J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 6685−6691
6685
Fermented Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan) Ingredients in Pasta
Products
ALEXIA TORRES,† J. FRIAS,‡ M. GRANITO,†
AND
C. VIDAL-VALVERDE*,‡
Department of Food Science, Simón Bolı́var University, 1080A Caracas, Venezuela, and Instituto de
Fermentaciones Industriales (C.S.I.C.), Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan var. aroı́to) seeds were fermented in order to remove antinutritional factors
and to obtain functional legume flour to be used as pasta ingredients. Fermentation brought about a
drastic reduction of R-galactosides (82%), phytic acid (48%), and trypsin inhibitor activity (39%).
Fermented legume flours presented a notable increase of fat and total soluble available carbohydrates,
a slight decrease of protein, dietary fiber, calcium, vitamin B2, vitamin E, and total antioxidant capacity,
and a decrease of soluble dietary fiber, Na, K, Mg, and Zn contents. No changes were observed in
the level of starch and tannins as a consequence of fermentation. The fermented flour was used as
an ingredient to make pasta products in a proportion of 5, 10, and 12%. The supplemented pasta
products obtained had longer cooking times, higher cooking water absorptions, higher cooking loss,
and higher protein loss in water than control pasta (100% semolina). From sensory evaluations, fortified
pasta with 5 and 10% fermented pigeon pea flour had an acceptability score similar to control pasta.
Pasta supplemented with 10% fermented pigeon pea flour presented higher levels of protein, fat,
dietary fiber, mineral, vitamin E, and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity than 100% semolina pasta
and similar vitamins B1 and B2 contents. Protein efficiency ratios and true protein digestibility improved
(73 and 6%, respectively) after supplementation with 10% fermented pigeon pea flour; therefore, the
nutritional value was enhanced.
KEYWORDS: Fermentation; pigeon pea; pasta ingredients; nutritional value
INTRODUCTION
Plant protein provides nearly the 80% of the protein intake
in developing countries, as compared to 43% in developed ones
(1). Moreover, in developing countries, malnutrition and
deficiency of micronutrients are highly prevalent and even
increasing. Factors of direct influence on nutritional disorders
are inadequate food consumption, diseases, and poor bioavailability of many nutrients in vegetable diets.
To improve the nutrient intake, food preparation technologies
have been advocated to effectively increase the nutrient availability of vegetable diets. These technologies must be simple
and easily affordable in terms of economy and labor input. One
such household level technology is fermentation (2), which has
been widely practiced in many developing countries since it is
one of the oldest and economical methods of processing and
preserving foods. Fermented products are a significant part of
the diet of many people in developing countries, and its
popularity is increasing in the Western world due to desirable
changes in texture, organoleptic characteristics, and elimination
of off-flavors (3). This process has been suggested as a
technological procedure for partial or total removal of R-ga* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: + 34 915622900
ext. 241. Fax: + 34 915644853. E-mail: ificv12@ifi.csic.es.
† Simón Bolı́var University.
‡ Instituto de Fermentaciones Industriales (C.S.I.C.).
lactosides, compounds that are closely related with the occurrence of flatulence (4, 5). The fermentation process affects the
nutritional quality of food by improving the nutrient density
and increasing the bioavailability of nutrients. Microorganisms
responsible for this process utilize the biochemical constituents
of the food material, changing them from one form to another
with the aid of microbial enzyme systems; promote degradation
of antinutritional factors, predigestion of certain food components, and synthesis of promoters for absorption; and influence
the nutrients uptake by the mucosa (2, 6, 7).
While population growth has increased the demand for food,
rising prosperity has increased the demand for quality food. At
the same time, consumers demand convenience foods, since they
are becoming increasingly health conscious; therefore, there is
a need to diversify food products (8).
Plant foods such as cereals and legumes have been considered
as the major potential sources of protein for feeding growing
populations (9). Among food legumes, red gram or pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) is a valuable source of proteins, minerals, and
vitamins and occupies a very important place in human nutrition
in many developing countries (10, 11). Besides these nutrients,
this legume is also rich in non-nutritional compounds as phytic
acid, polyphenols, saponins, trypsin inhibitors, and oligosaccharides, which are known to limit the utilization for human
nutrition. Fermentation could be applied as an adequate process
10.1021/jf0606095 CCC: $33.50 © 2006 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 08/03/2006
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 54, No. 18, 2006
of low cost, low energy requirements, and high yield, in order
to enhance organoleptic and nutritional qualities of this legume
and to diminish non-nutritional substances.
Pigeon pea proteins are a rich source of lysine but are usually
deficient in the sulfur amino acids, methionine and cysteine.
Although low in some essential amino acids, pigeon pea could
be considered a high protein material to offset the amino acid
deficiencies of cereal proteins as wheat. Enrichment of pasta
with cereal germ or leguminous material increases the nutritional
quality because of a larger amount of protein, vitamins, and
minerals. The level of substitution will depend on the formulation, preparation, and processing of pasta products (12).
The aim of the present study was to ferment pigeon pea (C.
cajan var. aroı́to) seeds to remove non-nutritive compounds and
to use the fermented flour to supplement durum semolina flour
to make pasta products with higher nutritional value and similar
acceptability than the pasta without supplementation that can
be included in human diet.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of Samples. Legumes. Pigeon peas (C. cajan, var.
aroı́to) were obtained from The National Agricultural Research Institute
(Yaracuy, Venezuela).
Fermented Seeds. The fermentation process was carried out as
described by Granito et al. (5). Briefly, dry seeds were previously
washed with distilled water and suspended in distilled water in a
proportion of 1:4 (w/v). Natural fermentation was carried out at 42 °C
for 48 h, being stirred at 440 rpm (Fermentor Microferm New
Brunswick Scientific Co., Inc. Edison, NY). The fermented seeds were
drained, freeze-dried (Labconco freeze dryer, MO), and ground to 0.5
mm for analysis. Fermentation was carried out in triplicate.
Pasta Preparation. Fermented pigeon pea flours were used to
supplement whole durum wheat semolina to make pasta products. Pasta
products with different levels of fermented pigeon pea flours are
described as follows: semolina 100% (control), semolina:fermented
pigeon pea flour (95:5), semolina:fermented pigeon pea flour (90:10),
and semolina:fermented pigeon pea flour (88:12).
Pasta products were prepared in triplicate, as follows: Homogenized
flours were mixed with water to a moisture level of 31.5%, blended
(Kitchen Aid classic model) for 2 min, and left to stand for 15 min.
The dough obtained was stretched and extruded (single screw pasta
machine Columbus, model Marchio Depositati), and spaghetti was
formed (at laboratory scale), predried at ambient temperature for 1 h,
dried (convection forced air oven) at 50 °C for 2 h, and ground to 0.5
mm particle size.
Chemical Analysis. Water, Protein, Fat, and Ash Content. These
analyses were carried out according to AOAC (13) (methods 960.52,
920.30, and 923.03). The factor of 6.25 was used as a conversion factor
to calculate the protein content from nitrogen.
Mineral Determination. Specific minerals were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, according to
AOAC (13) method 984.27.
Soluble Carbohydrate Content. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
R-galactosides were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) following the procedure described by Granito et al.
(5).
Starch Content. The content in starch of raw and fermented pigeon
pea flours was determined as in Sotomayor et al. (14).
Energy Value. The energy value was calculated by the Atwater
system (15). Factors applied to nutrients were 4 kcal/g for protein and
carbohydrates and 9 kcal/g for fat.
Dietary Fiber Content. The total, insoluble, and soluble dietary fiber
amounts were determined according to Prosky et al. (16).
Vitamin Analysis. Vitamins B1 and B2 were determined by HPLC
according to Prodanov et al. (17). Vitamin C was determined by
capillary electrophoresis following the method described in Thompson
Torres et al.
and Trenerry (18), modified by Frias et al. (19). Tocopherol isomers
and vitamin E activity were determined by HPLC according to Frias
et al. (19).
Tannin Content. It was determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method
as in Kuiters (20). Galic acid (Sigma Chemicals) was used as the
standard.
Total Antioxidant Capacity. The antioxidant capacity was determined
as Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) according to Re et
al. (21), modified by Frias et al. (19).
Inositol Phosphate Content. Inositol phosphates (IP6, hexainositol
phosphate; IP5, pentainositol phosphate; IP4, tetrainositol phosphate;
and IP3, tri-inositol phosphate) were extracted according to Kozlowska
et al. (22) and quantified by HPLC according to Lerhfeld (23).
Trypsin Inhibitor ActiVity (TIA). It was determined as in VidalValverde et al. (24).
Pasta Cooking Quality. The pasta cooking quality was determined
according to Abecassis et al. (25) and Matsuo et al. (26), using the
following parameters:
Cooking Time. Ten grams of pasta product was dispersed in 100
mL of boiling water. Every minute, a piece of pasta was held between
two glass plates and was compressed. The optimum cooking time (min)
was established when no white core was observed after the compression.
Cooking Water Absorption. The cooked pasta was drained and
weighed to determine the water absorption.
Cooking Loss. Solids extracted from the cooking water were
calculated by concentrating the cooking water until dryness in an oven
at 100 °C.
Protein Loss in Water. It was determined in the cooking water by
the Biuret method, as described in Robinson and Hodgen (27).
Sensorial Analysis. Pasta products were cooked in boiling water
without the addition of salt, drained, and placed in warm conditions
until testing. A 19 member semitrained panel evaluated the pasta
products for overall quality. Panelists were asked to evaluate the pasta
products and mark the acceptability in a nonstructured scale (15 cm)
(left extreme, 1 ) extremely unacceptable, and right extreme, 15 )
extremely acceptable) (28).
Biological Analysis. A biological balance technique was used by
recording changes in body weight and food intake and then calculating
the nitrogen intake and fecal excretion. True protein digestibility (TD)
and protein efficiency ratio (PER) were determined according to Allison
(29).
Experimental Design and Diets. The experimental diets were
prepared by adding the appropriate amount of cooked pasta fortified
with fermented pigeon pea flour or cooked 100% semolina pasta to
commercial maize starch to provide 10% protein content to the diet.
Minerals mix (3.5% from Harland Teklad), maize oil (5.0%), vitamins
mix AIN-76A (1.0% from Harland Teklad), and choline bitartrate
(0.2%, Sigma) were also added. During a 14 day testing period,
experimental diets, a protein free diet, a casein diet, and water were
supplied. During the first 3 days of experiments, the rats were allowed
to adapt to the diet and experimental conditions. The animals and their
feed intake were weighed every second day. In order to calculate protein
digestibility, the feces of each animal were collected the last 7 days of
the experiment. Nitrogen consumed by each animal for this period was
quantified. The feces were oven-dried at 100 °C for 24 h. The dried
samples were ground to 0.5 mm. The experimental diet and feces were
analyzed for protein (N × 6.25) by micro-Kjeldahl method.
Animals. In each experiment, six week old Sprague-Dawley rats
(three males and three females) weighing about 50 g were selected at
random and they were housed from day 0 of the experiment in
individual stainless steel metabolic cages in an environmentally
controlled room.
Statistical Analyses. Data are expressed as means ( standard
deviations of three determinations and were subjected to a multifactor
analysis of variance using the Statgraphics Statistical Graphics 5.0
System software program (Statistical Graphics Corp., Rockville, MD).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 collects the content of non-nutritional compounds
in raw and fermented pigeon pea flours. The fermentation
J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 54, No. 18, 2006
Fermented Pigeon Pea Ingredients in Pasta Products
Table 1. Effect of Fermentation on Non-nutritional Compounds Content
of Pigeon Pea Seeds (C. cajan var. aroı́to)a
6687
Table 2. Effect of Fermentation on Nutrient Content of Pigeon Pea
Seeds (C. cajan var. aroı́to)a
pigeon pea
pigeon pea
composition
raw
fermented
composition
raw
fermented
raffinoseb
stachyoseb
verbascoseb
total R-galactosidesb
IP6 (phytic acid)b
IP5b
IP4b
IP3b
total inositol phosphatesb
TIA (TIU/mg)
tannins (galic acid)b
1.23 ± 0.08 b
2.35 ± 0.20 b
1.94 ± 0.24 b
5.52 ± 0.22 b
0.46 ± 0.02 b
0.17 ± 0.01 b
0.12 ± 0.01 b
ND a
0.72 ± 0.05 b
24.72 ± 0.45 b
0.39 ± 0.02 a
0.13 ± 0.05 a
0.28 ± 0.04 a
0.55 ± 0.14 a
0.97 ± 0.21 a
0.24 ± 0.01 a
0.06 ± 0.01 a
0.03 ± 0.01 a
ND a
0.34 ± 0.01 a
15.11 ± 0.08 a
0.39 ± 0.02 a
proteinb
fatb
fructoseb
glucoseb
galactoseb
sucroseb
total available carbohydratesb
total starchb
available starchb
resistant starchb
insoluble dietary fiberb
soluble dietary fiberb
total dietary fiberb
energy (kcal/100 g)
ashb
calciumc
sodiumc
potassiumc
magnesiumc
zincc
vitamin B1c
vitamin B2c
R-tocopherolc
β-tocopherolc
γ-tocopherolc
δ-tocopherolc
vitamin E (R-TE/100 g dm)
vitamin Cc
TEAC (µmol Trolox/g)
29.26 ± 0.24 b
2.36 ± 0.38 a
0.29 ± 0.04 a
ND a
ND a
3.87 ± 0.01 b
4.10 ± 0.14 a
41.27 ± 1.12 a
39.47 ± 1.31 a
2.80 ± 0.60 a
34.88 ± 1.02 a
4.23 ± 0.69 b
39.12 ± 0.32 b
320.00
3.99 ± 0.07 b
200.93 ± 1.52 b
89.70 ± 1.55 b
1290.37 ± 40.97 b
110.49 ± 2.64 b
7.85 ± 0.05 b
0.31 ± 0.02 a
0.39 ± 0.02 a
1.06 ± 0.03 a
0.06 ± 0.01 a
9.31 ± 0.34 b
0.27 ± 0.01 a
2.02 ± 0.03 b
ND a
33.21 ± 0.67 b
27.72 ± 0.58 a
2.89 ± 0.10 b
1.84 ± 0.24 b
2.25 ± 0.30 b
4.52 ± 0.89 b
0.33 ± 0.02 a
8.94 ± 1.44 b
40.74± 0.79 a
38.58 ± 1.21 a
2.43 ± 0.65 a
35.16 ± 0.24 a
2.28 ± 0.78 a
37.38 ± 1.03 a
372.01
2.37 ± 0.03 a
188.60 ± 1.62 a
42.17 ± 5.79 a
760.54 ± 3.15 a
78.37± 3.09 a
4.66 ± 0.50 a
0.37 ± 0.01 b
0.35 ± 0.02 a
1.07 ± 0.10 a
0.06 ± 0.01 a
6.64 ± 0.17 a
0.26 ± 0.02 a
1.77 ± 0.10 a
ND a
31.88 ± 1.56 a
a Values are the mean ± standard deviation of three determinations. The same
superscript in the same row means no significant difference (P e 0.05). b Values
in g/100 dry matter; ND, nondetected.
process induced a drastic reduction in total R-galactosides due
to the decrease of raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose (89, 88,
and 72%, respectively). Fermentation is a catabolic process
where these oligosaccharides are hydrolyzed by R-galactosidase
and invertase either as endogenous enzyme or from microorganisms involved (30-34). Odunfa (35) studied the activity of the
R-galactosidase and β-fructosidase enzymes during fermentation
and found that the maximum activity occurred after 24 h at
temperatures between 40 and 60 °C.
Modification of inositol phosphate content during the pigeon
pea fermentation is also shown in Table 1. Fermentation brought
about a sharp decrease (48%) on phytic acid (IP6). IP5 and IP4
also suffered a noticeable decrease (65 and 75%, respectively),
and IP3 was not detected. Phytate hydrolysis, due to phytases
enzymes that are activated during the fermentation process,
improves bioavailability of minerals (as calcium, magnesium,
copper, zinc, and iron) (2). Similar results have been shown by
different authors. Sudarmaji and Markakis (36) observed that
during tempeh preparation, phytic acid decreased by one-third
in comparison with raw soybean. Chitra et al. (37) found a phytic
acid reduction of 53% after pigeon pea-induced fermentation
with Lactobacillus. Granito et al. (5) reported a drastic reduction
of IP6 after fermentation of Phaseolus Vulgaris seeds. A similar
response was found by Egounlety and Aworth (33) in fermented
soybean, cowpeas, and ground bean. Doblado et al. (34) showed
that natural and controlled fermentation with Lactobacillus
plantarum caused an 85% reduction on phytic acid of Vigna
sinensis. Furthermore, Sathe and Venkatachalam (38) pointed
out that the extent of phytate removal is dependent on the type
of microorganism, the fermentation conditions, the removal of
fermentation solution, and the initial phytate amount present in
the raw material.
Fermentation of pigeon pea seeds affected also TIA and
caused a reduction of 39% (Table 1). Results obtained agree
with those reported during natural fermentation of lentils (30)
and during natural and controlled fermentation of V. sinensis
with L. plantarum (34).
The tannin content of pigeon pea remained unchanged after
the natural fermentation process (Table 1). Nevertheless,
Bartolome et al. (39) found that natural fermentation of lentils
led to a general increase of low molecular weight phenolic
compounds.
The effect of fermentation on the nutrient content of pigeon
pea (C. cajan var. aroı́to) is summarized in Table 2. Protein,
soluble dietary fiber, and ash suffered significant (P e 0.05)
a Values are the mean ± standard deviation of three determinations. ND,
nondetected. The same superscript in the same row means no significant difference
(P e 0.05). b Values in g/100 dry matter. c Values in mg/100 dry matter.
reductions (5, 46, and 41%, respectively). The contents of starch
(total, available, and resistant), insoluble, and total dietary fiber
were not modified significantly (P e 0.05). However, fermentation caused negative changes in nutritionally important minerals
such as calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and zinc
(losses from 6% for calcium to 53% for sodium) (Table 2).
Some authors have reported a reduction on protein content
during legume fermentation. Granito et al. (5) found a decrease
in total protein content of P. Vulgaris flours, and they showed
a relationship between the protein reduction and the water
volume used during fermentation. In the present study, once
the fermentation process was finished, supernatant was discarded
and soluble proteins could leach to this solution. Different results
have been presented by Martı́n-Cabrejas et al. (40) who did
not show protein reduction during natural fermentation of P.
Vulgaris.
The results obtained about the starch content are similar with
the ones reported by Urooj and Puttaraj (41) in bengal gram
and by Veena et al. (42) in bengal gram, cowpea, and green
gram who did not find a significant effect in starch content after
the fermentation process as compared with the raw seeds.
However, Granito et al. (5) and Doblado et al. (34) reported a
slight decrease on starch content during natural fermentation
of kidney beans and cowpeas.
The reduction of soluble dietary fiber found as consequence
of pigeon pea fermentation agrees with that reported by different
authors after natural fermentation of bengal gram, cowpea, green
gram, and kidney beans (5, 40, 42).
With regard to ash and mineral content, Akinyele and
Akinlosotu (6) found similar results in fermented cowpeas.
Mineral losses could be due to their utilization by the micro-
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J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 54, No. 18, 2006
Torres et al.
Table 3. Cooking Quality Parameters of Pasta Products with 100% Semolina and Supplemented Semolina with Fermented Pigeon Pea (C. cajan
var. aroı́to) Floursa
pasta
semolina 100%
(control)
semolina:fermented
pigeon pea (95:5)
semolina: fermented
pigeon pea (90:10)
semolina: fermented
pigeon pea (88:12)
a
cooking
time (min)
cooking water
absorption (%)
cooking
loss (%)
protein loss in
water (mg/100 g)
15.00 ± 1.00 a
152.00 ± 2.58 a
3.00 ± 0.02 a
1.80 ± 0.10 a
supplemented pastas with fermented pigeon pea flour
17.67 ± 0.58 c
224.00 ± 0.56 d
6.00 ± 0.02 b
2.80 ± 0.57 b
16.67 ± 0.58 b
226.00 ± 2.60 c
7.00 ± 0.12 b
2.90 ± 0.26 b
14.67 ± 0.58 a
217.00 ± 1.35 b
8.00 ± 0.00 c
2.90 ± 0.57 b
Values are the mean ± standard deviation of three determinations. The same superscript in the same column means no significant difference (P e 0.05).
Table 4. General Acceptability of Cooked Pasta Products Made with
100% Semolina or Supplemented Semolina with Fermented Pigeon
Pea (C. cajan var. aroı́to) Floursa
pastas
semolina 100% (control)
Table 5. Chemical Composition of Cooked Pasta Products Made with
100% Semolina Or Supplemented Semolina with Fermented Pigeon
Pea (C. cajan var. aroı́to) Floursa
general acceptability
score
9.65 ± 3.18 b
supplemented pastas with fermented pigeon pea flour
semolina:fermented pigeon pea (95:5)
8.68 ± 0.06 b
semolina:fermented pigeon pea (90:10)
7.15 ± 0.32 b
semolina:fermented pigeon pea (88:12)
5.48 ± 0.06 a
a Hedonic scale (nonstructured) test. Scale, 1−15 points; 1, extremely unacceptable; 15, extremely acceptable. Values are the mean ± standard deviations.
The same superscript in the same column means no significant difference (P e
0.05) between the pasta products.
organims involved in the fermentation process; furthermore,
some minerals could leach to the processing liquid and,
therefore, be removed.
The fat content increased 23% during pigeon pea fermentation
(Table 2). Granito et al. (5), however, did not show significant
fat changes during fermentation of P. Vulgaris.
The sucrose content suffered a large decrease (91%) during
fermentation while fructose increased sharply (534%). However,
glucose and galactose, monosaccharides that were not detected
in the raw seeds, were present in a reasonable amount (2.2 and
4.5 g/100 g dry matter) in fermented pigeon pea flour (Table
2). As a result, the content of total available carbohydrates of
fermented flours increased twice the value of raw pigeon pea.
Similar results have been published previously during natural
fermentation of P. Vulgaris (5) and lentils (4, 43). The increase
suffered by monosaccharides can be due to the enzymatic
activity exerted by the microorganisms and/or the endogenous
seed enzymes action on sucrose and polysaccharides during
fermentation.
The effect of fermentation of pigeon pea on vitamin content
is also shown in Table 2. Vitamin B1 increased significantly
(19%) in fermented pigeon pea flours, but vitamin B2 did not
show significant (P e 0.05) reduction as compared with
unfermented seeds (Table 1). In tofu preparations, Fernando
and Murphy (44) reported riboflavin losses due possibly to
leaching effect and light exposition. Kazanas and Fields (45)
pointed out that the riboflavin content in fermented legume
flours depends on the experimental conditions and natural flora
involved. The vitamin E content decreased 12% after pigeon
pea fermentation, mainly due to a noticeable reduction in
γ-tocopherol content. Vitamin E is also susceptible to processing
conditions such as light, oxygen, or traces of transition metal
ions (46); hence, these factors could cause its removal after
composition
semolina 100%
(control)
semolina:fermented
pigeon pea flour
(92:8) pasta
proteinb
fatb
fructoseb
glucoseb
galactoseb
sucroseb
total available carbohydratesb
total starchb
available starchb
resistant starchb
energy value (kcal/100 g)
insoluble dietary fiberb
soluble dietary fiberb
total dietary fiberb
ashb
calciumc
sodiumc
magnesiumc
zincc
vitamin B1c
vitamin B2c
R-tocopherolc
β-tocopherolc
γ-tocopherolc
δ-tocopherolc
R-TE vitamin E (units/100 g)
TEAC (µmol Trolox/g)
14.81 ± 0.37 a
0.07 ± 0.01 a
0.27 ± 0.01 a
0.73 ± 0.01 a
nda
0.86 ± 0.02 a
1.86 ± 0.03 a
73.85 ± 1.09 a
71.15 ± 1.99 a
3.85 ± 0.81 a
362.71
3.96 ± 0.03 a
0.74 ± 0.08 a
4.73 ± 0.05 a
0.56 ± 0.03 a
35.51 ± 1.84 a
23.95 ± 0.18 a
46.43 ± 2.13 a
1.89 ± 0.03 a
0.12 ± 0.00 a
0.10 ± 0.01 a
ND a
ND a
1.30 ± 0.02 a
ND a
0.13 ± 0.01 a
2.24 ± 0.33 a
17.79 ± 0.22 b
0.18 ± 0.06 b
1.06 ± 0.06 b
1.13 ± 0.05 b
0.49 ± 0.03 b
0.82 ± 0.04 a
3.50 ± 0.06 b
78.68 ± 1.75 b
74.74 ± 0.05 b
3.94 ± 1.69 a
401.50
5.13 ± 0.18 b
1.89 ± 0.25 b
7.02 ± 0.43 b
1.29 ± 0.01 b
85.85 ± 0.49 b
66.47 ± 1.51 b
60.85 ± 1.00 b
3.57 ± 0.18 b
0.11 ± 0.00 a
0.11 ± 0.01 a
0.53 ± 0.01 b
ND a
2.39 ± 0.15 b
ND a
0.77 ± 0.02 b
3.35 ± 0.07 b
a Values are the mean ± standard deviation of three determinations. The same
superscript in the same row means no significant difference (P e 0.05). b Values
in g/100 dry matter. c Values in mg/100 dry matter; ND, nondetected.
fermentation. Vitamin C was not detected neither in raw nor in
fermented seeds, and similar results have been published by
Doblado et al. (34) in fermented V. sinensis flours.
The total antioxidant capacity, measured as TEAC, decreased
slightly, but significantly (P e 0.05), after pigeon pea fermentation, but only a 4% reduction was observed (Table 2). Doblado
et al. (34), however, reported an increment of TEAC after the
fermentation of V. sinensis for 48 h.
Fermented pigeon pea seeds presented a better nutritional
value than raw seeds since some non-nutritive compounds as
R-galactosides, phytic acid, and TIA decreased, while some
compounds such as available sugars increased. These obtained
fermented pigeon pea flour provide a reasonable level of protein,
starch, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins, nutritional qualities
that make it a convenient ingredient to be incorporated in the
formulation for semolina pasta enrichment.
J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 54, No. 18, 2006
Fermented Pigeon Pea Ingredients in Pasta Products
Table 6. Composition in Non-nutritive Compounds of Cooked Pasta
Products Made with 100% Semolina or Supplemented Semolina with
Fermented Pigeon Pea (C. cajan var. aroı́to) Floursa
composition
semolina 100%
(control)
semolina:fermented
pigeon pea flour
(90:10) (92:8) pasta
raffinoseb
stachyoseb
verbascoseb
total R-galactosidesb
IP6 (phytic acid)b
IP5b
IP4b
IP3b
total inositol phosphatesb
TIA (TIU/mg)
tannins (galic acid)b
ND a
ND a
ND a
ND a
0.10 ± 0.01 a
0.03 ± 0.00 a
ND a
ND a
0.13 ± 0.01 a
ND a
0.37 ± 0.01 b
ND a
ND a
ND a
ND a
0.18 ± 0.01 b
0.04 ± 0.00 a
0.02 ± 0.00 b
ND a
0.24 ± 0.00 b
ND a
0.28 ± 0.01 a
a Values are the mean ± standard deviation of three determinations. The same
superscript in the same row means no significant difference (P e 0.05). b Values
in g/100 dry matter.
Table 3 shows the cooking quality parameters of pasta
products prepared with 100% semolina (control) and supplemented semolina with different proportions of fermented pigeon
pea flour (5, 10, and 12%). The cooking time of pasta products
supplemented with fermented flour at 5 and 10% was slightly
(P e 0.05) higher (18 and 11%) than control pasta while
spaghetti fortified with 12% fermented pigeon pea flour showed
similar cooking times. These results do not agree with those
obtained by Ferreira et al. (47) in pasta products prepared with
wheat and soybean blends where the cooking times in fortified
pasta were smaller than in 100% semolina product. Cooking
water absorption values were significantly higher (P e 0.05)
than those for control pasta. According to Casangrandi et al.
(48), an acceptable weight increment for pasta products will be
equivalent to twice the original weight (g200%). Results
obtained in this paper are slightly higher, and it has been
considered that fortified spaghetti with fermented pigeon pea
flour has an acceptable quality.
The supplementation of semolina with fermented pigeon pea
flours caused an increment in cooking loss (Table 3). Different
authors have observed that when the cooking time increases,
the cooking losses increase (49-51). Higher cooking losses in
noodles from pea and wheat blends and in noodles from defatted
soy-supplemented whole durum wheat as compared with 100%
wheat noodles have been previously reported (52, 53). Cooking
loss could be attributable to the structural changes in the protein
network due to the substitution of wheat protein by legume
protein. According to Ferreira et al. (47), solid losses could be
a consequence of protein and starch degradation due to the
temperature employed during pasta cooking. In the present
paper, cooking loss, although higher than control pasta, still
6689
satisfies values e9% as it has been suggested as acceptable in
pasta making (54). Results obtained are in accordance with those
found by Granito et al. (55) in spaghetti supplemented with
defatted corn, cassava, cowpea, and gluten. Similar results have
been reported by Bergman et al. (56) in cooking parameters of
pasta products fortified with cowpea meal in comparison to
100% semolina pasta.
Small substitution (5, 10, and 12%) of semolina by fermented
pigeon pea flour induced higher protein loss in water than those
observed in control pasta (Table 3). Dexter and Matsuo (49)
reported a larger protein loss in water for spaghetti made from
poor quality wheat than those made from better quality wheat.
This was attributable to a greater proportion of extractable gluten
protein for the poorer quality wheat. They also found an increase
in insoluble protein content in cooked spaghetti when the
cooking time was close to 12 min.
Table 4 shows the general acceptability of cooked control
and fortified pasta products. Spaghetti supplemented with 5 and
10% fermented pigeon pea flour showed a similar acceptability
score (P e 0.05) than control pasta. When the substitution level
was increased to 12%, the score was significantly (P e 0.05)
lower and this product was not well-accepted. Raggaee et al.
(57) reported a good consumer acceptability for products
formulated with fermented lentils. Frı́as et al. (58) pointed out
that changes occurring during legume fermentation impart
modifications of texture and organoleptic characteristics such
as flavor, aroma, taste, and appearance, especially the elimination of beany flavor. From the acceptability results collected in
Table 4, it was decided to make spaghetti with a 10%
substitution and to carry out chemical, nutritional, and biological
studies.
Table 5 reports the chemical composition of cooked pasta
products made with 100% semolina or supplemented with 10%
fermented pigeon pea flour. Fortified pasta showed a higher
content of protein (20%), fat (157%), total available soluble
sugars (88%), total and available starch (7 and 5%, respectively),
insoluble, soluble, and total dietary fiber (30, 155, and 48%,
respectively), ash (130%), and minerals (142% for calcium,
178% for sodium, 31% for magnesium, and 89% for zinc) than
the control pasta (100% semolina). Furthermore, cooked fortified
pasta led to an increase in energy value (11%). The chemical
composition of cooked pasta fortified with 10% fermented
pigeon pea flour is in accordance with results reported by Endres
(59) for pasta products fortified with 15% soy protein isolates
and by Goñi and Valentin-Gamazo (60) for spaghetti supplemented with 25% chickpea flour. The ratio between soluble and
insoluble dietary fiber obtained was 1/2.7, which was quite
similar with those found by Wittig et al. (61) (1/4.5) in enriched
spaghetti with dietary fiber extracts. Mineral values in supplemented pasta with fermented pigeon pea flour were higher than
those reported for spaghetti (62, 63).
Table 7. Biological Values of Casein and Cooked Pasta Products Made with 100% Semolina or Supplemented Semolina with Fermented Pigeon
Pea Flour (C. cajan var. aroı́to)a
diets
casein
semolina 100%
(control) pasta
semolina:fermented
pigeon pea flour
(90:10) pasta
a
food intake
(g/rat/day)
protein intake
(g/rat/day)
weight gained
(g/rat/day)
true digestibility
(TD)
protein efficiency
ratio (PER)
7.81 ± 0.51 b
6.36 ± 1.07 a
0.87 ± 0.06 c
0.64 ± 0.11 a
2.40 ± 0.30 c
0.69 ± 0.15 a
93.13 ± 2.19 c
84.51 ± 3.88 a
2.77 ± 0.34 c
1.11 ± 0.30 a
6.14 ± 0.34 a
0.79 ± 0.04 b
1.52 ± 0.15 b
89.62 ± 0.69 b
1.92 ± 0.16 b
Values are the mean ± standard deviations of six determinations. The same superscript in the same column means no significant difference (P e 0.05).
6690
J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 54, No. 18, 2006
Table 5 also collects the vitamin content of cooked pasta
products. Substitution of semolina with 10% fermented pigeon
pea flour had no significant effect on the content of B vitamin.
However, vitamin E presented a sharp increase (from 0.13 to
0.77 vitamin E units) mainly due to the presence of R-tocopherol
in fortified pasta, which was not detected in control pasta.
According with the RDA, spaghetti fortified with 10% fermented
flour provides 9-10% of the recommended intake of vitamin
B1, 8-9% of the RDA of vitamin B2, and 5% of the RDA of
vitamin E (64). The total antioxidant capacity (TEAC) increased
as a consequence of fortification (80%).
Pasta products enriched with 10% fermented pigeon pea flour
did not contain R-galactoside and provide larger (P e 0.05)
phytic acid contents than 100% semolina pasta, while the tannin
content was reduced significantly (P e 0.05) (24%) (Table 6).
Table 7 collects biological parameters for cooked pasta
products studied and the reference casein diet. Fortified cooked
pasta showed significantly (P e 0.05) higher protein intake and
weight gained than 100% semolina pasta. TD and PER were
notably improved as a consequence of fortification (6 and 73%,
respectively) as compared with those values for control pasta.
The improvement obtained in PER was possibly due to
supplementation of amino acids between legumes and cereal,
since fortified pasta products lacked in TIA. In cooked spaghetti
supplemented with free R-galactosides flour from L. angustifolius varieties, an increase in PER of 73-86% was obtained
in comparison with 100% semolina pastas (65). However, results
obtained in the present paper are higher than values presented
by Casagrandi et al. (48) in macaroni made with wheat flour
supplemented with raw pigeon pea flour in 5, 10, and 15% (PER
values ranging from 0.97 to 1.09 and TD from 76.8 to 84.5%)
and those reported by Canniati-Brazaca et al. (66) for pasta
elaborated with a mixture of 30% pigeon pea protein and 70%
rice protein where the PER value was 1.7 and the TD value
was 73.4%.
It can be concluded that pasta products prepared by fortifying
semolina flour with 10% fermented pigeon pea flours did not
contain non-nutritive compounds and provided higher protein
contents and PERs than 100% semolina pasta. These enriched
pasta products presented similar sensorial acceptability than
semolina products; therefore, they can be included in the human
diet.
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Received for review March 2, 2006. Revised manuscript received June
22, 2006. Accepted June 26, 2006. This work forms part of the Ph.D.
of. A.T., and it has been funded by Spanish projects AGL200202905ALI and AGL2004-00886ALI.
JF0606095