per minute)
(+ma& (DBJG. 233-36))
i un-
X dWlt? 5 6.blli?
2%T?#t (unsolved); 5kR% (undeveloped)
fr + L L h h C r i I/*
% W & fr(indifferent);
Ut7Ltl
%% (uncondi-
tional); % b 'R (expressionless)
2. Suffixes
3%. . (musician); $3 B4 Z (specialist); &
* L d r < d.
%Z
e L b L 6.
%&(capitalist)
& -ization; become
L v 73% d , b < Z ? d,
E! i@ik (cinematization); @%iL-if 23 (be-
come complicated)
1 ) limited to; only +3 lrIs rl (limited to this week); --ED$"I
iL Lw3il.E r>3 rd , ~
I; IfLCW
@ 1% 09 (emotional)
hfi L
Z6 bumble plural %L? B (we)
marker] (d-fachi (DBJG: 440-41))
x -er; -or g&x(sender); k % h (spectator) I LS7l:L
c*',a;
ift expense; cost; fee &$a(the cost of living); 42ER (hous-
*b+7 IT
d.W IT
IT
d l ( +?L.u?
fi style; looking like
I: MLh?
El $I(Japanese style); ?!&El (looking
like a student)
:ILLXL
% worth; for
h i
t FIL% (ten dollars worth); T i A e (for
five people) (+-bun)
B ?k.
APPENDIX 6 685
The following chart lists additional counters that are not listed in Appendix 6B
of DBJG (604-07). (Although the counters given in parenthesis are the same as
the ones given in DBJG, they are repeated here for your convenience.)
*For native Japanese numerals and Sino-Japanese numerals, see DBJG
t (602-03).
h/rCL,
i *Except in Item 59 (+&), "7" sounds more natural when it is pronounced
[nana] rather than [shichi]
Type A: No phonetic change takes pla:?, e;~~h~r/rinrth~
Si$oJ,apanese num-
ber or in the counter. (Exs. &, G,%, b,B, T&) a,
m e A': Exactly the same as Type A except than number 4 is pronounced
c *L ah
&,
yo not yon. (EXS. RW,+)
Type A": Exactly the same as Type A except that numbers 4,1;! and 9 are
pronounced shi, shichi and ku, respectively. (Ex. 'name of
the month')
m e A"': Exactly the same as Type A except that the initial sou$ of the
counter with number 3 changes from wa to ba. (Ex. 'bird')
m e B: The counter starts with the sound of h- but changes to p- after 1,
3,6, 8 and 10 as f?",!':; ,l,[ipp-1, 3 [sanb-],6 [ropp-1, 8 [happ-1,
10 [jipp-I. (Exs. $,?F, E)
Type B': Exactly the same as Type B except that the initiaJ sound of the
counter with number 3 is not b- but p-. (Ex. rB 'stay (over-
night)')
Type C: When the counter starts with the sound of k- the last sound of the
number changes for 1, 6, 8 and 10 as fo1l;ws: IfYM-],,6 [mkk-1,
8 [hakk- / hachik-] and 10 [jikk-1. (Exs. 8, m ,a, &, @)
Type Cr: Exactly the same as Type C except that the initial szynd of the
counter with number 3 can be either k- or g-. (Ex. B)
Type D: When the counter starts with the sound of s- the last sound of the
number changes for 1, 8 and 10 as follows: 1 [iss-1, 8 [hass-]
and 10 rjiss-1. (Exs.
27 ev
%,%,8)
Type D': Exactly the same as Type D except that t h initial
~ sound of the
,d.
counter with number 3 is z- not s-. (Exs. 'pair of footwear9)
Type E: When the counter starts with the sound of p-, the last sound of
the number changes for 1, 6, 8 and 10 as follows: 1 [ipp-1, 6
[ropp- 1rokup-1, 8 [happ- 1 hachi-] and 10 [jipp-1. (Ex. 6-P,
$2 F)
5 p e I? When the counter starts with the sound oft-, the initial sound of
the counter changes with regarcl t o J,-f and 10 as follows: 1
[iff-], 8 [hhaff-1, 10 [jitt-1. (Exs. B,$,B, b 2 )
<
(The character M has fourteen strokes.)
d. ec
8. %& 'family' (C / Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals)
Ex. ZO ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ O & & ~ ~ O ~ ~ O ~ ~
(Two families are living in this house-my older brother's family
and my family.)
V? s
9. %# 'semester' (A)
IZ < f wdr< +"Vs $
Ex. ~ i k ~ O ~ ~ T 3 1 : - l f ~ ~ ~ % j i ; j l ~ b ~ f h ~ ~ ,
(I have taught only two semesters at this college.)
10. f j U > 'gallon' (A)
<a* k ~ 6
Ex. ZO$Gi 1 1 5 " ~; / T ~ O ? - ~ I L % ~ ,
(This car runs 40 miles to the gallon.)
s
11. 'term' (C)
688 APPENDIX 6
Itk
19. $6 'digit' (C / Irregular: 1-4 in the native Japanese numerals.)
APPENDIX 6 689
ilr<eb1 hFl F
Ex. & a ) ~ & I k ~ ~ a ) & $ W l & ~&&?2bao
f~&
(That student cannot do even multiplication of two-digit numbers.)
20. 'house' (C')
if11 9 IiCfli? 1 A.
Ex. ~a)k?KIk$~;3'*Ak&&&~
(This city has eight bookstores.)
It11
21. I3 'distance' (= 1.9 yard) (C')
AC b CC 1: It/*
EX. & ~ ) G I ~ B ~ U I W ~ ) ? ~ ~ ~ L ~ G T ~ ~
(That store is a small store with front measuring two ken (one ken
= 5.695 ft.).)
22. 'house (fml)' (C)
c * ~ F ( c r ~ c - 2
EX. z a ) % ~ b +~w:1$;3'*
~ m+ p C~;~~&~-CL~Z,,
(About forty houses stand in this new residential area.)
-
23. %! 'word' (A)
O+<: v abl 1
: 13L -
Ex. $$L %EZJJFJ~) El $%& 3 S ba0
(Write down your answer in Japanese using less than one hundred
words.)
24. % 'school' (C)
bfiL Cw?< C it11 BL:? zWLLr
SRC:@IB%&
Ex. 8 i ~ ~ k k ~ d % a ) % , L %L k o
(During the college entrance examination period, I sent applications
to three institutions.)
Zi Lr
25. 9 ( S ) 'Number X (car)' (A)
EXS. (a) 2 ~ 7 1 \ " -12 j?g~~
Z W T ~ ~
(My apartment is on the 5th floor of building No. 5.)
L < ?i
Ln rbrJ L+
(b) &22@6k 4 . 7 @ - ~ ; = s b ~ a t ~
(The dining car is car No. 4.)
85
26. IIJI 'plate' (D 1 Irregular: 1 4 in the native Japanese numerals)
690 APPENDIX 6
C - B S bs tti C
EX. z ; ~ c ~ ~ I ~ J - x T . L " ~+Lm > x L~t t l~- c&a bI b;r,) 3 t ,
(This is a full course, so there will be more than ten dishes.)
C
27. P 'letter'@)
Ex.
Cvd'< I:
Z 2 c r l ~ +fl*&a)-+&Ci$%-3-6?
~
UL - w6hLCv
z B + (" 1; 5& L 'at,
ILV* < -rL p s i
(The fitst year Japanese students at this college study about three
hundred kanjis.)
28. % 'company' (D)
I L 0 ** CV*L 224 I
EX. @!&d'~ ~!&8??7'$7 T ~ > & o T ,f@ & f l % ~ b > ~
(Because four companies are making the same product, competition
is fierce.)
Lei
29. )$ 'circling' (D)
t- L a i
Ex. @Ci&?$7732
(I am run around the grounds about ten times every day.)
L*i d.L
3d. 8(H) 'week' (D)
:I i%L - S*iL*id'L
EX. E O El$&l%&'bif~ B Bdf?.,
(The summer Japanese program is nine weeks long.)
L* a * ,
31. IS(@) 'kind'(D)
6% C~L*hkl
EX. <" 1 ; ~ @ ~ & t v ~ w f . ~
(a) X G ~ + @ %
(My father was taking about ten kinds of medicine.)
i I - I: L* aw ~ t w r ?L
(b) B ~ E Ct aL~ @ ( f i )O%%BW& h o
(There are two kinds of adjectives in Japanese.)
L1-l
32. S 'chapter' (D)
if<LhLXL
Ex. t3k$*Ci&%bTj1@1?fl,
P L X If-Lri
f ? I @ L;5lf b > T b aa L.', a IrLz? d.
EX. 1 + - - B ~ a H ~ ~ k t i ~ i ~ ~ 1 ~ 3 i & ,
(I wonder what will happen to the Japan-US relationship in the 21st
century.)
37. 6%'household' (D)
I: +i LLI L%iL< BL .tC i;b~
Ex. b%KiiIB%fE %93B%~ $ % # g b > ~
(There are many two-household and three-household residences in
Japan.)
38. 6fi 'generation' @)
Bh+iCI> ti12
EX. ~ ~ P & c : ~ ~ z B R ~ B L T ~ ~ ~ ,
(Three generations live together in our house.)
rL
39. F 'thousand' (D')
i: ( 3 : '
~ ~ T & $ . T ~ &B
Ex. &B%&&~;R ZP3$(*1;b>T
-~
k3
L7'&
ZLFh - *.,< .iL
(If I remember correctly, the train fare from Narita Airport to Tokyo
was 83,500.)
40. % 'sen' (D)
3.h *,-,+ih tr i 2 -373.
Z r i
49. T 'piece of t6fu / pistol / block' (F)
APPENDIX 6 693
ti h Ph.%ri<fi
Ex. (a) Ca)%ZR, 3 T 7 ; P b 1 ,
(Please give me three blocks of this t6fu.)
(b) % ; ~ L F X I.ILIBZT)L&~ICPIL
(The man possessed three pistols.)
% t i
50. R 'one billion' (F)
dwL? L IfLlL T<Ph.%riLL
Ex. C o)%;iEfOR*&b;t:&Z dl5 WI?,
(The capital of this company is approximately 3 billion yen.)
f r i *
5 1. T €l 'subdivison of a large city' (F)
Ex. ig&ih.%iin
Ql TH 0 %ti):~ 39;S.T-Fla0
(The No. 4 district of Ginza is bustling, isn't it?)
73
I:&*?
58. A 3 'portion' (Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native and Sino-Japanese
numerals)
Ex. 3- L %%X?$$&bl L 3 To
(We'd like to order portions of sushi for five people.)
59. r& '- year student' (A')
Ex. 15 L 2G&X9 2 7 + - FkFO5@kTT0
r k w ( S L ~ L ~ V
1
73. B$I 'room' (Irregular: 1 and 2 in the native Japanese numerals, and
beyond 3 the counter is seldom used.)
bkLk6 .F h 1% t i -h2 I
EX. L - A0 a*,
+L B D ~ ~ C ~ W ~ ~ q-ch I :
(In our house two rooms are reserved for our grandparents.)
74. ;j: '10,000' (A)
t
h( i&*&
EX. ~ z i p 3 6 r ; ~ f : r ; E ~ ~ a * - h . ,
(What would you do if you were given H,000,000?)
75. % 'person' (A)
:b I% - ti L ?:(++ e ~ n w t:/r L
Ex. Z 6'1 B*&D? 7 % C:iik3f &7E%, % 3 ~ & 7 & 8 b r 3.f,
(This Japanese class has three female students and five male
students.)
76. % - b 1b 'meter' (A)
Ex.
h
la>^^ I&?$$
I: Bh.
- 1- %fi YT*,
(Mt. Fuji is more than 3,000 meters high.)
r)&
Appendix 7 Cooccurrence
Some adverbs, particles, and phrases commonly occur with certain kinds of
sentence / clause endings, as listed below.
1. Adverbs, particles, and phrases which occur with negative sentence
endings:
b.3#*' tL LZ5
g@$&Rkr< ablkti, - & [ Z l $ & f
7
v * i ? W <
-RE([$) abl,
(We cannot make a generalization about comics being
bad from an educational point of view.)
-(counter) t : L 7 ~ ~ ~ $ $ ~ : t i ~ ~ t : ~ ~ & & ~ ~ & ~ ~ d r b l
~ z ~ : a t i , a ~ ; c ~ ~ - ~ t i -~c:&.n~ab~,
+t~~-ak
(Not a single computer here functions properly.)
+/rttv D t 0 . . ,
-(Counter) 5 ~ ! k b i - - h S4~-~G:&~$Q
-~ I&
(Not a single teacher came to the party.)
t L ~ + A
-
Z D B ~ @ C ~~$~g~$.ii-msaw,
:~~
-
I: 1 % ~ IX. *'-e-
+@I?~I>%t : ~ 7 : , ~ @ - j - ;Ch:i
li
fbld.ab\,
(We cannot forgive him just because he is a child.)
(dkara to itte)
APPENDIX 7 699
(He is not that kind of person at all.)
-ti
9L8 ?%;3f':< S/"Wb0T, 9 L & L < a b a 0
(I have a lot of friends, so I don't feel lonely at all.)
*A"*!.
&?8 ~a)&$iGi&&b:&f:?'sba,
(This dictionary is totally useless.)
%LT z k ~ r;w%%a
< ~;ALT&F~G~w~;~w,
(A translation like this wouldn't take much time.)
z
5726
S L 72 CLQV
m%&0#%ii%7
"
ab\,, &&i$<
(Prof. Yoshida's lectures are not interesting at all.)
%A =&y?=&T ~0k%i%& 7&~?7&7?likV72b~~
(This problem cannot be solved easily.)
~ 0 & 3 l5TL\48
i ~ : $Kbi&&Ccba0 S r l L%l
a t~a
&
a zoW%i;fat~atr&~fa~.
(This problem cannot be solved easily.)
cf. ZotLb;fQh*h'Qi~%b~Lb~~
(This sushi is pretty good.)
(+nakanaka)
I: llh - tv 7r
cf. Z a LIZ,
B*&DRETTL ~ I ~/LZ$WI
(Although it was a Japanese film, I understood
almost all of it.)
~ & i i % & a7 ~ b 1 3 + ? & ~
(The meeting hasn't begun yet.)
cf. IL-kZ -
l.li&f&Tb~3~,
(My roommate is still asleep)
( e m a d a (DBJG: 224-25))
& 5-c / % 5 3 3 1) ri$$ii%&m5 ~ & & t t b > ~
(Kawamura cannot speak English at all.)
cf. 911
I= IfhCL 1: Ith
- G ~ B Q P B * A D L$ K B ~ & Q % - F ,
-
(Sally speaks Japanese just like a (native)
Japanese.)
&i&%~liLd+?tv,
(I won't be late (for class) any more.)
cf. G r % i i & i 4 i ~ L?;,
a
(I've had my breakfast already.)
( e m 0 (DBJG: 224-55))
bLL t *d.
+~ta~~pp~c3c"i'F1;.c=%+?tsb~,
(I am not as good a speaker as Mr. Tanaka.)
LS3. b > c9 bS<
cf. L T E C-bKb>7kdl7f&
~~
(He wasn't home, as I expected.)
tQ % L I : ~ P Q % ~ L ~ I ~ ~ ~ ,
?$I~LOZ
(If I tell this to my mother, she will certainly be very
happy.)
~ $ A , I & & ~ +2o2b7Tbabf.6
L 5
(Mr. Mori probably knows about it.)
& - ? r ~ A , l i ~ ~ ? k b ~ ~
(Ms. Wada probably won't come.)
LriP<&b
Ua~tbbl: 0d:7:,l:it~l:@f&;3%br;;i.bi~ab$uh~b>,
(I may possibly be able to get a scholarship.)
L7'&
(Tanaka talked as if he were a specialist in the field.)
A$?$tvbk?Z Q ~ % B & t v ~ ? k ~ z b ~ 7 ' ? ~
(Mr. kimura looks as if he has just drunk sake.)
I: IILCL I: IIL z if B
9 1 ) -b;tr%bTB$AOh i G:B$ZQB-if,
(Sally speaks Japanese just like a (native) Japanese.)
5. Adverbs which occur with provisional or concession sentences:
b~3YlOtl;V?
-BE f , ~ a - ~ & % L=, 'k.++k~~&i,
(Once he makes a promise, he never fails to keep it.)
d.<+L i 3 #*lii~tw it nl
m&ci-~s&3a~, ~~~~~a~=~tbi";3.'a.
(Once a nuclear war breaks out, it will lead to the
destruction of the entire earth.)
704 APPENDIX 7
Functional expressions, i.e., those expressions which are used to perform func-
tions such as making requests, asking for permission, and giving suggestions,
often involve certain grammatical patterns. The following is an inventory of
functional expressions which involve such patterns.
Abbreviations:
<s>: Spoken Japanese only
<w>: Written Japanese only
inf.sit.: Informal situations only
m.: Used by male speakers only
(m.): Used mostly by male speakers
f.: Used by female speakers only
(f.): Used mostly by female speakers
1. Ordering someone to do something; giving instructions
a. Vcond (Gr. I verbs)
&rO
(Stand up!)
%&&,
(Write in English.)
Variation:
Vcond d: <s> inf.sit., m.
Note: Vcond is a strong command. Vcond d: is a milder expression
and used only in spoken language.
(+Imperative)
Variation:
Vrnasu 5 k <s> infsit., m.
Note 1: Vmasu 5 is a strong command. Vmasu 5 k is a milder
expression and used only in spoken language.
Note 2: g e imperative forms of the irregular verbs 5k h and ?? h are
$$b> and L 5 / -& 1, respectively.
(+Imperatiwe)
d. Vmasu 8 3 La
e. Vinf .nonpast k 5 1:
bLL ..
P
2.i i:,
$-if C%LDBE~:&~
(Come to my office right away.)
*.A,&
i % + T & b l 7 ~ ~L t 0
(Please write in kanji.)
Variations:
<
Vte ;k <s> inf.sit., m.
Vte 5 L j f ? b l cs> infsit., f.
(+ kudasai (DBJG: 209-10))
708 APPENDIX 8
g. s vmasu YSbl
sE?7;sVo
(Please sit down.)
Note: 9 Vmasu 7; S bl is politer than Vte T S b '.
(+o - kudasai)
h. Vmasu 3t
~&~;SSIL\BT,
(Please stand up.)
k. Vmasu 3 t
a~~&a%ii~+a~,
(First, bring the water to a boil.)
Variation:
Vinf .nonpast <w>
Note: Vmasu 3 -if and Vinf .nonpast are commonly used in giving
directions.
APPENDIX 8 709
1. Adj(i 1na)inf or adverbial form
568L\!
(Shut up! (lit. Noisy!))
&ha!
(Get out of my way! (lit. Hindering!))
g< !
(Hurry! (lit. Hurriedly!))
LS
Sh'h'E !
(Be quiet! (lit. Quietly!))
&Sefirigt\cta+t~~
(You must I may not consult dictionaries.)
Variations:
Vte G A I? 6 I?
Vte tfj'bbf2b3
Note: - f; e I?@(??), the contracted form of -T GA I?&(??), is used
in informal conversation.
-
(ewa ikenai (DBJG528))
2% I-$%< ~ i b ~ QL\,
\ t f
(The cost should not be high.)
I:$ t r l r b + ? .6. l t<
El '# & & F ; ~ ; % W I I T M L \ C ~ ~ L ~ ~
(Your daily schedule (lit. life) should not be irregular.)
71 0 APPENDIX 8
Variation:
Adj(i 1 na)te t i l.&
I;I'
d. N Cib\bf 'ldb1
%~b44%1bL\~tae/L,
(You should not do strenuous exercise.)
Variation:
N Ci7?&7?
e. {Vinf .nonpast C 2 1N} C2 7tb 6 'ld b3
LO&&%$$? i 2 t ~ t b t )
(You must 1may not use this room.)
R%tbtbV %e/Lo
(You may not stay out overnight.)
&%C&&L\L ko
(Do not consult dictionaries.)
(e
koto)
(No food and drink in the room. (lit. Drinking and eating in the room
is prohibited.))
Variation:
{Vinfenonpast Z k IN} Q % L 3 ?
34" L
j. N %L <w>
Lif A R w t
zwatjX 11 ~ 6 ,
(Keep off the grass. (lit. Entering the grass zone is prohibited.))
k. N&% <w>
ik 11 EI%,
(No posters. (lit. Posters strictly prohibited.))
1. 'N $8 <w>
+.n.~#Rfl
(No hooks.)
rn. N <w>
+~ f f % i ~ ( ~ ~ ~ h % ~ ) s @ ~ l .
C @ i l t ? a w iF LL U.t C*iCr '
(No admission for minors. (lit. We refuse the admission of those under
18.))
Variations:
Vneg Q b > T <s> infsit., f.
<
Vneg Q b l T ;k <s> inf.sit., m.
Vneg Q b l T t j a j E b > <s> inf.sit., f.
' (+kudasai (DBJG. 209-10))
712 APPENDIX 8
ire o)*W
~ D ~ ~ ~ T ~ ; ~ I ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ & ~ ~ L \ ; : ~
(It is a rule that you cannot smoke in this building.)
(+koto ni naru (DBJG: 202-03))
3. Making requests
7% 1:
W T ~ ~ T LL T ~
(Please write in kanji.)
Sri* Lr
~?+~Q~~*L\PT;PL\,
(Please don't look at your textbook.)
Variations:
(Vtel Vneg f b b l T ] 7;PblaT$
(VteIVneg f b b l T ] T P b l $ . f T L b . 5 $
VtelVneg 'rbblT <s> inf.sit., (q
{Vte 1Vneg Q b l T } <
;k <s> inf.sit., m.
{Vte 1 Vneg Q b l T } 3 b: 5 I?ba <s> inhit., f.
Note: The question ending 'd .f $ (e.g., P b ' T F P b >b .f 5.) makes
the request less direct and therefore more polite. The conjec-
ture question ending T L b. 5 $ (e.g., BblTT P b l 3 TT L d:
5 d l ) makes the request even less direct and more polite. In
general, the longer the ending is, the politer it is.
(+kudasai (DBJG: 209-10))
&Z)~TPL\~
(Please sit down.)
k'&f;i%L\%T0
(Please stand up.)
Variations:
B Vmasu Ri liR 3 T da
8 Vmasu i B i i 3 - i f ~ L a5;31
B Vmasu MliR 3-ktA;31
B Vmasu @lift 3 @ A T L a 5 da
Notes: 1. i B i i 3 t i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o m o f R b ~ 3 f .
2. The negative ending 3 -ktAda is less direct than the &r-
mative ending 3 -if da ; therefore, it makes the request
politer than 3 T;31. (Also, see Note in 3.a.)
3. The adverbial f o m s of ~om~~adjectives can also be used
with this g:ttern. (e.g., S % ;31K @J b l 3 T o (Please be
<
quiet.); $39 Rbl 3To (Please hurry.))
s$ZB&ii-cTC~\~-f?A.h~~
(Could you please teach me Japanese?)
Variations:
<
Vte kL3 +?A? <s> inf.sit., (f.)
Vte T P b r 3+?A? <s> inf.sit., f.
<
Vte kLa b \ ? <s> inf.sit.
Vte 7; S b aha? cs> inf.sit., f.
V t e T S b l 3 - k t A T L a 575
(See Note in 3.a.)
Note: Affirmative versions of the above patterns with rising intona-
tion can also be used to make requests, i.e.,
<
Vte kL3 t? <s> infsit.
714 APPENDIX 8
<
Vte h& ? <s> inf.sit., (m.)
Vte T 2 & ? <s> inf.sit., f.
Vte T 2 L.13'if? <s> idsit., f.
The difference is that the affirmative versions are more direct
and therefore less polite than the corresponding negative ver-
sions.
~>%'&'LT%%X%~A~~'O
(Could I borrow your pen? (lit. Could I have you lend me your pen?))
4 Y B R L T t \ f c f ; " C f 2tthfia0
(Could I borrow your pen, please? (lit. Could I have you lend me your
pen, please?))
Variations:
Vte b b k 3 -@A,? <s> inf.sit.
Vte b>f:j?bf 3-@/v?<s> inf.sit., (f.)
Vte b b k h bl? <s> infsit.
Vte blf:f?Gf a k a ? <s> infsit., f.
Vte b b f 3 - @ / v T L b j j 3 .
Vte blf:f?Gf 3-@/vTL b 5 j3.
Vte b b k a ? <s> inhit., (m.)
Vte blf:j?Gf & ? <s> inf.sit., f.
Vte b b 2- 3 'if? <s> infsit.
Vte blf:f?lf 3 *? <s> infsit.
(See Notes in 3.a and 3.d.)
f. Vneg hb'T I < h3-@/v&/ b bk3-&Lj3.)
%k%
L&t\P {< hb-k!hfia/ %%A&+?hk~)O
(Could you stop bothering me?)
Variations:
<
Vneg h b l T hb-@/v?<s> inf.sit.
Vneg CbrT b b k 3 -@A? <s> infsit.
<
Vneg h b l T h h bl? <s> i d s i t .
a
Vneg b a T b b k h b l ? <s> infsit.
<
Vneg hblT h h b l j 3 . <s> inf.sit., m.
APPENDIX 8 715
c k ~7 , >'1 t~-% U) t ~ L \ A . T b f l r ,
(I'd like to send this to America. (Please tell me how I could do that?))
(+tai (DBJG: 44145))
43- LL\A.TT~."',
(I'd like you to come right away.)
@ $ ~ : z ~ ) $ ~ ~ G z ~ ~ ; ' ~ L \ T c ~ L L \ A . P ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(I'd rather you wouldn't enter this room without permission.)
Note: The pattern in (i) is less polite than that in (h).
zk ~ , %Z@T~SRL\ L a -ro
((I'd like to send) this by airmail, please.)
L?
33flh&t2b>A.~bfif~
(The window doesn't open. (Could you help?))
i%T&k% Lf'.b1A.Tb#, @Jfi%\~\.tt.gtb$j 1) dQhfibO
(I'd like to work in Japan. Are there any good jobs?)
(c3 no da (DBJG: 325-28))
Note: In this pattern, S describes the situation with 1for which the
speaker wants help, advice, or suggestions.
e. - Vinf.nonpast %;frrblb\
CLCb. elf:&
%&b=#%-if6Afi%\~\~-if,,
(It would be better to consult your teacher.)
L ~ 2L
z"t;f:%~ ithawjw~\~\-r.-if~.
(You'd better not tell anyone about this.)
-
(+ h6 ga ii (DBJG: 138-40))
9 3 9-T&<kL\L\T-ifo
(It would be a good idea to go by taxi.)
7Xf'l ;~%kbL12%2:*i~~fi>~
(How about taking some aspirin? 1Why don't you take some aspirin?)
-
(+ tam d6 d e w ka (DBJG: 457-58))
Variations:
Vaff.inf.past I; b>&VT-if&
Vaff.inf-past I; bl&;frrT-if? <s>
Vaff .infapast I; bl&d'? <s> infsit., f.
718 APPENDIX 8
Variations:
N C3.badlPT-ifdl
N b & b l d l P T t ? <s>
N b3.b>dl;trf? <s> infsit., f.
N 13. F 5 T-if? <s> inf.sit., (m.)
N 13. ? 5 ? <s> inf.sit.
A: ZD#, ~;L->~&QTGL\LTB~P~
(May I borrow this dictionary for a moment?)
b. N, (6r 7 k)b\b>T-F&
ZkL, % . A ~ ~ L \ L \ T T ~ ~ ~
(May I use I borrow I see I etc. this for a second?)
7. Extending invitations
a. Vmasu 3 -@A+
A: yg,g&&X %-12Af.,>o
(Would you like to go to a movie tonight?)
B: b~brTf;ta, q73 3 L dr 5.
(Yes, let's.)
Variations:
Vmasu 3 -@A? <s> infsit., (f.)
Vneg inf? <s> infsit.
f~ % & 4 % ~ a 5 f . , ~ ,
(Shall we have sushi?)
f L Q h 4 % L a 5(&).
(Let's have sushi.)
-
(+ mash6 (DBJG: 240-43))
~g&+TS~3Ttf.,r,
(How about dinner tonight?)
8. Offering something; offering to do something
3-k-ld~\fiWPTfi'~
(Would you like coffee?)
Z D l \ > k . f , z3?0
(Please (use) this handkerchief.)
c. Vmasu l L r 5
Variation:
BVmasu L l L b ?
d. Vmasu l L dr 5 ~b
L t woii
N H # ~ Phb:&;h%~thU'%%&~~,
(I have to meet Mr. Inoue tomorrow.)
722 APPENDIX 8
d'72')
< &Cf hl2& % &L\,
%8;fa)E@$b:
ibl*S
z;ktikfidr?d~c;f&s~)EG&L\~
(Since this is a regulation, we cannot help but obey it.)
( + l a m o enai)
APPENDIX 8 723
e. Vinf Snonpast 43 72
z O%&:G&~itL*?tiS 3X
ffi RTKS Eo
(You should attend this meeting, too.)
(c3bekida)
g. Vneg Q < T it
TV.3 I:liL-
za>+%t& EI$-%T&&< T%L\LIo
(This letter doesn't have to be written in Japanese.)
g ~ c k g @ ~ a & sm\,
Lt&W IfZL
Lo rt
(We do not have to keep this document.)
j. {Adj(na)stemlN} T&a83?titsb>
".Pi C*ieL
t&ck% %P$ b&E(b&L\,
(The structure does not have to be flexible.)
If L r fw t
~ma~$ls+~ibja~srm,\~
(The place does not have to be a big city.)
%??&k;5 t l ~ T ~ \ Z i t ,
(I'm thinking of buying a house.)
-
(e y6 to omou (DBJG: 569-71))
c. Vinf .nonpast 3 b l
b 5&&5 *~\k,9\9i?~
(I thought I would not see him any more.)
(e
mai)
d. Vmasu 3 L b 5
Variation:
Vvol <s> inf.sit., m.
APPENDIX 8 725
d. N: G /&a61
b L+%ri i i f i L
$CRIBEC&MERCSM=fro
(It's been decided that the next president will be Mr. Ueda.)
g~Iv%Lb'o
(I want a piano.)
( d hoshiil (DBJG: 144-46))
b. Vmasu 7Lzba
3 -0 .?/~&~+Lf-.~\,
(I want to travel in Europe.)
( d tai (DBJG: 441-45))
t n
If-f4 -cLaQk@I=h7I:t:(fi~)~\5Lt:t:~
(They say that the party has been canceled.)
d. Sinf t a ) Z 2 f ?
X~~tvt&~&~;kat:a,;t:~~,
(I was told that Mr. Nagata is going to be a litte late.)
%-tf"7iL$$s"a)~f--f4 - - I ~ ~ L & $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ z z T T L \ ~ ,
(Susan says she will not go to tomorrow's party.)
APPENDIX 8 727
Variation:
Sinf 9 T <s> inf.sit.
( e - f f e 2 (DBJG: 510-11))
YLVa)r.=--XCZkb&,
(According to a TV report, there was a big earthquake in Alaska yes-
terday.)
( e s6da1 (DBJG: 407-09))
Z O Y U Y Z ~b ~ 2 j ~ ; t , > 3 3 .
(This project will probably be difficult.)
APPENDIX 8 729
e. (Vmasu 1 Adj(i 1na)stem] +? 3 I?
a*
R& I=f. 5 t:,
!
(It looks like rain.)
~ tz0
ZO%I~%j +
(This book looks interesting.)
(+soda2 (DBJG: 410-12))
Ili :< $ 3%
za)%efl~~9Tbabzk6&r7ka~
(It is possible that this report is wrong.)
+?ha2t: cAz r7 & t b ~ \ ,
(Such a thing cannot happen.)
(+uruleru)
730 APPENDIX 8
f. Sinf bbfd'QL.1
(I? after Adj(na) and N changes to a and T&Q ,respectively.)
I1.h
q~i:z~%E~kc~~;htffr'ac\,
(It is impossible for him to solve this problem.)
(ct,wake ga nai)
LI1.L+?L
~ # w : & L Im ;T
ti l r i
1 ;~XF
BLt+Ll;
& a ~z~eaar;-m& zt:r.xs~~< ~
(By Shinkansen you can go from Tokyo to Osaka in less than three
hours.)
(c3koto ga dekiru (DBJG: 200-01))
hl; L
%LIi F4 9 ~ f r ' ~ % % - 6 ,
(I can speak German.)
c. vpot
'I*+:<
Z 1
+a'/-Ii+ HZd"S@Q,
(Kathy can read Chinese.)
APPENDIX 8 731
d. Vrnasu
iPi.s IID&#c&& ~ 1 8 6 ,
(Many earthquakes are predictable.)
(4uruleru)
e. Vrnasu iP;fa a
?;klP2t=.C&$f wa8-6,
(I cannot answer that.)
(+-kaneru)
18. Expressing habits
a. Vinf.nonpast Zkt:LTLla
-Pbz%bs6
~EI--~I'I~%czL:czLTz.L~.~.
(I make it a habit to swim one mile every day.)
(+koto ni sum (DBJG. 204-06))
b. Vinf .past Q O I?
1E<bwC
ywitc:c~d: i$&aAf:wm~,
7?br
<
(I used to see foreign films a lot when I was a student.)
(+mono (da) (DBJG: 257-6 1))
19. Expressing experience
Vinf -past Z k Pdi
= i w
ww m~~~a&ji;if:;t:flri4ja,
bt;L * o l f l ~ : ?
b. NOljC:
IL I l & C / u
~C&B$ACT)&~CZB$%B%$,
7 1 ) 1)
I: I t & -
(Marilyn speaks Japanese like a Japanese.)
(e
y6ni2 (DBJG: 554-56))
'i3 2~:Ah*~fhl2k%P7~,
(I wish I had not seen John.)
&i, b b j f l ? 5,"i%\g L k,
(Thank you very much for your letter.)
% - 3 ~ ~ \ k t : ~ \ ~ r n ~ > b b jQ LYE,
(It was so helpful that you gave me a ride.)
734 APPENDIX 8
25. Apologizing
A: %< ~ ~ Q T T A I Q A ,
(I'm sony I'm late.)
B: b>ba;ia
(That's all right.)
Variations:
tkb-t?/v,Vte cs>
Vte ZbLtbSba (f.)
Z'btvtbSba,Vte <s> (f.)
Vte Z@/v. <s> infsit.
Z'bh,Vte <s> infsit.
Vte tb 2 bl kI <s> idsit., m.
-j-3 bab, Vte <s> inf.sit., m.
ENGLISH INDEX 735
ENGLISH INDEX
apparently omowareru
appear omowareru
a ni tsuki apt to -ppoi
a way of -ing -yo1 as hodo, ni shitagattelshitagai, ni
a way to -ye1 tsureteltsure, to d6ji ni, tori (ni), to
h la f n ni tom0 ni
-able uruleru as a matter of fact nanishiro,
about ni kanshitelkansuru, ni sore dokoroka
tsuite, no koto as a result of kekka
absolutely not masaka as far as kagiril
according to ni yottelyori, no ue -
as far as goes no ue de wa
de wa -
as far as is concerned no ue
accordingly ni shitagattelshita- de wa, ten (de)
gai, shitagatte as few as ni suginai
after- kekka, (no) ue de as if to saylshow (etc.) that to iu
after all ddse, toto, tsumari fU ni
-
after style f a ni as little as ni suginai
against ni hanshitelhansuru as long as ij6 (wa), kagiril, sae
almost -so ni naru as might be expected sasuga
alone nomi as soon as shidai, totan (no
along with to tom0 ni as well sore to, ue (no
also -
mo, - mo mo, sore to as well as igai, to d6ji ni, to tom0
although kuse ni, nagara(mo), ni ni
mo kakawarazu, to iu nonl, tsutsu as you know wake da
although -saylsaid that to itte aspect ten (de)
mo assume that to surul
am determined to miseru at ni atattelatari, ni oitelokeru
amount equivalent to -
-bun -
at -est tom0
and -ku, sore to, -te, Vmasu at all dose
and yet kuse ni, shika mo at all events d6se
anyway dose at (long) last t6t6, yatto
736 ENGLISH INDEX
J
do s.t. in a - fashionlmannerl filled with -darake
way -kata o suru finally tbt6, yatto
don't tell me that masaka following ni shitagattelshitagai
Don't V Imperative, koto for -bun, de, ni totte, ni tsuki,, ni
drink yam1 wa, -rai
738 ENGLISH INDEX
of ni tsuite
(yes,) of course sore wa per de, ni taishiteltaishi, ni tsuki
often -gachi plain tada no
oh, surely sore wa play yard
on ni kanshitelkansuru, ni oitel please do s.t. o - kudasai
okeru, ni tsuite, ni tsuki point ten (de)
on behalf of ni kawatte portion -bun
on every occasion tabi ni possible uruleru
on the basis of ni yottelyori precisely koso
on the contrary kaette, sore preferable rnashida
dokoroka pretty kekkd, nakanaka
on the occasion of ni atattelatari, prior to ni atattelatari
sai(ni) probably de ar6, kar6, -ye2
on the one hand -,on the other hand
ippd de (wa) - tahd de (wa) Q
on the side of -men
on top of that shika rno, sono ue, quite kekkd, nakanaka
sore rno, sore ni
once ijd (wa)
only
R
-kagiri2, ni kagitte, ni sugi-
nai, norni, tada rank-and-file tada no
only (when, after, because, etc.) rather kaette, kekkd
koso rather than - kurai, to iu yon
only after te hajirnete (w4
only until -kagiri2 readily sugu
operate yam1 really ikanirno, sasuga
or - ka - ka, rnata wa regard ten (de)
742 ENGLISH INDEX
-
regard as to sum1
regarding ni tsuite
related to no koto tend to -gachi
relating to -j6 -th (one) -me
replacing ni kawatte that to iu koto wa
respect ten (de) (thinking 1saying) that to
r&pdctively sorezore that (same) rei no
result in koto de that is (to say) tsumari
right (away) sugu that means tsumari
(is) that which mono (da)
that's all ni suginai, tada
-
the (in question) rei no
saying something like toka de the -, the - -
- ba hodo, hod0
seem omowarerv, d6mo the fact is that wake da
send yam1 the fact that to iu koto wa
should bekida, -neba naranai, -ye2 the last -kagiri2, kono
should (not) koto the meaning of is - to iu no wa
show (etc.) that to iu fii ni - koto da
simply tada the moment totan (no
since J6 (wa), -mi, te the only - kurai
so -ku, soko del -
the only thing need is sae
so (to make up for) (no) kawari the truth of the matter is that -
ni wake da
so long as J6 (wa) the usual rei no
- -
so that amari the very - koso
- -
so that (almost) - kurai the way (s.o. does s.t.) -yo1
(is) something which mono (da) the way of -ing -ye1
soon sugu the way to -ye1
starting with o hajime (to shite) then soko de2, tokoro, totan (no
-
starting with ending with - there is no chance to koto wa
- kara - ni itarv made nai
such k6 shita there is no need to koto wa nai
suppose to sum1 there is no possibility that koto
sure sa wa nai
surely not masaka there is no reason why wake ga
nai
ENGLISH INDEX 743
therefore shitagaffe, soko del
this kono
this coming I past kono way ten (de)
(are) those which mono (da) well sore ga
though ni mo kakawarazu What - ! n5i
through o toshite what - means is to iu no wa
-
through into I on to - - kara - koto da
- ni kakete what's more shika mo, sono ue,
throughout o toshite sore mo, sore ni
to ni taishiteltaishi, ni toffe, ni what's worse shika mo, sono ue,
twki, ni wa sore mo
to say nothing of wa iu made when ni naru to, sai (no, te wa,
mo naku to d 6 i ni, tokoro, to tom0 ni
to sum up tsumari when compared withlto ni kuraberu
to the extent (that) hodo, kagiri! tolkurabete
kurai when it becomes ni naru to
too mo when it comes to ni naru to, to iu
toward ni taishiteltaishi to, to naru to
truly ikanimo, sasuga -
when mention to iu to
-
truly but -
tashikani ga -
when say that to iu to
whenever tabi ni
whereas ni hanshitelhansuru, ni
taishiteltaishi
un-able -gatai whether or - - - -
ka k
unbearably naranai while kagiri l, ni hanshitelhan-
unbelievably nanishiro sum, to d6jj ni, to.tom0 ni, tsutsu
under no moto de will defdtely do miseru
unless kagiri will (probably) not mai
until kagiri willV wa
upon kekka, (no) ue de -wise ten (de)
usual tada no with ni tsureteltsure, ni yottel
yon, no mot0 de, to tom0 ni
with regard to ni kanshitel
kansuru, ni tsuite
via o toshite without nashi de wa
-worth -bun
744 ENGLISH INDEX
demo
X you know sa, zo
(X) of all (X's) ni kagitte you may be surprised, but nani-
shim
Y
-
you would think that but (that is
not right) ka to iu to
yet daga, sd ka to itte, sore
JAPANESE INDEX 745
JAPANESE INDEX
Note: Entries in non-bold type appear in DBJG. and entries in bold type are included in
this book. X <Y> indicates that X is found under Y.
.
to iu no wa koto da .............. 487 to torno ni <to d6ji ni> .......... 471
to iu to ...................................... 492 to wa kagiranai ........................ 536
to iu y6ni <to iu f0 ni> .......... 478 tsui ni <t6t6> .......................... 528
to iu yori (wa) ........................... 495 tsumari ...................................... 538
toka ............................................ 488 tsumori ....................................... 503
toka de ...................................... 498 tsutsu ........................................ 542
. .
toka toka <- nari nari> 223 . tsuzuke da <-ppanashb ....... 333
toki ........................................ 490 tsuzukeru <-ppanashb ........ 333
toki <ni atattelatarb ............. 237 ttara <to ieba> ........................ 484
toki ni isai (nil> .................... 369 -tfel 'speaking of' ................... 507
to kitara <to ieba> ...................485 -tfe2 [quote marker] ................ 510
toki (ni) wa <tabi ni> ............... 442
tokoro ........................................ 500 U
tokoro dal 'place' ................... 495 uchi ni ........................................ 512
tokoro da2 'moment' ............... 496 uchi wa <kaginl> ..................... 82
tokoro ga .................................. 503 ue (ni) ....................................... 551
toku <oku> .............................. 358 ue (ni) <sono ue> .................. 413
torno ........................................ 507 (no) ue de ................................. 547
torno -a> .............................. 358 uruleru ...................................... 553
to narande <to torno ni> ...... 532 ushiro ni imae n b ..................... 231
to naru ...................................... 511
to naru to .................................. 512 v
to naru to <to sum1> ............ 518 Vmasu ....................................... 556
tonikaku aanishiroz ............ 216 Vmasu a s a Noun .................... 561
to onajiku <to torno ni> ........ 532 Vte <Vmasu> .......................... 556
t6ri (ni) ...................................... 514
to shite .......................................501 W
to shite wa ................................. 502 wal [theme] ............................. 516
to sum1 's.0 . assume s.t.' ....... 518 wa2 [female speech marker] ... 520
to suru2 'feel -; look -' ......... 523 wa .............................................. 564
to suru to <to naru to> .........512 wa u e i no> ............................ 346
totan (ni) .......:........................... 525 . .
wa da .................................. 521
totemo <nakanaka> .............. 206 .wa .desu <- wa .da> ...... 521
t6 t6 ........................................ 528 .wa .ga .................................. 525
t6 t6 <yatto> .......................... 591 wa ikenai .................................... 528
to torno ni ................................. 532 wa iu made mo naku ...............568
JAPANESE INDEX 757