Newton, Isaac

In this monograph, Steffen Ducheyne provides a historically detailed and systematically rich explication of Newton’s methodology. Throughout the pages of this book, it will be shown that Newton developed a complex natural-philosophical methodology which encompasses procedures to minimize inductive risk during the process of theory formation and which, thereby, surpasses a standard hypothetico-deductive methodological setting. Accordingly, it will be highlighted that the so-called ‘Newtonian Revolution’ was not restricted to the empirical and theoretical dimensions of science, but applied equally to the methodological dimension of science. Furthermore, it will be documented that Newton’s methodology was far from static and that it developed alongside with his scientific work. Attention will be paid not only to the successes of Newton’s innovative methodology, but equally to its tensions and limitations. Based on a thorough study of Newton’s extant manuscripts, this monograph will address and contextualize, inter alia, Newton’s causal realism, his views on action at a distance and space and time, the status of efficient causation in the Principia, the different phases of his methodology, his treatment of force and the constituents of the physico-mathematical models in the context of Book I of the Principia, the analytic part of the argument for universal gravitation, the meaning and significance of his regulae philosophandi, the methodological differences between his mechanical and optical work, and, finally, the the interplay between Newton’s theology and his natural philosophy.

Als Goethe in seiner monumentalen Farbenlehre (1810) versuchte, Newtons Theorie des Lichts und der Farben anzugreifen, setzte er eine Methode ein, die er als Vermannigfachung der Erfahrungen bezeichnete: Er variierte verschiedene Parameter der newtonischen Experimente, um neuen Spielraum für Alternativen zur Theorie Newtons zu gewinnen. Dabei erzielte er durchaus Erfolge. U.a. entdeckte er das Komplement zum newtonischen Spektrum (das aussieht wie dessen Farbnegativ und durch Vertauschung der Rollen von Licht und Finsternis entsteht). Ingo Nussbaumer hat Goethes Methode kongenial fortgeführt. Dabei hat er sechs weitere Farbspektren entdeckt. Sie entstehen, wenn man anstelle des Hell/Dunkel-Kontrasts (in Newtons und Goethes Experimenten) mit Paaren bunter Komplementärfarben arbeitet. Die neuen Farbspektren sehen genauso differenziert aus wie Newtons und Goethes Spektrum; doch anders als diese enthalten sie die unbunten "Farben" Schwarz und Weiß. Die vielfältigen Ordnungsbeziehungen und Symmetrien, die Ingo Nussbaumer in der Farbenwelt der insgesamt acht Spektren ausgemacht hat, verhelfen uns vielleicht zu einem tieferen Verständnis der Prinzipien menschlicher Farbwahrnehmung. Und sie tauchen die überkommenen Prinzipien der additiven und der subtraktiven Farbmischung in neues Licht.

Proofs of God in Early Modern Europe offers a fascinating window into early modern efforts to prove God's existence. Assembled here are twenty-two key texts, many translated into English for the first time, which illustrate the variety of arguments that philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries offered for God. These selections feature traditional proofs - such as various ontological, cosmological, and design arguments - but also introduce more exotic proofs, such as the argument from eternal truths, the argument from universal aseity, and the argument ex consensu gentium. Drawn from the work of eighteen philosophers, this book includes both canonical figures (such as Descartes, Spinoza, Newton, Leibniz, Locke, and Berkeley) and noncanonical thinkers (such as Norris, Fontenelle, Voltaire, Wolff, Du Châtelet, and Maupertuis).

Lloyd Strickland provides fresh translations of all selections not originally written in English and updates the spelling and grammar of those that were. Each selection is prefaced by a lengthy headnote, giving a biographical account of its author, an analysis of the main argument(s), and important details about the historical context. Strickland's introductory essay provides further context, focusing on the various reasons that led so many thinkers of early modernity to develop proofs of God's existence.

This essay uncovers to what extent the foundational principles of physics
have endured since The Leibniz-Clarke Correspondence through
contemporary developments in Relativity and Quantum mechanics (QM).
Clarke’s arguments reflect Newton’s experiments, which proved
differences between absolute and relative motion. Leibniz’s focus on
relations and events foreshadows Einstein’s concepts of spacetime, which
does not exist on its own, and simultaneity, which is observer dependent.
Though spacetime is curved in the General Theory of Relativity (GR),
unlike the homogenous and symmetric space assumed by the two 18thcentury
philosophers, it is the curvature that facilitates the bodily
movements that Leibniz knew were not produced via force from a distance.
Ultimately, I show that Leibniz’s relationism and Principle of Sufficient
Reason, both pivotal in debating Clarke, will be instrumental in guiding the
unification of GR with QM, which models networks of particles
probabilistically — improving our understanding of the origins and
trajectory of our universe.

This article analyses four unpublished draft letters from Nicolas Fatio de Duiller to Isaac Newton, dating from June to August 1693, and held in the Special Collections in the Universiteitsbibliotheek in Leiden. Overall, these letters enrich our knowledge of Fatio-Newton’s alchemical correspondence in June 1693, a phase which likely represents the peak of the two natural philosophers’ alchemical collaboration. By scrutinising the content of the letters, and situating them in relation to primary and secondary sources, the article will place Newton and Fatio’s epistolary exchange in relation to the social and historical background of late seventeenth-century London, bringing to light so far undisclosed aspects of the networks, alchemical practices, and expertise of the two natural philosophers.

Read  every page of the Principia (1687, 1713, 1726).
Newton never wrote "acceleration"  (a) and writing F =ma was impossible.
Why Newton is given credit for Second Law of Motion.
Swiss Scientist  Leonhard Euler gave F =ma  see paper E 479, pp. 223
Download it from Euler section of website of MATHEMATICAL Association of America, Washington
http://eulerarchive.maa.org/
Even literature is dynamic , so science must be many steps ahead

When Newton articulated the concept of absolute time in his treatise, Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), along with its correlate, absolute space, he did not present it as anything controversial. Whereas his references to attraction are accompanied by the self- protective caveats that typically signal an expectation of censure, the Scholium following Principia’s definitions is free of such remarks, instead elaborating his ideas as clarifications of concepts that, in some manner, we already possess. This is not surprising. The germ of the concept emerged naturally from astronomers’ findings, and variants of it had already been formulated by other seventeenth century thinkers. Thus the novelty of Newton’s absolute time lay mainly in the use to which he put it.

This fully illustrated 23 page paper traces the history of photography and our understanding of light from prehistoric times to the present day and also speculates about the future. From Aristotle to Einstein the camera is much older than most realize. Because photography can record fine detail and freeze a moment of the past, it has also transformed our modern understanding of time and also provided a record of the past which was previously unavailable.

Well known for his scientific work and even his intesrest for alchemistry, Newton was also a great exegesist and a subversive protestant. In terms of quantity, he even wrote more about religion than in his Principia. If you're interested in Isaac Newton, you cannot miss this part of his life (see bibliography for further informations)!

Although Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1726) formulated “F = m a” as his Second Law of Motion, he inexplicably thought that the formulation for determining the kinetic energy of a moving body was “KE = m V”. For many contemporaries interested in physics this seemed questionable. The Dutch experimenter W.J. Gravesande (1688-1742) conducted a series of experiments which consisted of dropping lead weights into a bed of soft clay; the greater the weight, or height of the drop, then the greater the measured depth of the resulting indentation. This corroborated that the kinetic energy was proportional to the mass and velocity at the time of impact. However, Gravesande left the determination of exactly how the kinetic energy varied with mass and velocity to his friend Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) , whose analysis of the experimental data resulted in “KE = m V^2”. Why this expression lacks the “½” factor  has been given various explanations. However, when subject to a modern approach the derivation of the correct “KE = ½ m V^2” formulation is readily made.

Theory of Knowledge - International Baccalaureate Essay
Subject: “A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of the world. In what ways may models help or hinder the search for knowledge?”

Author: Angel Versetti
Word-count: 1599 Words

Ενδεικτική Βιβλιογραφία:

1. Herbert Butterfield, Η καταγωγή της σύγχρονης επιστήμης (1300-1800), ΜΙΕΤ, Αθήνα, 2010.

2. David Nicholas, Η εξέλιξη του Μεσαιωνικού κόσμου, ΜΙΕΤ, Αθήνα, 2009

3.  Alexandre Koyre, Δυτικός Πολιτισμός – η άνθηση της επιστήμης και της τεχνικής, Ύψιλον, Αθήνα, 1991.

4.  Pierre Duhem, Σώζειν τα Φαινόμενα – Δοκίμιο για την έννοια της φυσικής θεωρίας από τον Πλάτωνα έως τον Γαλιλαίο, Νεφέλη, Αθήνα, 2007.

This article investigates geometry’s importance within freemasonry and discovers the de facto guardianship provided geometry by operative masons through the Middle Ages. Operative masons passed their geometry and their philosophy from generation to generation via initiation. This paper illustrates the transmission and sometimes startling application of those principles while examining the masonic symbolism of the 47th Proposition of Euclid, the Golden Ratio and the Point within a Circle. Consequently, the study reveals an extraordinary path from the operative to the speculative age. By tracing the history of the Master Mason, or third degree, we gain a deeper understanding of this transition. We find a suggestion the third degree came into common usage in the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, and an implication the resurrection and/or esoteric modification of masonic geometry occurred during this era. We explore the fascinating intersection of Dr John Theophilus Desaguliers and Sir Isaac Newton at the centre of this intriguing period, and contend these men played a part in not only the modification (or re-creation) of the Master Mason degree, but also in the resurrection of those geometric symbols from the operative age that define present freemasonry.

Après la détermination de la vitesse du son par le calcul dans les Philosophiae naturalis Principia Mathematica de Newton, la communauté savante est perplexe. La vitesse calculée est très inférieure aux mesures effectuées. Newton se serait-il trompé ? Personne, de son vivant, n'ose le prétendre. En 1727, le jeune Euler, âgé de 20 ans, propose une ‘solution’ dans la Dissertatio physica de sono. Au delà de la supercherie de son calcul, Euler a le mérite d'ouvrir une controverse fameuse qui traverse le Siècle des Lumières et qui  trouvera sa réponse avec Laplace au début du XIXème siècle. Dans cet article, on expose les différentes thèses en présence avant l'Encyclopédie, celle de Newton, puis de Leonhardt Euler, de Jacob ‘s Gravesande, de Jean II Bernoulli, et de Jean d'Alembert.

ÍNDICE
La revolución newtoniana y la nueva representación de la Naturaleza.
La Ilustración y la construcción de la Razón Moderna de la civilización occidental.
La teoría del Progreso cristalización de la Modernidad
Kant y la teoría del conocimiento de la Modernidad.
Darwin y El origen de las especies.
La teoría electromagnética de la luz.
La teoría del calor y el desarrollo de la termodinámica.
Einstein y la teoría de la relatividad.
La teoría cuántica y la discontinuidad en la física.
Pensar desde la complejidad.

"This is a research proposal for YOU. It is directed to you, and you may use it for your own research. Just let me know about it please.

Baruch (Benedict de) Spinoza (1632-1677), is a well-known figure of Western Enlightenment. As an extreme rationalist, he firmly believed in science, and some even consider him the first known atheist. In this paper, I intend to guide you, through the methods you can use to find the parallels between Spinoza's philosophy on the one hand, and mystical or occult knowledge and philosophy, on the other. As a modern reader, you may wonder what for Spinoza- who rejected Kabbalah, mocked astrology and denied the very possibility of prophecy- and the occult and its knowledge. Yet, surprisingly, there is a connection, for example, an acquaintance of Spinoza "laughed heartily" upon his "silly" interest in alchemy,  and his philosophy was criticized as Kabbalistic."

In this paper I will probe into Herman Boerhaave’s (1668–1738) appropriation of Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy. It will be shown that Newton’s work served multiple purposes in Boerhaave’s oeuvre for he appropriated Newton’s work differently in different context and in different episodes in his career. Three important episodes in and contexts of Boerhaave’s appropriation of Newton’s natural-philosophical ideas and methods will be considered: 1710–11, the time at which he gave his often neglected lectures on the place of physics in medicine, 1715, at which point he delivered his most famous rectorial address, and, finally, 1731/2, the moment in which his Elementa chemiae was published. Along the way, I will spell out the implications of Boerhaave’s case for the reception of Newton’s ideas more generally.

Numele lui Isaac Newton este de obicei asociat cu formularea legilor miscarii si ale agravitatiei universale, precum si cu dezvoltarea teoriei culorii. Exista insa o latura mai putin cunoscuta a marelui om de stiinta, surprinsa in acest volum prin traducerea in premiera in limba romana – pe langa segmentele din tratatele sale celebre – a unor articole, scrisori si fragmente de manuscris. Astfel, cititorul roman se poate edifica asupra unor teme din gandirea newtoniana care tin atat de metoda experimentala si formularea ipotezelor stiintifice, cat si de creatia lumii, planul divin si relatia dintre Dumnezeu si legile naturii. Filosofia naturala se adreseaza, prin urmare, tuturor celor interesati de filosofie, de stiinta si de istoria ideilor in general.

This article is the penultimate version (thus uncorrected preprint) of my forthcoming article in the volume celebrating the tricentennial of Newton’s General Scholium. It appears in the Working Paper series of the Fondation Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, at: http://www.fmsh.fr/fr/diffusion-des-savoirs/28103
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The article pursues two objectives through a close reading of Newton’s 1713 General Scholium. First, it examines his relationship to the canonical mechanical philosophy, including his response to criticism of his own theory that that canonical philosophy’s require- ments motivated. Second, it presents an interpretation of Newton’s own mechanical philosophy, glimpsed in draft material for the General Scholium: he takes the natural world to be a machine operating by causal prin- ciples that arise only within systems and that require mathematical methods because they fundamentally involve interdependent and thus co-varying quantities. Newton’s realism about impressed forces links the two objectives examined.
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Le Scholium General de Newton et la philosophie méchanique
Résumé
Une lecture attentive du Scholium General de Newton permet de préciser deux points. En premier lieu, il est possible de préciser le rapport de Newton avec la philosophie mécanique canonique, y compris la réponse qu’il a donnée à ceux qui critiquaient sa théorie. En deuxième lieu, il est possible de comprendre ce qu’était la philosophie mécanique de Newton lui-même. D’après un manuscrit du Scholium Generale, il considérait que le monde naturel était une machine fonctionnant grâce à des principes causaux qui se présentent uniquement dans des systèmes et qui exigent des méthodes mathématiques car ils concernent des quantités interdépendantes et co-variantes. Le lien entre ces deux points est un réalisme quant aux forces imprimées.

While much is told of Isaac Newton’s role in the Scientific Revolution, less is known about his role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This English Revolution had tremendous implications for the future of rights and liberties in the Western world, and it was at the dawn of it that Newton rose to prominence as a scientist. As Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, Newton was conspicuously among the delegation called upon to respond to King James II’s meddling in the promotion of university professors. Understanding Newton’s influence and tact during the Glorious Revolution will offer insight into the role of academia in English revolutionary politics, as well as fill in some gaps in our comprehension of Newton’s life.

The concept of variation of mass with velocity was initiated by Thomson in 1893 ; on the basis of mathematical equation. Then  for first time it was stated that no body can move with speed more than that of light. The concept of variation of relativistic mass was further enriched by Heaviside, Searle, Abraham, Lorentz etc. The division by zero ( if v=c) occurs in all above cases. The division by zero is not allowed but it occurs in all equations.  For the same reason Einstein had to abandon the theory of static universe. Whatever is true for one equation must be true for others as well. It must be noted that initially Lorentz in 1889 proposed equation for transverse mass as  mT =  mem  /  , where  is  indeterminate coefficient differing from unity by a quantity of the order v2/c2 . Afterwards the value of    is assumed to be unity in 1904, now in all theoretical and experimental cases value of    is unity. If two predictions of theory of relativity under condition v=c are compared then mass of body becomes infinite and its length becomes zero. It is unphysical prediction. The equation of exponential variation of mass                          Mm = Mrest e has been put forth. It gives similar results given by Lorentz’s equation, however for consistency of both when v tends to c or v equals c, the value of Q  is also regarded as tending to infinity.

While he continues to be held up as a paragon of rational enlightenment, Isaac Newton's science was steeped in traditions of classical thought, biblical exegesis, natural magic and alchemy. This lecture, for a general audience, explored these trends in Newton's thought and their significance for Newton's followers in the eighteenth century.