Qualmethods
Qualmethods
Qualmethods
F A M I L Y
H E A L T H
I N T E R N A T I O N A L
OVERVIEW
Suggested Readings
collects evidence
produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
Overview
issue may not be readily apparent. When used along with quantitative methods, qualitative
research can help us to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given situation
and the implications of quantitative data.
Although findings from qualitative data can often be extended to people with characteristics similar to those in the study population, gaining a rich and complex understanding of a specific
social context or phenomenon typically takes precedence over eliciting data that can be generalized to other geographical areas or populations. In this sense, qualitative research differs slightly
from scientific research in general.
In-depth interviews are optimal for collecting data on individuals personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.
Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented.
Table 1, page 3, briefly outlines these major differences. For a more in-depth theoretical treatment of the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, we refer the reader to the
suggested readings listed at the end of this chapter, especially Bernard 1995.
General framework
Analytical objectives
OVERVIEW
Qualitative
To quantify variation
To describe variation
To describe characteristics of a
population
Question format
Closed-ended
Open-ended
Data format
What is the most important difference between quantitative and qualitative methods?
The key difference between quantitative and qualitative methods is their flexibility. Generally,
quantitative methods are fairly inflexible. With quantitative methods such as surveys and questionnaires, for example, researchers ask all participants identical questions in the same order. The
response categories from which participants may choose are closed-ended or fixed. The advantage of this inflexibility is that it allows for meaningful comparison of responses across participants and study sites. However, it requires a thorough understanding of the important questions
to ask, the best way to ask them, and the range of possible responses.
Overview
Qualitative methods are typically more flexible that is, they allow greater spontaneity and
adaptation of the interaction between the researcher and the study participant. For example, qualitative methods ask mostly open-ended questions that are not necessarily worded in exactly the
same way with each participant. With open-ended questions, participants are free to respond in
their own words, and these responses tend to be more complex than simply yes or no.
In addition, with qualitative methods, the relationship between the researcher and the participant
is often less formal than in quantitative research. Participants have the opportunity to respond
more elaborately and in greater detail than is typically the case with quantitative methods. In
turn, researchers have the opportunity to respond immediately to what participants say by tailoring subsequent questions to information the participant has provided.
It is important to note, however, that there is a range of flexibility among methods used in both
quantitative and qualitative research and that flexibility is not an indication of how scientifically
rigorous a method is. Rather, the degree of flexibility reflects the kind of understanding of the
problem that is being pursued using the method.
Another advantage of qualitative methods is that they allow the researcher the flexibility to probe
initial participant responses that is, to ask why or how. The researcher must listen carefully to
what participants say, engage with them according to their individual personalities and styles,
and use probes to encourage them to elaborate on their answers. (See the modules on In-Depth
Interviews and Focus Groups, pages 42-43 and 64-65 respectively, for discussions of probes.)
Overview
OVERVIEW
Even if it were possible, it is not necessary to collect data from everyone in a community in
order to get valid findings. In qualitative research, only a sample (that is, a subset) of a population is selected for any given study. The studys research objectives and the characteristics of the
study population (such as size and diversity) determine which and how many people to select. In
this section, we briefly describe three of the most common sampling methods used in qualitative
research: purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. As data collectors, you
will not be responsible for selecting the sampling method. The explanations below are meant to
help you understand the reasons for using each method.
participate in or contribute to the study. Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit hidden
populations, that is, groups not easily accessible to researchers through other sampling strategies.
Can we recruit people who are legally under the care of a parent or guardian?
Overview
OVERVIEW
Yes, you may recruit minors, but in most cases you must obtain informed consent (discussed in
detail in this modules section on Ethical Guidelines in Qualitative Research, page 9) from the
parent or guardian, as well as from the potential participant. Exceptions to the parental consent
requirement include pregnant adolescents and homeless minors, but you should always consult the
guidelines of the relevant ethics review boards before proceeding with recruitment. Moreover,
recruitment of minors must be specifically approved by all relevant ethics review boards. Because
they are considered a vulnerable population, recruiting minors for research studies is a highly sensitive issue, and extra measures are required to ensure their protection.
Respect for persons requires a commitment to ensuring the autonomy of research participants,
and, where autonomy may be diminished, to protect people from exploitation of their vulnerability. The dignity of all research participants must be respected. Adherence to this principle ensures
that people will not be used simply as a means to achieve research objectives.
Beneficence requires a commitment to minimizing the risks associated with research, including
psychological and social risks, and maximizing the benefits that accrue to research participants.
Researchers must articulate specific ways this will be achieved.
Justice requires a commitment to ensuring a fair distribution of the risks and benefits resulting
from research. Those who take on the burdens of research participation should share in the benefits of the knowledge gained. Or, to put it another way, the people who are expected to benefit
from the knowledge should be the ones who are asked to participate.
In addition to these established principles, some bioethicists have suggested that a fourth principle, respect for communities, should be added. Respect for communities confers on the
researcher an obligation to respect the values and interests of the community in research and,
wherever possible, to protect the community from harm.2 We believe that this principle is, in
fact, fundamental for research when community-wide knowledge, values, and relationships are
critical to research success and may in turn be affected by the research process or its outcomes.
1 National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Belmont
Report. Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. Washington, DC:
National Institutes of Health, 1979. Available: http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html.
2 Weijer C, Goldsand G, Emanuel EJ. Protecting communities in research: current guidelines and limits of extrapolation.
Overview
OVERVIEW
Three core principles, originally articulated in The Belmont Report,1 form the universally accepted
basis for research ethics.
But forms are really only one part of an informed consent process. In some cases, forms may not
be the best way to ensure informed consent. There are also situations where obtaining informed
consent from individual participants may not be feasible or necessary. For example, a researcher
using participant observation to learn about how transactions occur in a public market would find
it very hard to get everyone observed in that setting to sign a consent form and would probably
create unwarranted suspicion about her motives in the process of seeking such consent. Yet if
people see a stranger hanging around, watching, asking questions, and perhaps taking discreet
notes, they may be even more suspicious about why she is there. In these situations, qualitative
researchers must use other mechanisms to achieve the goal of informed consent.
what is expected of a research participant, including the amount of time likely to be required
for participation
the fact that participation is voluntary and that one can withdraw at any time with no negative repercussions
the name and contact information of the local lead investigator to be contacted for questions
or problems related to the research
the name and contact information of an appropriate person to contact with questions about
ones rights as a research participant (usually the chair of the local ethics committee overseeing the research)
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Overview
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OVERVIEW
All this information must be provided in a language and at an educational level that the participant can understand. Potential participants must be competent to make a decision about being in
the research, and free from coercion or undue inducement to participate by researchers or others.
receptionists or with the data such as typists, transcribers, translators, and data managers.
Research ethics training courses are available on-line from a number of organizations, including
Family Health International (http://www.fhi.org/training/en/RETC), the U.S. National Institutes
of Health (http://cme.nci.nih.gov), and the University of California, Los Angeles (http://training.
arc.ucla.edu). These courses do not focus specifically on qualitative research issues, but they
provide a valuable foundation for understanding ethical issues important for all research.
Many ethics courses include mechanisms for obtaining a certificate of completion. A copy of this
certificate may be required by the organization sponsoring the research.
Suggested Readings
Bernard HR. Research Methods in Anthropology, Second Edition. London: Sage Publications, 1995.
Denzin NK, Lincoln YS (eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications, 2000.
Marshall PA. Human subjects protections, institutional review boards, and cultural anthropological research. Anthropol Q 2003;76(2):269-85.
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research. The Belmont Report. Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Research. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health, 1979. Available: http://
ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html.
Nkwi P, Nyamongo I, Ryan G. Field Research into Social Issues: Methodological Guidelines.
Washington, DC: UNESCO, 2001.
Pelto P, Pelto G. Studying knowledge, culture and behavior in applied medical anthropology.
Med Anthropol Q 1997;11(2):147-63.
Pope C, Mays N. Qualitative Research in Health Care. London: BMJ Books, 2000.
Schensul, J, LeCompte M. Ethnographers Toolkit. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 1999.
For additional information on this topic, refer to Chapter 1: Invitation to Explore, Chapter 3: Designing
the Study, Chapter 4: Collecting Qualitative Data: The Science and the Art, Chapter 5: Logistics in the
Field, and Appendix 2: Examples of Oral Consent Forms in these companion guides:
Qualitative Methods in Public Health: A Field Guide for Applied Research
Qualitative Methods: A Field Guide for Applied Research in Sexual and Reproductive Health
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