TIMBER STRUCTURES

ÖZET

      Ahşap binlerce yıldır temel yapı malzemesi olarak genel yada bölgesel, kendine özgü yapım tekniğinin gelişmiş olduğu, günümüzde de kullanılan yapı üretim geleneğinin önemli malzemelerinden biridir.  ICOMOS hızla yok olmakta olan bu grup kültür varlıklarının korunması için 1999 yılında Mexico’da yapılan ICOMOS 12. Genel Kurulu’nda, “Ahşap Tarih Yapıların Korunması İçin İlkeler” belgesini üretmiştir.
      Geleneksel/tarihi yapılarda malzemenin kolayca tahrip edilmesi, onarımlarda bu sistemin kullanılmaması  geleneksel tasarım ve yapım tekniklerinin unutulması nedeniyle bu grup yapılar gittikçe enderleşmekte ve yanlızlaşmaktadır. Bu çalışma Anadolu’nun  farklı coğrafyalarında, farklı ibadet yapılarında-cami/kilise- geleneksel ahşap malzeme sistem, teknik ve detaylarının belgelenmesini, onarımlarda yok olmadan korunması ve ulaşılabilir bir belge olarak sunumunu amaçlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda çalışma bu konuda sistematik belge üretmeyi amaçlayan bir çalışmanın da başlangıcıdır. Yapıların konumları, mekânsal kurgusu genel, yapısal sistem, yapım tekniği ve malzeme kullanımının detaylandırıldıgı bu calısmada Ayvalık’da yer alan Hagia Triada Kilise’si özelinde yapılan çalışmalar ve analizler bir yöntem önerisi olarak kabul edilmektedir.
        18. ve 19. yüzyılda önemli bir Rum yerleşimi olan Ayvalık yerleşiminin en önemli mekansal unsurlarından biri kilise yapılarıdır. Yerleşmenin dini odağı olan 11 kilise yapısı, kamusal mekân olarak aynı zamanda sosyal, kültürel toplanma alanıdır. 11 mahallenin odağı konumunda, yapım tarihleri farklılaşan bu kiliseler, etraflarındaki konut dokusu ile birlikte yerleşimin tarihsel gelişiminin de göstergeleridir.
          Anahtar kelimeler: Koruma, Ahşap Yapım Sistemi, Ayvalık Kiliseleri, Hagia Triada Kilisesi

ABSTRACT

      For thousands of years, timber material has been one of the basic building materials, whose specific construction technique has been developed. Today, timber material is also the important materials of the tradition of building production. In order to protect these group cultural heritage that have rapidly disappeared, ICOMOS has produced a documentary "Principles for the Preservation of Historic Timber Structures" at the ICOMOS 12th General Assembly in Mexico.
      Timber structures are becoming increasingly rare due to easy damage to the material, the improper use , and the forgetting of traditional construction techniques. This study aims to document and discuss similarities and differences the use of traditional timber material systems, techniques and details in different geographical of Anotolia and architectural types. This study is also aimed at producing a systematic document in this context. In this context, the Hagia Triada Church in Ayvalık was chosen as a study methodology proposal.
        One of the most important components of Ayvalık, an important Greek settlement in the 18th and 19th centuries, is church buildings. The 11 church building, which is the religious center of the settlement, is also social, cultural and public areas of the settlement. The churches that differentiate their construction dates in the center of the 11 district are the representatives of the historical development of the settlement together with the urban fabric around them.
            Keywords: Conservation, Timber Frame Structural System, Ayvalık Churches, Hagia Triada  Church

This paper is based on an evaluation of the industrialization levels and main production systems of Brazilian timber housing producers. Two methods were used to investigate this understudied topic. Literature-based projection was carried out to identify the production system of each sampled company, from the construction technique(s) produced by the same. The second method consisted of face-to-face interviews to identify the current production system of each producer. For both methodologies, the timber housing sector presented a considerable level of industrial development in view of the greater popularity of prefabrication systems. Due to admissions to enable the system identification from the literature-based projections, a result contrast in artisanal production was verified between both methodologies. Despite the sampling difference, the two methods showed typical results for the industrial processes. Thus, few artisanal developers and the visible amount of industrial-based producers could regard this sector as industrial-featured.

Il volume di Gennaro Tampone, Atlante dei dissesti delle strutture li-gnee, rappresenta un ulteriore originale e fondamentale apporto alla conoscenza delle carpenterie di legno antiche, a cui l'Autore ormai da diverse decine di anni ci ha abituato, contribuendo in maniera sostan-ziale a variare l'errata opinione di tecnici ed accademici nei confronti di un materiale troppe volte considerato poco durabile e dalle modeste proprietà strutturali. Il saggio è parte di una collana sui beni culturali, Atlanti della conserva-zione del patrimonio culturale, il cui intento è documentare materiali e tecniche, organizzazione strutturale, forme di alterazione, degrada-mento e dissesti, assumendo pertanto valore di catalogo, utile riferi-mento per la pratica professionale e di fondamentale importanza per una corretta conservazione delle costruzioni antiche. La pubblicazio-ne si presenta con il testo espresso in italiano ed inglese a rimarcare la volontà di una vasta divulgazione e a riflettere la portata internaziona-le dell'Autore, a cui è da attribuire un notevole contributo ed influenza-fin dai primi anni 80'-alla genesi di una nuova sensibilità verso le strutture lignee antiche. L'opera è divisa in due parti, la prima Effetti delle azioni meccaniche sulle strutture lignee e composte, di maggior carattere teorico e una seconda in cui viene presentata una sistematica raccolta di dissesti. Lo studio adotta una originale suddivisione in vari livelli gerarchici, ideata dall'Autore, che distingue le carpenterie lignee in "Membratu-re", "Unità strutturali", "Sistemi strutturali" e "Collegamenti". Un lin-guaggio utile a rappresentare le diverse combinazioni possibili che ha trovato vasta diffusione tra gli esperti del settore, anche per quelli operanti in ambito internazionale, si vedano per esempio i documenti a conclusione dei simposi dell'ICOMOS IIWC svolti nel 2012 in Guadalajara e nel 2013 in Himeji e più recentemente i lavori della COST ACTION FP1101 / WG1 Assessment of timber structures, i cui risultati ottenuti basano in maniera estesa su una tale suddivisione. Il volume è aperto da una introduzione sui caratteri generali del materiale, le cui caratteristiche della fibratura, la presenza e qualità dei nodi e gli eventuali difetti, oltre alla specie legnosa, ne definiscono il comportamento strutturale. Alle proprietà del legno è da ascrivere una marcata igroscopicità che induce negli assortimenti di minori dimensioni estese deformazioni, mentre nelle travi il ritiro fortemente anisotropo comporta la generazione di fenditure, soluzioni di continuità nella membratura, per le quali l'Autore fornisce suggerimenti utili per una opportuna distinzione dalle lesioni di origine meccanica. La degradabilità del legno viene trattata nella prima parte analizzando le varie forme di carie e marciume, le strumentazioni per una loro rilevazione e, soprattutto, gli effetti sul comportamento meccanico; la descrizione è corredata da alcune significative immagini che illustrano le conseguenze di attacchi di tipo biotico. Viene quindi tratteggiato con diagrammi e tabelle esplicative il comportamento meccanico del legno soggetto alle principali sollecitazioni descrivendone in particolare le corrispondenti modalità di tormento e collasso tipiche. Le strutture lignee, soprattutto quelle diffuse in area mediterranea, più ridondanti in generale e difficili da leggere risultano le configurazioni del nord Europa, presentano chiare evidenze nei loro componenti del percorso delle forze e altrettanto manife-sta, entro certi limiti, è la relazione tra tensione e dissesto, da cui scaturisce una biunivocità che ne consente l'interpretabilità e la scoperta delle cause. Per una tale conoscenza ci si può avvalere di diversi strumenti quali i test sperimentali e la modella-zione numerica, sebbene l'Autore avverta che nella maggioranza dei casi è difficile la riproduzione-in laboratorio o attraverso Recensioni ATLANTE DEI DISSESTI DELLE STRUTTURE LIGNEE ATLAS OF THE FAILURES OF TIMBER STRUCTURES NARDINI EDITORE, 2016, 200 pagine

Effect of zeolite content on the physical, mechanical and thermal properties of wood plastic composites was investigated in this study. To meet this objective, pine wood flour (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt%) with compatibilizing agent, zeolite (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 wt%), and polypropylene were compounded in a twin screw co-rotating extruder. The mass ratio of the wood flour to polypropylene was 50/50 (w/w) in all compounds. Test specimens were produced using injection molding machine from the pellets. Physical and mechanical, and thermal (Thermogravimetry Analysis/Differential Scanning Calorimetry) properties of the wood plastic composites were determined. The water absorption and thickness swelling properties of wood plastic composites improved with increasing zeolite content. The flexural and tensile properties of the wood plastic composites decreased with increasing zeolite content. All the wood plastic composites provided the values of flexural strength (58.4–72.9 MPa) and flexural modulus (2718-5024 MPa) that were well over the requirement by the standard specified in ASTM D 6662. The mass loss rates values of wood plastic composites increased with increasing zeolite contents. The Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis showed that the melt crystallization enthalpies and degree of crystallization of wood plastic composites decreased with increasing zeolite content. The decrease in the Tc and Xc indicated that zeolite was the poor nucleating agent for the wood plastic composites.

This manuscript introduces the mathematical modelling of efficient stiffened engineered timber wall systems and presents a collection of corresponding design curves. An analytical approach via the exact finite strip method through the Wittrick-Williams algorithm was used in this study to understand and predict the behaviour of such systems. Appropriate orthotropic material models and strength limits have been incorporated into the analytical method for the engineered timber panel and sawn cut timber stud stiffeners respectively. This is the first time that this approach has been used in this field of timber engineering and hence was verified through experimental testing and detailed Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Compared to FEA there is over a thousand-fold decrease in computational cost which allowed many parameters to be varied incrementally including: the thickness of the panel, number of stiffeners, height of the wall and applied load. The results of which has enabled a set of versatile and simple validated design curves to be developed and presented. With these design curves, for a desired load capacity, the optimal system configurations are given. Likewise, for a chosen configuration the allowable axial load is given.

Nel 1819-23 fu attuato il piano generale di “ampliazione e perfezionamento” del Palazzo dell’Università di Pavia redatto dal prof. Giuseppe Marchesi. Il piano prevedeva anche la realizzazione di un nuovo scalone monumentale, appropriato alla magnificenza dell’edificio ristrutturato. Avendo previsto lo scalone in una parte di edificio già esistente, Marchesi dovette affrontare molti problemi. Volendo coprire lo spazio interno con un’ampia volta a botte con lacunari, ma anche limitare le spese, decise di conservare muri e copertura esistenti. Questi vincoli lo condussero a interessanti scelte progettuali; per quanto riguarda il tetto, per guadagnare altezza per la volta, modificò le capriate esistenti tagliandone le catene lignee e sostituendole con tiranti rialzati in ferro battuto. L’articolo descriverà le vicende storiche dello scalone e le tecniche costruttive adottate per la copertura, nella quale è presente una precoce applicazione di tiranti metallici in capriate lignee.

This paper is based on an evaluation of the industrialization levels and main production systems of Brazilian timber housing producers. Two methods were used to investigate this understudied topic. Literature-based projection was carried out to identify the production system of each sampled company, from the construction technique(s) produced by the same. The second method consisted of face-to-face interviews to identify the current production system of each producer. For both methodologies, the timber housing sector presented a considerable level of industrial development in view of the greater popularity of prefabrication systems. Due to admissions to enable the system identification from the literature-based projections, a result contrast in artisanal production was verified between both methodologies. Despite the sampling difference, the two methods showed typical results for the industrial processes. Thus, few artisanal developers and the visible amount of industrial-based producers could regard this sector as industrial-featured.

Versatile, wood has been used by mankind in furniture, instruments, utensils and construction. About timber buildings, this critical review discusses their valuable and sustainable features that label their multiple options. Numerous contributions were compiled from the author's collection and prospection in relevant databases. Construction techniques were featured, vocations were identified and production systems were remarked to detail wood-based resources and residues. Discussions and suggestions were raised as promoting strategies. Secular buildings prove the convenience of wood materials in construction, since they have decent levels in sustainability, durability, stability, value added, aesthetics, strength and weight. Timber construction enables artisanal to industrial productions and traditional to contemporary techniques with different materials, sizes and architectural styles. Global barriers are marked by obscurities about logging and illegal deforestation, and deficiencies in the regulations of native species. The utilization of sustainably sourced wood, sylviculture as a viable social-economic driving force and several advantages of timber construction are positive reasons. Actions were proposed to drive policy and multiply timber buildings, since they form a promising segment for emerging bioeconomies of innovative nations. Changes in wood consumption to enhance sylviculture combined with the waste reutilization should intensify the sustainability of timber construction and establish industrial synergies.

Synopsis The Howe truss was patented in USA initially in 1840 and again in 1842 and went on to become one of the primary timber truss designs used in North America. The adaptation of the Howe truss in NSW into the two distinct forms known as the " Allan " and " Dare " trusses is well documented, though its usage elsewhere in Australia is largely ignored. This paper will briefly describe the extent of this usage and suggest the manner in which some of the bridge engineering knowledge required for their construction was transmitted.

Timber is an ambiguous material, saturated with implicit values of sustainability, and locality, and at the same time globally ubiquitous. This essay examines the curious moment in Norwegian architectural history when timber, long associated with tradition and craft, became an industrial material of mass-production—in particular, through prefabricated structures produced by the Norwegian company Moelven Brug. By tracing the marketing narratives behind the company’s two main products—large timber housing panels and glued laminated (glulam) beams—this essay reconstructs a complex field of ideas related to building with timber. It argues that, on one hand, Moelven products reflected shifting architectural attitudes towards timber in mid-twentieth century Norway, treating it as the most “neutral” material, and on the other, they shaped new narratives of “updated tradition” advanced through the use of engineered timber in representative buildings. A curious by-product of a marketing narrative, the myth of updated tradition survives until today, providing a local resolution to the homogeneous global typologies of timber construction.

La raccolta di saggi costituisce l’esito scientifico di un Accordo bilaterale stipulato tra l'Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II e l'Universitat Politècnica di València (2015-2020), coordinato dai curatori. La condivisione di interessi comuni di ricerca connessi allo studio delle tecniche costruttive storiche ha rappresentato il punto di avvio di un percorso di studio che ha focalizzato l’attenzione, in particolare, sulla diffusione e sulle variazioni dei sistemi costruttivi delle volte dal Medioevo all’Ottocento in una lettura comparata tra due ambiti mediterranei storicamente molto legati quali sono stati quelli dei contesti di Napoli e Valencia.
Tenendo in considerazione le plurisecolari relazioni tra Italia meridionale e Spagna, i saggi approfondiscono, seguendo un percorso cronologico e tematico insieme, le diverse modalità edificatorie impiegate per la realizzazione di volte murarie e lignee, ponendo una peculiare attenzione sulla circolazione e condivisione di saperi tecnici tra i contesti oggetto di indagine. A partire dal cantiere medioevale, esaminato in relazione al contesto iberico e napoletano, i saggi che seguono indagano le diverse tecniche costruttive impiegate per la realizzazione dei sistemi voltati attraverso significativi casi-studio e rimandi tra Regno di Napoli e d’Aragona.
Accanto alle tradizionali volte ‘pesanti’ in muratura sono indagate le volte ‘leggere’, realizzate in legno e in mattoni disposti in piano, meglio note nel contesto spagnolo come bovedas tabicadas e nell’Italia meridionale come volte alla siciliana. Rispetto a quest’ultimo tema, di grande interesse appare non solo l’uso continuativo della tecnica nel corso dei secoli, prevalentemente nell’area spagnola, ma anche la diffusione e l’impiego riscontrabile in diversi contesti dell’Italia meridionale, dalla Sicilia a partire dal Quattrocento, al Napoletano dove i primi esempi noti risalgono agli anni Trenta dell’Ottocento. In tale caso, seppur di derivazione siciliana, la tecnica costruttiva può essere ricondotta alla matrice valenziana: ciò ne evidenzia la profonda influenza esercitata sul Regno di Napoli nonché la longue durée di un’arte del costruire che appare nel presente quale risultato di tradizioni sviluppatesi in tempi lunghi, migrate e adattate in relazione ai fattori locali di rischio strutturale, alle disponibilità di materiali e maestranze nonché alle esigenze economiche di ciascun contesto.

Este livro trata dos mais diversos aspectos pertinentes à utilização das estruturas de aço e de madeira, principalmente nos projeto de arquitetura onde a concepção da estrutura é ter consciência das possibilidades e das propriedades do material estrutural, percebendo a relação deles com o espaço gerado da forma mais adequada e natural possível. (This book deals with various aspects related to the use of steel and wood, especially in architectural design where the design of the structure is to be aware of the possibilities and the properties of the structural material, realizing their relationship with the space generated fashion most appropriate and natural as possible.)

This paper describes timber gridshell design methods and building techniques. The authors’ experience with such projects is used to highlight the advantages of timber gridshells. Relevant built examples are presented and their form-finding and analysis methods are discussed. The relevance of the timber gridshell technique is illustrated by a recently built project in Cluj, Romania that builds upon previous knowledge and takes advantage of modern computational tools that are available for both architects and engineers.

The only natural material for building boats is wood. There are various designs in the art of wooden boat building. The techniques for building wooden boats depends on the type of boat, the technique and procedure for making day sailors is different from the one used for construction of powerboats, cruising boats, or performance rows among several others.

Likewise, depending on the type of boat you want to build, you have an option of choosing from a large variety of timbers....

The rise of fully prefabricated panelised systems has led to manufacturing lines consisting of many sequential processes. Traditionally, these processes have been completed through conventional means, however, an increasing number of these processes are being automated. As a result, fully prefabricated timber-based panelised wall systems has been defined and explored in this review, in terms of the general set of processes required for their fabrication with the latest advanced automated manufacturing technologies available grouped for each process. An integrative literature review was conducted based on a modified framework to that presented by Templier and Paré. Information has been sourced from leading automation companies, manufactures, pre-fabricators and literature to fully outline processes and automation technologies available for each respective process. The methodology used has facilitated a broader and deeper level of understanding which heavily fo-cused upon presenting the latest automation enabled technologies available for the fabrication of such systems for each respective process. In this way, several comprehensive conclusions were drawn on the current state of automation within and across processes used for the full prefabrication of timber-based panelised wall systems.

Eastern Slovakia is one of the last islands of the traditional buildings with a timber skeleton structure, once common in the wider European area. The paper presents the research history,  evolution, technology and rich residential and farm typologies of the noteworthy buildings.

Emerging new platforms combine timber with automation, prefabrication and end-to-end integration in an attempt to disrupt the construction industry. While these efforts contribute to the renewal of an often outdated industry and have the potential to contribute to a more ecologically responsible built environment, there are also a number of potential risks attached to their centralised approach to automation. Although architecture has a long history of engagement with digital technologies, it has yet to fully understand and theorize the rapid changes implied by automation and the digital economy which underlie these new platforms. The work presented in this paper acknowledges the new timber platforms argument for timber as a material with disruptive capacities. Timber currently already has a high degree of automation throughout its entire production chain. Forests are managed digitally, continuously responding to the global demands and logistics of sustainable timber production. However, the paper proposes an alternative, distributed and more open-ended framework for timber platforms, based on the combination of discrete architectural parts with automation. This so called discrete paradigm builds on a computational understanding of parts as function agnostic, serialised building blocks that can be digitally assembled into functional buildings. These building blocks are manufactured by computer controlled processing of widely available, two-dimensional base materials such as plywood or mass-timber sheets. Projects such as the Tallinn Architecture Biennale Installation (2017) and the Nuremberg Concert Hall (2018) explore this context of automated discrete timber and its architectural, technical and economic consequences for the production of housing and the building industry at large.

Abstract Steel–timber hybrid construction systems, in particular structures with steel frames, composite steel–timber floors and shear walls with Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) sheets, combine the industrialized construction technology typical of steel systems with the advantages offered by CLT panels, namely lightness and in-plane stability. The paper proposes some original engineered solutions for joining CLT panels with steel elements. Specifically, it examines connections which allow both prefabrication of the components in the factory and their quick assembly on site. Experimental tests performed on a number of different connections will be presented and discussed. The first Part of the paper addresses some fundamental aspects and potentialities of steel–timber hybrid prefabricated systems. Two innovative steel–timber hybrid components to build floors and shear walls will be described in detail in the companion paper (Part II).

There is some agreement and much debate among interested parties about what constitutes 'sustainable housing'. The term 'sustainable' is used somewhat liberally to mean different things to different listeners. Governments, institutions, interest groups and individual designers often address certain aspects while ignoring the bigger picture. But the bigger picture is such a multivalent issue that includes aspects outside the architect's immediate remit such as location, transport, security, procurement policy and post-occupancy analysis and management. Or are these outside the architect's remit? Teaching sustainable housing within conventional architecture programmes means educators are restricted to identifying certain key issues that students should learn within a specific teaching timeframe, given the necessity for the students to demonstrate ability in the mainstay of architectural education – individual design approach, urban design, apartment planning, r...

Este livro destina-se a estudantes e profissionais das áreas de arquitetura e engenharia estrutural. Ele envolve os fundamentos estruturais pertinentes ao projeto de arquitetura das edificações, onde é abordado vários tipos de sistemas estruturais, materiais utilizados na estrutura e como determinar uma forma estrutural no projeto arquitetônico. (This book is intended for students and professionals in architecture and structural engineering. It involves the structural basis relevant to the architectural design of buildings, which is covered various types of structural systems, materials used in the structure and how to determine a structural way in architectural design.)

The paper will discuss two projects which explore the territory of discrete or digital material organisations in an architectural context. Taking inspiration from the field of Digital Materials, this paper presents an approach to architectural design which is fundamentally "digital"-not just in the process but also in its physical organisation. The use of discrete and digital materials in architecture is argued for from both an architectonic point of view, as well as from efficiencies related to automation of construction. Experiments with robotic assembly are caught between on the one hand the desire to increase speed, and on the other hand increased complexity. This paper argues that robotic assembly on the scale of architecture is only feasible and scalable in the context of digital materials and discrete computation, which has a limited set of connectivity problems. The two projects are a first attempt to translate the concept of Digital Materials to the domain of architecture. The result is an architecture which is digital in its physical organisation. It demonstrates how differentiated, complex and heterogeneous spaces can be achieved with just serialised, discrete elements.