Schema Theory

RESUMEN El presente trabajo intenta mostrar la importancia del Esquematismo Trascendental Kantiano para el programa de " Ser y Tiempo ". El hilo conductor de la argumentación es el siguiente: La pregunta por el sentido del ser interroga por el ser en su darse en cuanto sentido. El tiempo, como sentido del ser, es la dinámica unitaria de la formación de sentido (Sinnbildung). El artículo explica de qué modo Heidegger encuentra en la teoría kantiana acerca de los esquemas trascendentales y de la imaginación trascendental elementos decisivos para elaborar la función ontológica del tiempo como formación y configuración de sentido. Palabras Clave: Tiempo, sentido, esquematismo trascendental, formación de sentido, ontología de la finitud.

Spielfilme sind im DaF-Unterricht, wie auch im muttersprachlichen Deutschunterricht, ein beliebtes Medium der Auseinandersetzung mit der DDR. Doch während dies bis vor fünfzehn Jahren vor allem anhand von Filmen aus der DDR erfolg-te, sind nun zumeist in der Nachwendezeit entstandene Filme über die DDR das Medium der Wahl. Die Gründe für diesen Um-stieg sind noch nicht erforscht, doch liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass er sich eher dem Bestreben, " etwas Aktuelles " zu zeigen, verdankt, als reflektierten Entscheidungen, die die Potenziale und Schwierigkeiten für interkulturelles Lernen an den jeweili gen Gegenständen abwägen. Die folgenden Überlegungen zur Rolle kultureller Modelle für verschiedene Verstehensleistungen sollen eine reflektierte Filmauswahl im interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht erleichtern.

Fictional films are popular means of learning about the GDR, not only in intercultural classrooms. Until 15 years ago, mostly films from the GDR were used. Lately, though, there has been a trend towards contemporary films about the GDR. This trend may be caused by the teachers`preference to show " something new " rather than a thorough scrutiny of the films`potentials for intercultural learning. The following reflections on the role of cultural models on different levels of film comprehension and two exemplary analyses of a film from the GDR and a popular post-1989 film about the GDR are aimed at providing a broader basis foronès choice of films in the intercultural classroom.

Schema theory provides a theoretic framework which can explain how youth can make meaning out of their war time experiences. By processing traumatic experiences, previously held schemas pre-war (which are no longer valid) can be integrated into new schemas. This results in the youth creating meaning about their war-time experiences. The youth may still suffer indefinitely with flashbacks, nightmares or any number of symptoms associated with PTSD, but they will also experience some measure of well-being. Some go beyond well-being and experience personal growth as a result of the struggle to process their trauma.

From the field of positive psychology, Calhoun and Tedeschi pioneered the concept of posttraumatic growth (PTG); a form of personal positive transformation that occurs as a result of one’s struggle to process a traumatic life experience (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). This appears to be a universal phenomenon as it has been documented across cultures, religions, genders and age groups. Aligned with schema theory, the PTG model considers how individuals can create new schemas as a result of trauma experienced. Those who have indications of PTG have developed schemas that are much more resilient and describe personally feeling “deeper”, “stronger” and “unshakable” (Mattoon, 2010). Fully understanding the characteristics and conditions of PTG, may lead to insights into therapeutic interventions for individuals suffering from trauma.

In this paper I will examine schema theory and meaning making and its role in processing trauma for war-affected youth. I will then argue that the analogical reasoning model put forward by Gick and Holyoak (1983) can be used as a theoretical framework to develop a therapeutic intervention to foster post-traumatic growth in war-affected youth.

The thesis is that Civil Procedure teachers should give more attention to the subject's landmark cases. Law teachers' common sense and cognitive scientists' schema theory lend support to that thesis. The pedagogic implications of that thesis call for an enriched case method, the essence of which is teaching a slightly smaller number of cases and pausing on the key ones, thoroughly examining them in a rich context. The optimal sources of that context are written case studies, assigned as intermittent supplementation.

Perceptions of media characters are important determinants of the enjoyment of media content, especially with regard to narrative media forms. Affective disposition theory (ADT) states that "enjoyment of media content is a function of a viewer's affective disposition toward characters and the story line outcomes associated with those characters" (Raney, 2004, p.349).
Currently, there is an evolution of characters in narrative media forms whereby formerly morally clear protagonists are increasingly becoming morally ambiguous characters. This evolution is particularly evident in television shows. Indeed, more and more morally ambiguous characters, whom viewers cannot identify as either purely good or purely bad (Krakowiak & Tsay Vogel, 2013), are becoming the central character in popular television shows, such as 24, Dexter, Breaking Bad, and American Horror Story. This new type of fictional characters is captivating the attention of scholars and media researchers. However, nearly all these previous research arrives at a similar conclusion that ambiguous characters are either “good guys” who behave badly or “bad guys” that behave well (Krakowiak & Tsay-Vogel, 2013). These definitions thus presume that these characters are good or bad at their heart, but that they provide mixed signals to the audience.
For that reason, this paper's agenda attempts to provide a new definition of morally ambiguous characters. In doing so, the paper will point out shortcomings of previous work that focuses on categorizing morally ambiguous characters in terms of prototypical character roles. In addition, this paper discusses how enjoyment relates to ambiguous characters through an inseparable relation with narrative complexity, especially in television shows and feature films. Through those two goals, this paper attempts to explain why viewers may enjoy morally ambiguous characters more than clearly defined characters, and why viewers may enjoy narrative complexity more than narrative simplicity.

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This chapter argues for the necessity of a cognitive and holistic approach to autofiction—an approach that considers textual signposts in combination with the cognitive-affective dynamics of a text’s production and reception. On the basis of empirical data in the form of writers’ self-reports and psychological studies into the differences between fictional and factual reading modes, the chapter argues for and offers definitions of autofictional writing and autofictional reading modes. Their potential affordances and effects both for authors and readers are illustrated in relation to three works, which exhibit different degrees of fictionality: Philip Roth’s The Facts (1988), Olivia Laing’s Crudo (2018), and Ben Lerner’s 10:04 (2014).

The academic study of digital fiction has recently undergone a significant paradigm shift. Research has moved from a “first wave” of pure theoretical debate to a “second wave” of narratological, stylistic, and semiotic analysis. While the theoretical intricacies of second-wave digital fiction theory have been well debated (see Ciccoricco; Ensslin; Ensslin and Bell; Bell, Possible Worlds), the discipline and practice of analyzing digital fiction require a more systematic engagement and understanding than offered by much previous scholarship. With this critical need in mind, the scholars have has been exploring new avenues of defining and implementing approaches to analyzing digital fiction in order to develop a range of tools and associated terminology for digital fiction analysis and, in a related step, provide a body of analyses based on the systematic analyses of texts, which are substantiated by robust theoretical and terminological conclusions (e.g. Page and Thomas; Bell, Ensslin and Rustad). In line with that commitment this article provides a means of analyzing hyperlinks in web-based hypertext fiction. It begins by showing that hyperlinks in hypertext work associatively. It then argues that schema theory can be used to analyze the ways in which readers approach hypertext reading as well as how links function in hypertext fiction. The approach is demonstrated via an analysis of external links in a web-based fiction, 10:01 by Lance Olsen and Tim Guthrie. It shows that links are used to provide an ideological context to the narrative as well as forging a relationship between the fictional and actual world.

A kognitív irányzat felemelkedésével a séma a pszichológia egyik központi fogalma lett.  A kognitív kutatások fő áramlatai mellett a legkülönbözőbb területeken (pl. szociálpszichológia, mozgáselmélet) elterjedt, valamiféle komplex reprezentációs formára utalva.  A használat során szinte már úgy tűnt, hogy a fogalom nemcsak leíró, de magyarázó érvénnyel is bír.  Idővel nyilvánvalóvá vált azonban, hogy a séma fogalmával kapcsolatos tisztázatlanságok makacsul fennmaradnak.  Ennek felismerése már előrevetítette a kognitív pszichológián belüli új fejleményeket: a konnekcionista irányzat megerősődését (Clark, 1989/1996).  A konnekcionista irányzaton belül a séma fogalma átértelmeződött, egyúttal kevésbé fontossá vált. Úgy látszik, hogy a pszichológia átértékeli, és egyúttal leértékeli a séma fogalmát.
E tanulmány témája a séma-fogalom történeti elemzése, a jelenre is kitekintést adva.  A sémával összefüggő kérdések a mentális reprezentáció alapproblémáit vetik fel.  Így a séma-fogalom története egyben tükre azoknak a szerteágazó törekvéseknek, amelyek a kognitív pszichológia alapkérdéseinek megválaszolására irányultak és irányulnak.

Öz Bu çalışmada DSM-5 tanı kriterleri açısından yaygın kaygı bozukluğu tanısına uyum gösteren 35 yaşındaki bir erkek danışanın öncelikli problem olarak gördüğü öfke probleminin şema terapi yaklaşımı ile nasıl ele alındığı anlatılmaktadır. Danışanla, İstanbul Arel Üniversitesi'nin klinik psikoloji doktora programı kapsamında süpervizyon altında toplam dokuz seans görüşme yapılmıştır. Beck Depresyon Ölçeği, Şema Ölçeği, Şema Mod Ölçeği, Young Anne Babalık Ölçeği ve SCL-90 danışanı değerlendirmek için danışana uygulanmış ölçekler arasındadır. Değerlendirme sonuçlarına göre, bu çalışmada danışanın dayanıksızlık, karamsarlık, duyguları bastırma, boyun eğicilik ve cezalandırıcılık şemaları ve öfkeli çocuk ile uyumlu-teslimci moduyla ağırlıklı olarak çalışılmıştır. Seansların başında günlük işlevi artırmak için davranış aktivasyonu yapılan danışanla tüm terapi sürecinde şema terapi tekniklerinden bilişsel, yaşantısal ve davranışsal örüntü bozmaya dayalı tekniklerden faydalanılmıştır. Sonuç olarak, köken odaklı çalışmanın bir yandan öfke problemini giderirken diğer tarafından yaygın kaygı bozukluğuna dair iyileştirici etkisi olduğu gözlenmiştir. Tedavi sürecinde izlenen yol ve tedavi sonuçları tartışma kısmında ele alınmıştır. Abstract In the current study, it was aimed to examine how anger management problem of a 35 years old male client who was diagnosed with general anxiety disorder according to DSM-five criteria was treated by schema therapy approach. Totally nine therapy sessions were conducted with the client under Istanbul Arel University's clinical doctorate program supervision education. Beck Depression Inventory, Young Schema Questionnaire, Schema Mode Inventory, Young Parenting Inventory and SCL-90 were the assessment tools applied to the client to evaluate his psychological structure. Based on clinical evaluations, vulnerability to harm and illness, negativity/pessimism, emotional inhibition, subjugation, and punitiveness schemas and angry child and compliant surrender modes were focused in the therapeutic process. While behavioral activation technique was applied at the beginning of the sessions, cognitive, experiential, and behavioral pattern breaking strategies were utilized in ongoing therapy sessions. As a result, it was observed that using etiologic approach was effective both on anger management and on general anxiety disorder. The treatment process and outcomes were discussed in the discussion part.

درباره اهمیت طرحواره درمانی در زندگی انسان و رفع تله های شخصیتی چه می دانید؟
آیا تا به حال برای حل کردن مشکلات خود، از یکی از روش های روان درمانی استفاده کرده اید؟
چقدر با شیوه ی طرحواره درمانی آشنایی دارید؟
آیا متوجه الگوهای تکراری در زندگی خود شده اید؟ مثلاً این که همیشه با افرادی وارد رابطه شوید که به شما بی توجهی می کنند؟
یا مثلاً با این که از سخنرانی در جمع می ترسید، از عمد، خود را در محیط هایی قرار دهید که مجبور به صحبت کردن در جمع شوید؟
در طرحواره درمانی به درمان مشکلات زندگی با این رویکرد می پردازیم که در دوران کودکی همه ی ما، یک سری اتفاقات افتاده که به علّت تکرار شدن، بر باورها، ذهنیت و شخصیت ما، اثر منفی گذاشته است. این اتفاقات در بزرگسالی به الگوهای تکرارشونده ای تبدیل می شوند که برای ما مشکل ساز است.
به یاد داشته باشیم که ممکن است ما در شکل‌گیری این الگوها نقش نداشته باشیم. ولی بدون شک، در تداوم آن ها مسئول هستیم.
بنابراین، باید با افزایش آگاهی خود درباره روش درمان این الگوهای تکراری و طرحواره درمانی، از تداوم مشکلات تکرارپذیر زندگی خود جلوگیری کنیم. هدف ما نیز در این کتاب الکترونیکی همین است.

برای آشنایی بیشتر با فرافکر به وبسایت ما سر بزنید>>>  farafekr.com

Utopian visions and diagrams have engaged in a multitude of relationships. For example, a utopian narrative can be conceived as a diagram, or with the aid of diagrams, and understood through diagrammatic (re) annotation. This notion is explored through an interpretation of Thomas More’s Utopia and Andrea Branzi’s Agronica. Both schemes address various structural conditions through diagrammatic operations. In More’s scheme the channel that separates Utopia from the mainland, dug by its putative founder King Abraxas, inscribes a circular boundary, reiterated in the city walls and moat; it is resonant with contemporaneous rota and volvelle schemata. Conversely, Andrea Branzi’s “mirror simulator” multiplies Agronica’s centrifugal grid to infinity, negating the “outside,” and is evocative of pervasive virtual networks.

This study tested the relationships between Young’s (1990, 2003) model of EarlyMaladaptive Schemas (EMSs), negative life events occurring over the past 4 months,depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms. We also replicated a design testing the ability of EMSs, negative life events, and their interaction to predict depressive and anxious symptoms and extended the design to include specific categories of negative life events
(interpersonal and achievement). Results of this study showed that EMSs are predictive of depressive and anxious symptoms, but that negative life events account for a greater prediction. The EMS model was just as highly associated with and predictive of anxious symptoms as it was with depressive symptoms. The study was the first to examine specific types of negative life events and their relationships with EMSs. EMSs may be more highly associated with negative achievement than with negative interpersonal events but the EMSs appear to be vulnerable to global life stress in general

There are many models of reading and many theoretical understandings.
Increasingly these different approaches are engaging one another.
In 1988 when Theories of Reading in Dialogue: An Interdisciplinary
Study was first published that was less the case. Still, though, there
is much to be gained from the cross-fertilization of those approaches
more inclined to psychological and cognitive frameworks with the
more philosophical and/or literary studies. Educators, policymakers,
researchers, academics, and the general public all have much to gain.
Theories of Reading in Dialogue sets up such an interchange, first
by introducing representatives of these various disciplines, then by
engaging key themes at the heart of reading. Meaning, comprehension,
critique and play are each explored before practical lessons are gleaned
and applied to the practice of literacy instruction.

This article traces a brief history of a schema from Corelli to Mozart, here designated the Fonte-Romanesca, in order to clarify certain foundational principles in schema theory's conception of a model, particularly as it relates to the creative act. Models are not theoretical abstractions, but cultural artifacts that inform the compositional process through (near-)literal copy, (creative) imitation, variation, and problem solving—both combinatorially and developmentally. Such a re-evaluation of schema theory is simultaneously an opportunity to reflect on larger disciplinary changes surrounding the study of music from the long eighteenth century over the last few decades.

Topics and harmonic schemata powerfully interact in the late-eighteenth-century communicative channel. This article illustrates both a categorial and pragmatic interfacing of the two domains in Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony, where a particular schema-topic amalgam, the le–sol–fi–sol (Byros 2012, 2009), enables the communication of a powerful philosophical message involving the spiritual consequences of suffering, self-sacrifice, and death. The le–sol–fi–sol, as an instance of harmonic grammar, is also an ombra topic with mortal, funereal, and sacrificial connotations. As a hybrid symbolic structure, it is the basis for establishing a number of correlations of oppositions in the structural and expressive domains of the Symphony, which communicate a “tragic-to-transcendent” expressive genre and the cultural unit of “abnegation” (Hatten 1994).

Wenn das Thema der Komplexe in den Mittelpunkt rückt, fällt auf, dass Vorstellungen in Psychologie, Psychoanalyse, Analytischer Psychologie und Verhaltenstherapie in ähnliche Richtungen zielen, was in der jungianischen Literatur bereits vermerkt wurde. Während wir aber von Komplexen sprechen, sprechen diese von Schemata. Auch hinsichtlich der Ursache von Schemata oder Komplexen lassen sich interessante Parallelen feststellen. In diesem Beitrag möchte ich den bereits begonnenen Vergleich von Schemata und gefühlsbetonten Komplexen weiter vertiefen und dabei das zentrale Thema der Grundbedkürfnisse aufgreifen.

Over the past decade or so, historically informed theory, pedagogy, and (more recently) composition have emerged fully as outgrowths of the historically informed performance (HIP) movement, for which Bach’s music has been instrumental. In this light, “Bach in the music theory classroom” is a metaphor for a broader HI initiative, one where, in my own teaching, historically informed theory (HIT) becomes the basis for structuring a curriculum centered on period composition. In this article, I discuss the materials, process, rationale, and philosophical implications for a mini-curriculum that constitutes the first of a three-course HIT sequence. My aim with this first leg is to change students’ thinking from the “know-what” types of knowledge characteristic of present-day music theory curricula to a “know-how” mind-set consistent with eighteenth-century pedagogy.

The goals of music theory today approximate the reading knowledge of a language acquired in graduate school. Enough about its syntax, grammar, and vocabulary is learned to supply a translation, but without ever acquiring the knowledge and experience to speak, think, or write in the language itself. Score annotations and analyses, as ends in themselves, are like metalinguistic translations. In Bach’s day, on the other hand, music theory was the business of training musicians to speak the language, on the performance-improvisation-composition continuum that defined their daily activities. To implement a “know-how” curriculum in an environment designed for “know-what,” however, is not without its challenges, not least because of limited time and often resources.

I narrate how Bach himself offered me a solution through his own music and pedagogical materials. Rather than throwing students into the proverbial deep end, my mini-curriculum engages them actively and continuously in creative work. The goal is not to compose a self-standing composition, but to get students thinking in Bach’s language in terms of musical schemata, the everyday patterns and conventions of Bach’s day. I do so through a series of creative problem-solving activities that impart knowledge of schemata, particularly as they are used in Bach’s hands. Students are placed in Bach’s shoes as both a teacher and composer, by exploring the connections and differences among Bach’s figured basses from the Vorschriften und Grundsätze zum vierstimmigen spielen des General-Bass, the partimento-preludes of the Langloz manuscript, and certain preludes from the Well-Tempered Clavier as well as selected fantasias. Through realization, analysis, and (class) composition exercises, students encounter a number of recurring schemata as a familiar cast of characters in these materials, all fashioned together into a modern-day Notenbüchlein or zibaldone (musical notebook), which tells a story about Bach’s schema usage—his compositional strategies employing schema development, elision, nesting, extension, and expansion.
The story culminates with Bach’s unique canonic treatment of a particular sequence, the 9/7–8/6/5. After ten weeks, students are able to realize a complex Bach partimento (BWV 908) and compose a continuo part for the Sanctus of the Mass in B Minor, for which no figures survive. These advanced creative problem-solving activities fill the last pages of the students’ Notenbüchlein, which is organized nearly single-handedly by Leipzig’s beloved Thomaskantor himself.

This essay explores the relationship between the " sacred hymn topic " (McKee 2007) and the voice-leading pattern known as the Romanesca schema (Gjerdingen 2007). Specifically, I argue that in the late-eighteenth century composers attributed to this schema the spiritual meanings associated with the hymn topic—an idea suggested, but not fully developed, by Eric McKee. The role of the Romanesca as one of the signifiers of the sacred hymn will serve as a case study for the investigation of the interactions between schemata and topics. The first section introduces these concepts and presents some theoretical background. The core of the essay will then consist of a corpus study that investigates the expressive use of the basslines associated with the Romanesca between 1775–1799. I present evidence of the co-occurrence between schema and topic and discuss its linguistic and semiotic underpinnings. A series of analytical vignettes follows, providing further support to my claims and illustrating how studying the expressive properties of schemata can inform music analysis and contribute to recuperate historical modes of listening. Musical Topics and Galant Schemata McKee's sacred hymn topic Stereotypical plots, scenes, and character types populate eighteenth-century opera. These conventions determine not only dramaturgy but also composition, under the tacit principle that similar dramatic situations invite similar musical solutions. McKee has observed that eighteenth-century composers showed great consistency when writing music for religious scenes in opera (2007, 23-25). These episodes typically involve the adoration of deities from Classical or pagan mythologies and take the form of Eighteenth-century composers created a very specific musical idiom to depict religious scenes on the operatic stage. This stable coupling between signifier (musical attributes such as slow tempo, soft dynamics, chorale texture, and a I-V-vi opening) and signified (expressive attributes such as spirituality or transcendence) constitutes what McKee calls the " sacred hymn topic " (2007). The inclusion of a chord progression in the definition of a topic is unusual, but the sacred hymn contains precise harmonic and melodic features that coincide with the first stages of Gjerdingen's Romanesca schema (2007). By analyzing a corpus representative of the music heard in late eighteenth-century Vienna, this article reveals that the Romanesca, which originally lacked a semantic dimension, acquired sacred meanings over time. Musical examples from Haydn, Mozart, and their contemporaries provide further evidence of the spiritual connotations of the schema and illustrate its interactions with other elements of the musical structure.

This article re-examines the concept of a ‘schema’ in light of a new body of empirical evidence regarding the culture and cognition of key in the eighteenth century. The schema concept in music, which originated in the work of Leonard B. Meyer, holds that social and historical experience gives rise to knowledge structures that engender a situated psychology of hearing and a context-contingent understanding of music. In previous studies by Meyer and Robert O. Gjerdingen, evidence for the schema concept has been advanced largely by interpreting a musical corpus as a metaphor for experience. That is, arguments for the existence of schemata as mental categories that configure a situated psychology of hearing have been presented primarily in the form of music analysis – historically situated patterns detected in musical scores. For this reason, the schema concept has remained, in Meyer's and Gjerdingen's words, a ‘hypothesis’ and ‘assum[ption]’ respectively.The evidence I advance here derives from a case study on Beethoven's Eroica Symphony and what I call the le–sol–fi–sol schema. The study was conducted in the spirit of the psychologically orientated, humanistic music theory that characterised Meyer's lifelong research program. By establishing a correlation between real listeners’ responses in the Symphony's reception history and the details of my own corpus study of music from the long eighteenth century (1720–1840), my Eroica case study brings a novel perspective to the idea that schemata engender a historical mode of listening. The case study bears out several hypotheses that are basic to Meyer's writings and perpetuated in Gjerdingen's galant style project: (1) that replicated patternings in eighteenth-century works are commensurate with listeners’ knowledge structures; (2) that these knowledge structures are historically contingent and therefore engender a situated psychology of hearing; (3) that these situated psychologies are affected by style change; and (4) that schemata provide access to historical modes of listening today.

My dissertation, which is currently in progress, attempts to reconstruct the compositional pedagogy of Johann Sebastian Bach using historical sources. In the course of my research I have come across four manuscript sources linked to Bach. Since I have outlined the historical and music-theoretical context of Bach’s pedagogy in greater detail elsewhere, such commentary is kept to a minimum here.

The four sources are:

Friedrich Emanuel Praetorius (1623–1695): Kurtzer doch gründlicher Unterricht vom General-Baß (c. 1655–95); D-W, 2-3-10-musica;

Johann Valentin Eckelt (1675–1732): Diesen Kurtzen Unterricht wie man eine Fuga oder Præludium formiren und einrichten soll (1722); A-Wmk, 221/27;

Johann Valentin Eckelt: Kurtzer unterricht was einen Organist[en] nötig zu wißen seÿ (n.d.); A-Wmk, 546/39;

Johann Christian Kittel (1732–1809): Generalbass Schule (c. 1786–89); US-NH, LM 3911, ma21y11k652.

Not only do all four sources share an indirect relationship to J. S. Bach, they are also thematically and methodologically united in their use of keyboard thoroughbass as a pedagogical tool in the context of practical, example-based instruction. This commonality is of central importance for the reconstruction of Bach’s compositional pedagogy, since accounts of Bach’s teaching and surviving documents suggest that he too emphasized practical matters in his teaching. More importantly, Bach explicitly associated composition with thoroughbass and the keyboard. In a recommendation dated 1727, Bach attested that his student, Friedrich Gottlieb Wild (1700–1762), “has taken special instruction from me in the clavier, thoroughbass, and the fundamental principles [Fundamental-Regeln] of composition which are derived from them.” Yet unfortunately, Bach left only two brief sets of rules outlining his thoroughbass pedagogy. Moreover, the anonymous Vorschriften und Grundsätze (also called the Generalbasslehre of 1738 or the “Precepts and Principles”), which borrows sections from Friedrich Erhard Niedt’s Musicalische Handleitung (1700–17), cannot be conclusively attributed to Bach. The lack of robust evidence stemming directly from Bach forces any attempt to reconstruct his teaching to examine documents from his wider sphere of influence – hence the publication of the above four manuscript sources.

In attempting to determine how Johann Sebastian Bach taught composition, this article draws on recent archival discoveries to claim that it was not the ornamented, vocal Choralgesänge, but the simpler, thoroughbass-centered Choralbuch style that played a central role in Bach’s pedagogy. Fascinatingly, many newly-rediscovered chorale books from Bach’s milieu contain multiple basses under each melody, suggesting that Bach too may have employed this technique. What theoretical perspectives shall we bring to bear on this long-lost multiple-bass chorale tradition? This article asserts that it is a fallacy to assume that any pattern-yielding methodology offers a valid window into Bach’s teaching. Rather, an attempt is made to recover modes of music-theoretical understanding that existed contemporaneously with Bach. Such a coterminous theoretical “paratext” potentially offers more insight into Bach’s pedagogy because it establishes a horizon of possibilities from which we can draw when examining multiple-bass composition. Foremost within this paratextual horizon is the centrality of thoroughbass for Bach’s understanding of composition. In particular, Bach was immersed in the pre-Rameau thoroughbass tradition as represented by the writings of Johann David Heinichen. In contrast to many modern harmonic perspectives, chordal roots and root progressions played little to no role in the pre-Rameau thoroughbass tradition. Dissonance was understood not harmonically, but dyadically in terms of syncopatio (suspension) and transitus (passing and neighbor) figures. Drawing from a variety of sources from Bach’s circle, particularly those of his pupil, Johann Christian Kittel, this article posits that Bach may have understood multiple-bass chorale harmonization in terms of interlocking clausulae – that is, as a series of overlapping cadential modules. In sum, this article contributes to an ongoing revisionist project of recent years that aims to elevate early eighteenth-century thoroughbass from mere “pre-theoretical” accompaniment practice to its true place as the theoretical and practical basis of compositional understanding in Bach’s day.

In der Absicht zu rekonstruieren, wie Johann Sebastian Bach Komposition unterrichtete, und ausgehend von Archivfunden aus jüngster Zeit stellt dieser Artikel die Behauptung auf, dass nicht die reich ausgestalteten, vokalen Choralgesänge, sondern der einfachere, generalbassbasierte Choralbuch-Stil in Bachs Pädagogik eine zentrale Rolle spielte. Faszinierenderweise enthalten viele neu aufgefundene Choralbücher aus Bachs Umfeld mehrere Bassstimmen unter jeder Melodie, was nahelegt, dass auch Bach diese Technik angewandt haben könnte. Welche theoretischen Perspektiven sind aus dieser lange Zeit aus dem Blick geratenen Tradition des Choralsatzes mit multiplen Bässen abzuleiten? Dieser Artikel bezweifelt, dass eine auf historisch späteren Denkweisen basierende Methodik tragfähige Perspektiven auf Bachs Unterricht gewähren kann. Stattdessen wird versucht, musiktheoretische Konzepte nutzbar zu machen, die aus Bachs Zeit stammen. Solch zeitgenössischer theoretischer »Paratext« bietet möglicherweise einen besseren Einblick in Bachs Pädagogik, da er einen Horizont von Möglichkeiten bietet, auf die man sich bei der Betrachtung der Komposition mit multiplen Bässen beziehen kann. Besonders wichtig ist die zentrale Rolle, die innerhalb dieses paratextuellen Horizonts der Generalbass für Bachs Verständnis von Komposition spielt. Insbesondere war Bach von der vor-Rameau’schen Generalbasstradition geprägt, wie sie in den Schriften Johann David Heinichens repräsentiert ist. Anders als viele moderne, von der Harmonielehre informierte Zugänge spielten Akkordgrundtöne und Grundtonfortschreitungen in der vor-Rameau’schen Generalbasstradition kaum eine bzw. gar keine Rolle. Die Dissonanz wurde nicht harmonisch, sondern als zweistimmiges Phänomen, als syncopatio (Vorhalt) oder transitus (Durchgang oder Nebennote) verstanden. Auf der Grundlage einer Auswahl von Quellen aus Bachs Umkreis, besonders denen seines Schülers Johann Christian Kittel, postuliert dieser Artikel, dass Bach die auf multiplen Bassstimmen basierende Choralharmonisierung im Sinne ineinandergreifender Klauselkombinationen, also als eine Folge einander überlappender Kadenzmodule verstanden haben könnte. Im Ergebnis trägt dieser Artikel zu einem seit einigen Jahren laufenden Projekt bei, das darauf abzielt, den Generalbass des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts vom Status einer bloßen ‚vor-theoretischen‘ Begleitpraxis zu befreien und ihn in seiner wahren Bedeutung zu würdigen, die ihm als der theoretischen und praktischen Grundlage des Verständnisses von Komposition zur Bach-Zeit zukommt.

Educators should become aware of ways to tap potential knowledge gained by learners who are already familiar with another language. Reading has been called a passive activity but in fact involves the reader in much the same way as listening includes the hearer. Eyes move forwards and backwards across a text depending upon comprehension and intent. The reader controls his or her speed and relies on background knowledge and expectations to understand what the writer has written. A student learning to read in a second language has the benefit of access to the patterns and information gathered by experience in first language use and from first cultural norms. Language teachers should consider the different dimension added to the task of reading by students who have already developed a schema related to the topic in another language. This study suggests that earlier ways of interaction with reading material are built upon connecting ideas from both languages to facilitate understanding.

This article investigates the problem of historical modes of listening through the lens of recent research in schema theory and historically-informed music cognition (Gjerdingen 1988; 2007; Byros 2009). Substantial empirical evidence now exists surrounding two particular late eighteenth-century schemata: the 1–7, 4–3 (Gjerdingen 1988; Meyer 1980) and the le–sol–fi–sol (Byros 2009). The population distributions derived from extensive corpus study for both schemata approximate a Gaussian distribution that bells in 1750–1760 and 1810–1820, with population peaks in the 1770s and 1790s, respectively. The statistics demonstrate that late eighteenth-century schemata are highly perceptually redundant (Meyer 1967/1994) while historically limited, by following a "life cycle." By extension, the evidence implies that schema-driven listening would by nature be "historical through and through"(Adorno 2004). Occasions of such "historicized" modes of listening are examined with three case studies (Mozart's "Dissonance" Quartet, Beethoven's Eroica Symphony and Piano Sonata in E minor), which indicate that, where eighteenth-century tonality is concerned, historical and modern modes of cognition differ respectively in the cognitive presence and absence of schemata.

The following essay argues that Caplin, Gjerdingen, and Hepokoski and Darcy explicitly and implicitly borrow ideas from the works of Heinrich Schenker while simultaneously relegating Schenkerian concepts, making anti-Schenkerian protests, and opposing certain Schenkerian interpretations in their own work. It also proposes that Schenkerian analysis can be used as a complement to the three aforementioned approaches. The first part demonstrates that Caplin’s terminology and hierarchical conception of musical form invites accompanying Schenkerian graphs. The second part suggests that Schenker, in his 1923 analysis of the first movement of Mozart’s K 545, noticed a schema similar to Gjerdingen’s Prinner. The third part contends that a Schenkerian interpretation of K 545 by Snyder aligns with Hepokoski and Darcy’s Type 2 sonata. The conclusion takes note of recent significant developments in field of Schenkerian studies that promote a healthy engagement with other theories.