Mausoleum

"The mausolea of communist leaders, a major component of Stalinist symbolic politics, are still shrouded in mystery. Some are destroyed, like Dimitrov’s in Sofia, Gottwald’s in Prague and Neto’s in Luanda. The Lenin mausoleum in Moscow is basically defunct. Yet the Ho Chi Minh mausoleum in Hanoi, Mao’s in Beijing and the Kumsusan mausoleum complex of the Kim dynasty in Pyongyang keep fulfilling their task of a powerful symbol of a different political, social and economic order, with the embalmed cadavers of the founding fathers embodying the supposed eternal duration of that order and thereby perpetuating its legitimacy.
While the destroyed and defunct mausolea continue to be a subject of rumours and fables widely circulating among citizens of the respective countries, and globally among journalists and some scholars, very little is currently known about what actually transpired in a communist mausoleum.
This talk will offer first an overview of the cultural background and ideological reasons for the origin of communist mausolea in general. Second, it will demonstrate the details of the Soviet embalming method and the symbolic meaning of displaying the leader’s body, based on archival documents relating to the mausoleum of Bulgarian leader Georgi Dimitrov (on display 1949–1990) and Czechoslovak president Klement Gottwald (on display 1953–1962). The recently declassified archives of these mausolea currently represent the only freely accessible documentation of its kind. The formerly top secret material to be presented in this talk was never seen before by anybody else than the embalmers.
The talk will conclude with a discussion of the relationship of the embalmers to the practice of preserving dead bodies in the past. It will be shown that the Soviet, and to a lesser extent also the Bulgarian, specialists were fully aware that their preservation work in a monumental tomb constituted a continuation of a tradition inherited from antiquity, and they did not hesitate to publicly acknowledge that, at the same time highlighting the fundamental differences between the context and method of ancient and modern body preservation. They were (and still are) proud of their work while the attitude of particularly the Soviet population to the mausoleum project certainly was not negative. The attitude of the Czech specialists, however, was marked by indifference or even shame while the mausoleum project met with condemnation among the majority of Czechoslovaks."

Egyptian blue was extensively used throughout the areas surrounding the Mediterranean from early dynastic Egypt until after the Roman Empire ended. A new, easily applied, technique to detect and map this pigment has been developed that takes advantage of its very strong photo-induced infrared luminescence. Using this method, single particles of pigment can be detected, even when concealed by layers of discoloured organic binding media, varnishes or inorganic patinas. A survey of sculptures, friezes, mosaics and wall paintings from the ancient cultures of the Mediterranean and the Middle East has revealed expected and unexpected occurrences of Egyptian blue and rediscovered lost decorative patterns. This technique not only offers information on the manufacture, decoration and condition of the object, but also provides an opportunity to map the use of Egyptian blue both geographically and temporally. These new perspectives on ancient polychromy can help to inform future preservation strategies and conservation treatments that take this new information into account. ÖZET Mısır mavisi özellikle Akdeniz çevresinde, Mısır'daki erken hanedanlık döneminden itibaren Roma İmparatorluğu yıkılana kadar kullanılmıştır. Bu boyanın kullanımını saptamak için geliştirilen ve radyoaktif ışıkla in-düklenen luminesans tekniği sayesinde, organik yapıştırıcılar, vernik veya inorganik patina tarafından örtülmelerine rağmen pigmentler taneciklerine kadar saptanabilmektedirler. Orta Doğu ve Akdeniz kültürlerine ait olan duvar resmi, mozaik, friz ve heykeller üzerinde yapılan bir çalışma, Mısır mavisinin kullanılmış olduğu eserleri ortaya çıkararak, kaybolmuş olan süsleme örneklerinin yeniden keşfedilmesini sağlamıştır. Eserlerin yapım teknikleri, üzerlerindeki betimlemeler ve korunma seviyeleri açısından bilgi veren bu teknik, aynı zamanda Mısır mavisinin kullanılmış olduğu coğrafyayı da aydınlığa çıkartır. Antik polikrami konusunda bu teknikle elde edilen yeni bilgi-lerin, geleceğe yönelik koruma stratejileri ve konservasyon çalışmaları açısından çok faydalı olacağı düşünülmektedir.

"Representations", N. 129, Winter 2015.

The essay analyzes the project of maintaining the body of V. I. Lenin in the Mausoleum in Moscow for the past ninety years, focusing on the unique biological science that developed around this project, and the unexpected political role this body has performed.

Le immagini della via Appia, raccolte in questo volume da Andrea Zocchi, non si limitano a costituire una importante documentazione degli aspetti più pittoreschi degli straordinari paesaggi del Suburbio a sud di Roma, esse evocano soprattutto il tema del viaggio, ed in particolare del viaggio come esperienza culturale.
From the Contents:
Presentazione; Premessa; Introduzione; La via Appia: dalle origini ai giorni nostri: Dalle origini al tardo antico; Dal medioevo ad oggi; La raccolta iconografica: La documentazione cartografica; La documentazione grafica e pittorica; La documentazione fotografica; I miglio:Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 1. Porta San Sebastiano; 2. Sepolcro; 3. Asse viario e muro in opera incerta; II miglio: Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 4. Sepolcro dei Corneli; 5. Impianto residenziale; 6. Colombario; 7. Sepolcro detto di Orazio Flacco; 8. Sepolcro detto di Geta; 9. Sepolcro di Priscilla; 10. Struttura antica; 11. Nucleo di sepolcro; 12. Colombario detto dei Liberti di Augusto; 13. Colombario detto dei Liberti di Livia; 14. Sepolcro detto della Gens Atilia; 15. Nucleo di sepolcro; 16. Sepolcro in opera laterizia; valle della caffarella: Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 17. Sepolcro detto di Annia Regilla; 18. Ninfeo d' Egeria; 19. Struttura detta tempio di Cerere e Faustina; 20. Cisterna; 21. Strutture murarie; III miglio: Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 22. Sepolcri dei Fulvi, dei Canulei, dei Livii; 23. Sepolcro di Lucio Volumnio; 24. Sepolcro detto dei Calventi; 25. Sepolcro detto dei Cerceni; 26. Nucleo di sepolcro; 27. Sepolcro detto di Claudia Semne; 28. Colombario; 29. Sepolcro detto dei Gaii Caesellii; 30. Sepolcro detto degli Attili Calatini; 31. Colombario; 32. Sepolcro a tempietto; 33. Mausoleo e quadriportico di Romolo; 34. Sepolcro detto dei Servili; 35. Villa di Massenzio; 36. Circo di Massenzio; 37. Struttura detta Tempio di Proserpina; 38. Sepolcro a pianta circolare con absidi; 39. Sepolcro a pianta circolare; 40. Mausoleo di Cecilia Metella; 41. Castrum Caetani; IV-V miglio: Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 42. Mausoleo con targa trigonometrica; 43. Sepolcri a torre; 44. Nucleo di sepolcro; 45. Nucleo di sepolcro; 46. Nucleo di sepolcro; 47. Torretta medievale su strutture antiche; 48. Sepolcro detto di Servilio Quarto; 49. Sepolcro a dado; 50. Sepolcro a torretta; 51. Sepolcro detto di Seneca; 52. Mausoleo rotondo; 53. Sepolcro detto ad arco; 54. Sepolcro detto dei figli di Sesto Pompeo Giusto; 55. Struttura detta tempio di Giove; 56. Sepolcro di s. Urbano e Domus Marmeniae0; 57. Sepolcro dei Licini; 58. Sepolcro dorico; 59. Sepolcro di Ilario Fusco; 60. Sepolcro di Claudio Secondo Filippiano; 61. Colombario; 62. Sepolcro di Quinto Apuleio; 63. Sepolcro a tempietto; 64. Sepolcro dei Rabiri; 65. Nucleo di sepolcro; 66. Sepolcro a torre; 67. Sepolcro detto a festoni; 68. Sepolcro detto del frontespizio; 69. Nucleo di sepolcro; 70. Arco quadrifronte; 71. Strutture in laterizio e colombario; 72. Nucleo di sepolcro; 73. Sepolcro detto di Barica, Zabda e Achiba; 74. Nuclei di sepolcri; 75. Sepolcri a tempietto; 76. Mausoleo rotondo; 77. Strutture antiche; 78. Sepolcro detto a cuspide; VI-IX miglio: Documentazione cartografica; Documentazione grafica e pittorica; Documentazione fotografica; 79. Tumulo detto dei Curiazi; 80. Ustrinum; 81. Casale di S. Maria Nova su cisterna antica; 82. Mausoleo a piramide; 83. Sepolcro a torre; 84. Tumuli detti degli Orazi; 85. Cisterna a pianta circolare; 86. Villa dei Quintili; 87. Sepolcro detto con scala a chiocciola; 88. Casale su cisterna antica; 89. Sepolcro detto ad arco; 90. Torcular detto farmacia di S. Maria Nova; 91. Casal rotondo; 92. Mausoleo e torre selce; 93. Esedra sepolcrale; 94. Sepolcro a edicola; 95. Sepolcro detto del vaso di alabastro; 96. Struttura detta tempio di Ercole; 97. Sepolcro detto di Quinto Veranio; 98. Sepolcro detto Berretta del Prete; 99. Mausoleo detto di Gallieno; Cartografia; Conclusioni; Il dato numerico; divisione tipologica; divisione cronologica; divisione per miglia; Il dato archeologico; attendibilità del dato; l'elemento archeologico; La rappresentazione della via Appia Antica - Testimonianza artistica e documento storico; Appendice (Tabelle dei documenti); Bibliografia e fonti di archivio; Indice dei nomi; Indice dei luoghi

RESUMEN. Detenido estudio del mausoleo del liberto y augustal Gaius Iulius Successianus, Exsuperanti libertus, excavado en 1994 junto a la «Casa del Anfiteatro» de Mérida por F. Palma y A. Bejarano (de los cuales es la memoria de la excavación que va al comienzo, aunque suscriben el total, y viceversa para la evolución y explicación estratigráfica).

El análisis del fascinante dintel de mármol, esculpido e inscrito en la segunda fase del mausoleo, hacia época de Galieno (253-268 d.C.), permitió confirmar el nombre antiguo del río Guadiana,'Ana' y no 'Anas', saber cuál era el nombre antiguo de su afluente el Albarregas, 'Barraeca', o el posible significado del enigmático y disputado dios 'Revve Anabaraecus', entre otras novedades.

Canto (dentro del estudio epigráfico e iconográfico) rescató el olvidado hallazgo, en 1924, de una serie de exvotos de bronce, en un lugar no muy alejado de la antigua confluencia de ambos ríos; entre ellos había un hermoso caballo en actitud triunfal, un flamen, una flamínica y un joven togado, que venían siendo considerados simples genios domésticos, y propone que, como ocurrió en otros lugares en época julio-claudia, el culto prerromano -quizá un santuario federal vetón- fue reorientado por los romanos hacia el culto al emperador, y concretamente a Augusto, cerca de la confluencia de ambos ríos, Ana y Barraeca, en la zona de “El Calvario”, al oeste de la ciudad. Se trata del sector menos conocido, y el arqueológicamente hasta ahora menos valorado, de la Mérida romana. También puso en relación con ese culto varios hallazgos de Pancaliente (habitualmente asociados sólo con el foro).

Al final se publica otra inscripción aparecida allí, funeraria y, en conexión con el mausoleo, se reestudia una imperial, del vecino anfiteatro, que probaría que el edificio es de h. 8 a.C. pero posiblemente tuvo una remodelación bajo Claudio, emperador al que la inscripción debe adjudicarse, mejor que a Trajano.

Al final resumen en alemán.

En julio de 2014 se añade al artículo una addenda con múltiples fotos en color y ampliaciones de detalle que en 1997 no se pudieron dar, incluyendo el por entonces (1995) ya sugerido por la autora "ninfeo" del Calvario, que venía siendo considerado oficialmente sólo el 'castellum aquae' del acueducto de Los Milagros. Poco después fue excavado por el Consorcio (por Teresa Barrientos, 1996), y ya publicado y restituído como tal ninfeo o fuente monumental.

El estudio e interpretación del ya famoso dintel (en 2013 por fin en el MNAR) dio lugar al concepto y exposición de 1998 "Ana-Barraeca. Confluencia de culturas", entre otros."

The chapel of St Peter and Paul in Zagreb`s central cemetery Mirogoj belongs to a group of the most interesting sacral buildings erected in Croatia`s capital at the end of the 19th century. It is one of the first monumental mausoleums ever built outside the Mirogoj`s arcades and one of the fi nest works by the architect Herman Bollé in his version of the neo-Byzantine style. It was erected in 1891 to serve as lieutenant general Petar Kukulj`s mausoleum by his widow Judita. Petar Kukulj was an Austro Hungarian field-marshal. Since such mausoleums were used by a small number of worshippers, there was no need to make them large. Moreover, the locations where they were going to be built were often very limited in order to leave more space for the cemetery. Therefore, during historicism such cemetery chapels were often erected as centrally planned buildings whether the mausoleums in question were Catholic, Orthodox, Evangelical or Jewish. Hence, Bollé was provided with an opportunity to practice designing centrally planned neo-Byzantine buildings. Since he had been working for the Orthodox Church he was mostly compelled to restore earlier buildings and build new ones of a longitudinal plan which could facilitate a greater number of believers. On those churches he hadn’t had a chance to build domes. The chapel of St Peter and Paul at Mirogoj cemetery is one of the Bollé`s most signifi cant neo-Byzantine centrally planned domed buildings. Looking at his work, we can see that Bollé`s neo-Byzantine style is infl uenced by Byzantine, Romanesque and even Renaissance elements. He also found a great inspiration in late Rundbogenstil (Round-arch style) of Berlin architecture of the 1860s and 1870s. Orthodox bishop Miron Nikolić commended his work in the chapel and it seems that it had convinced him to entrust Bollé with a comprehensive renovation work on his cathedral in Pakrac, as well as some other buildings in Pakrac eparchy (parish church in Bjelovar for example). Thanks to his work on Kukulj chapel and renovation work on parish church of Transfi guration in Zagreb, Bolle was later commissioned to renovate the Orthodox monastery Grgeteg on Fruška Gora, and the Church of Holy Spirit, Ruma, and so on. Immediately after the work in the chapel of St Peter and Paul was fi nished, the walls were painted and the interior was furnished. Zagreb Crafts School professor Josip Bauer is the author of all decorations on the walls and icons on the iconostasis. All the icons were made on a gold background showing Bauer`s relation to the Byzantine art of drawing. The author attended the Academy in Munich. Therefore, compositions of his works are inherently in correlation with the tradition of western painting but there is also a very strong infl uence of the Nazarenes. Bauer was obviously familiar with the orthodox iconography which resulted in numerous commissions by the Orthodox Church in Croatia. The position of icons on the iconostasis follows the usual rules of the Orthodox Church, but still there are some differences. In the bottom line we can see Annunciation in imperial court with icons of enthroned Christ and Virgin by its side. On the side doors we can see Michael the Archangel and Gabriel the Archangel. Saint Peter and Paul, to whom the chapel is dedicated, are painted on the left end of the row and Saint John the Baptist is on the right end. Two central rows of icons on the iconostasis depict the scenes from the life of Christ and Virgin Mary. The top of the iconostasis shows the prophets painted in round medallions and in the central axis we see the crucifixion of the Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist) painted above the icons showing the Holy Trinity and God the Father. Herman Bolle is the author of the design for the iconostasis as well as the entire chapel project. The estimated cost of the chapel was 14.000 forints (28.000 krones) which was a substantial amount in that time.

The description of Palladio’s Rotunda at Vicenza appears influenced by the reading of Vitruvius: “The site is the most delightful that you can find: because it is above a hill of easy ascent, and on one side is irrigated by the navigable river Bacchiglione, and on the other it is surrounded by other very pleasant hills, which make the appearance of a very large Theater ... “. The excerpt offers a precise demonstration on the integration between architecture and nature that was inherent in the ancient idea of a villa. This idea was resumed in the Renaissance, also through the descriptions of Pliny the Younger. Particularly significant is the imagine of the landscape around Pliny’s Tuscan villa: “You can imagine a huge amphitheater, which only the nature can create”. Probably Pliny, and Palladio himself, may have been influenced by the long excerpt of Vitruvius on the tomb of Mausolus and the city of Halicarnassus, whose magnificent location would resemble the form of a theater. The imagine of Halicarnassus in the edition of Cesare Cesariano (1521), which included contemporary research on the city and the ideal architecture, would seem almost a model for the extreme symmetry of the Rotonda project, a marvel of Renaissance architecture, as well as some later drawing by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger.

La descrizione di Palladio della Rotonda a Vicenza, appare chiaramente influenzata dalla lettura di Vitruvio: “Il sito è de gli ameni, e dilettevoli che si possano ritrovare: perche è sopra un monticello di ascesa facilissima, & è da una parte bagnato dal Bacchiglione fiume navigabile, e dall’altra è circondato da altri amenissimi colli, che rendono l’aspetto di un molto grande Theatro ...”. Il brano offre una finissima dimostrazione sull’integrazione tra architettura e natura che era insita nell’idea antica di villa, ripresa nel Rinascimento, anche attraverso le descrizioni di Plinio il Giovane delle sue ville. In particolare è significativa quella del paesaggio attorno alla sua villa toscana: “Imaginare amphitheatrum aliquod immensum, et quale sola rerum natura possit effingere”. Probabilmente Plinio, e lo stesso Palladio, potevano essere stati influenzati dalla “ornata digressione” di Vitruvio (Daniele Barbaro 1567) sulla tomba di Mausolo e la città di Alicarnasso, la cui magnifica ubicazione ricorderebbe la forma di un teatro. La tavola su Alicarnasso nell’edizione di Cesare Cesariano (1521), che recepiva le contemporanee ricerche sulla città e l’architettura ideale, sembrerebbe quasi un modello per l’estrema simmetria del progetto della Rotonda, ‘meraviglia’ dell’architettura rinascimentale, come pure alcuni successivi disegni riscostruttivi elaborati da Antonio da Sangallo il Giovane.

Mamluk sultans were known for their patronage of the arts and architecture. Their educational institutions were among the wide array of architectural projects that linked them as ruling elites to the religious scholars of their times. Their tombs were placed in a mausoleum attached to their educational-religious complexes to attest to their legacy. The evolution of their buildings such that both educational and memorial functions are integrated with the dense surroundings is scrutinized through chronological-spatial analysis. The configuration of the built form, the disposition of its boundaries, its patterns of accessibility, and its visual properties are the features that present the buildings to one's experience and bring certain perceptions into play. In this study, various spatial descriptor tools of space syntax are employed to analyze the data of 14 Mamluk examples (1260-1517A.D.) and capture the differences in the experience where the expression is preserved. Analyses of the configurational characteristics, axial attributes, visibility structures, and isovists highlight how the spatial and formal properties of the layouts were used to express certain representational relationships. The advantages of combining different spatial investigations allows for understanding historical design principles and how the geometry of forms could hide in its abstract rules, conceptual and perceptual qualities. & 2015 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

The basilical building of Marialba is known from the excavations carried out by researchers of the German Archaeological Institute in Madrid, Helmunt Schlunk and Theodor Hauschild, in 1968-70, who described it as one of the largest martyrdom basilicas in Hispania.
The main building has a rectangular plan with an ultrasemicircular Apse. It would be part of a larger set, of which we still do not know its extension and function; perhaps it could be a villa or palatium of a military, civil or religious authority, of which the Basilica would be the
main building, but without the character of martyrdom basilica that has been attributed to it.
The new archaeological research aims to know its origin, extension and function in each of the construction phases, ranging from the 4th to the 14th century, passing through different uses of space, from the initial, successively converted into mausoleum, baptismal church and burial area until abandoned.

Resumen: El siguiente trabajo analiza, tanto desde un punto de vista arqueológico como histórico, ciertos aspectos del poblamiento rural en época bajoimperial romana y tardoantigua entre las localidades de Mérida y Alange (Badajoz). Se trata de un territorio ribereño constreñido por Occidente por el Iter ab Hispali Emeritam, y por Oriente por uno de los principales ríos de la Península Ibérica, el Guadiana, lo que crea las condiciones ecológicas y geográficas idóneas para el poblamiento humano ya desde el Paleolítico en adelante. Además, en sus diferentes villae rusticae asistimos a una interesante secuencia diacrónica de
ocupación, que vendrá relacionada con las fases históricas meritenses y sus dinámicas económicas, sociales y políticas.

"Palabras clave: Hispanias romanas, Guadiana, Augusta Emerita, Alange, mundo rural, villae rusticae, élites locales, pervivencias temporales, reocupación de espacios, villulae


Abstract: This paper is focused on certain aspects of the countryside and the Late Roman and Late Antique settlement on the territory between Mérida and Alange (Province of Badajoz, SW Spain), with both archaeological and historical views. Is a riverside territory placed between the Iter ab Hispali Emeritam and by the Guadiana, one of the main rivers of the Iberian Peninsula, with excellent ecological and geographical conditions in order to grant a continuous human settlement from the Paleolithic period onwards. Also, in the several Roman villae
rusticae sited in this territory we behold an interesting occupation process, linked with the near Emeritan History and its economical, social and political dynamics.

Keywords: Roman Hispaniae, Guadiana river, Augusta Emerita, Alange, countryside life, villae rusticae, local elites, time pervivences, spatial reoccupation, villulae"

The mausoleum map “Lingqin weizhi gongcheng moxing liyangtushi”（TMA 2748 /3443） collected in the Harvard-Yenching Library is an early design Yang shi Lei map of Chongling Feiyuanqin during the Xuantong period. Through the study of the mausoleum map, it can be found that the design of Chongling Feiyuanqin is based on the Huiling Feiyuanqin and reconstructed according to local conditions. The Manchu mileage book is a compilation of mileage lists for emperors’visits to mausoleums and tours of inspection during the Daoguang period. It may be the files retained at the Xiangdaochu. By referring to historical materials such as documents and archives, we can make a detailed study of the complex process of mausoleum’s building in the Daoguang period and the system of emperor’s parade and mausoleum worship in the Qing Dynasty.
哈佛大學燕京圖書館所藏“陵寢位置工程模形立樣圖式”（TMA2748/3443） 中的陵寢圖是宣統年間崇陵妃園寢的早期設計圖樣，屬於樣式雷圖。通過對陵寢圖的研究可以發現崇陵妃園寢的設計是在模仿惠陵妃園寢的基礎上參考實地條件進行調整的產物。滿文里程冊是道光一朝皇帝謁陵、出巡的里程單彙編，有可能是嚮導處留存的檔簿。以里程冊參照文獻、檔案等史料，可以對道光一朝複雜的建陵過程和清朝皇帝巡遊、謁陵制度進行細緻研究。

In vernacular architecture, the master-builder was content to rely on inherited knowledge governing building forms and techniques. During the Enlightenment, professional architects emerged to assume the role of coordinator and arbitrator of taste. It became de rigueur for the gentleman architect to study and reconstruct classical monuments. The architect’s role continued to evolve and become further dissociated from its pragmatic origins, leading to a schism in the early twentieth century where recreating works from the past assumed taboo status. Tombs represents a stable trans-epochal building typology that allows for analysis of various approaches to the recreation works from the past. The seminal historical role of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, functioning as the ‘original’ progenitor of generations of tomb and memorial designs in Western architectural history, is examined. Since its destruction, Halicarnassus has itself been the subject of numerous hypothetical architectural reconstructions and the occasional physical copy. Six graphic reconstructions of Halicarnassus are examined together with one directly related and two indirectly related built descendants. The analyses elucidate Halicarnassus’s role as an ontological, originating locus of architectural form that has been reconstructed, copied, reinvented or derived. Approaches to architectural form are investigated through Plato’s image categories of Eidos, Eikon, Phantasma – Eidolon and his understanding of models (paradeigmata) together with Quatremère de Quincy’s model and type.

Die (Her)skep van argitektoniese vorm, die Praalgraf op Halicarnassus
In volksargitektuur was die meesterbouer tevrede om te vertrou om op geërfde kennis rakende bouvorms en tegnieke. Tydens die Verligting het professionele argitekte na vore getree om die rol van koördineerder en arbiter van smaak te aanvaar. Dit het die plig geword vir die heer-argitek om klassieke monumente te bestudeer en te rekonstrueer. Die rol van die argitek het voortgegaan om te ontwikkel en het verder van die praktiese oorsprong geskei, die beweging het gelei tot 'n skeuring in die vroeë twintigste eeu waar die herskep van werke uit die verlede verbode status bereik het. Grafte is 'n stabiele tipologie wat tydeperiode oorgang, die ontleding van verskeie benaderings tot die herskepping uit die verlede moontlik maak. Die historiese rol van die Praalgraf van Halicarnassus is geondersoek, in die lig van sy funksioneering as die ‘oorspronklike’ stamvader van geslagte van graf en gedenkteken ontwerpe in die geskiedenis van Westerse argitektuur. Sedert Halicarnassus se vernietiging, was hierdie praalgraf self, die onderwerp van talle hipotetiese argitektoniese herkonstruksies en af en toe was ‘n fisiese kopie gebou. Ses grafiese rekonstruksies van Halicarnassus word ondersoek saam met een direk verwante en twee indirek verwante afstammelinge. Die ontledings verduidelik Halicarnassus se rol as 'n ontologiese, oorspronklike lokus van argitektoniese vorm. Benaderings tot argitektoniese vorm word ondersoek deur Plato se beeldkategorieë van Eidos, Eikon, Phantasma - Eidolon en sy begrip van modelle (paradeigmata) saam met Quatremère de Quincy se model en tipe.

Mausoleion ve Anıtkabir hem yapılış hem de mimari açıdan birbirine çok benzerlikler göstermektedir. Örneğin döneminde önemli bir komutan olan Maussollos için yapılan Mausolleion oldukça gösterişli yapılmış ve dönemin en iyi mimar ve heykeltıraşları tarafından yapılmıştır. Aynı durum Anıtkabir içinde geçerlidir. Anıtkabir ise M. Kemal Atatürk için yapılmış
ve her iki yapıt’da kahramanı yüceltmek amaçlı yapılmıştır. Ankara ve Halikarnassos yarımadsı döneminde önemli noktalar olup önemli ticaret ağlarına sahip idiler. Her ikiside bulundukları bölgeler için önem arz etmekteydiler. Ve bu yüzden olsa gerek Anıtkabir ve Mausolleion dönemin komutanları tarafından başkent seçilen yerlerde yapılmıştır. Final ödevi kapsamında yapılan bu araştırma öncelikle Mausolleion ve Anıtkabir ile ilgili yayın taramaları yapılarak başlamıştır. Araştırma yapılırken lisans tezleri, makaleler, dergiler, web tarayıcıları ve ders notlarından yararlanılmıştır.

This study aims to establish the history and nature of the preservation work done by Soviet and Czechoslovak physicians on the corpse of Communist leader Klement Gottwald from the day of autopsy on 15 March 1953 to the cremation of the body on 12 June 1962.
It draws on a wealth of hitherto unpublished or overlooked primary sources from Czech archives which allow that the topic of embalming a Communist leader’s body for display in a mausoleum be scrutinized for the first time in a scholarly, methodologically sound fashion as well as minute detail.
This paper thoroughly describes and explains the methods applied to Gottwald’s body while presenting a chronologically arranged narrative of major events in everyday control and care for the body until its incineration, connected with the second wave of de-Stalinization in Czechoslovakia.
The study thereby makes a significant contribution to the research on the (posthumous) cult of leaders in Stalinist regimes, particularly on the science and technology involved in the physical deification of the leader as the “eternal” symbol of the regime’s enduring legitimacy and stability. In so doing, the article also disproves the popular rumours about the alleged decomposition of Gottwald’s body.

The Cangelari Mausoleum at Halki island of the Princes Islands (Heybeliada, Kizil Adalar) is an octagonal construction in Gothic style erected in 1866 at the entrance of the Greek-Orthodox Monastery of St George of the Precipice  by Spiridion Cangelari, British Vice-Consul in Kios (Gemlik), in memory of his predeceased wife Sevasti Pelloni (1817-1865).  He was later buried there himself too.

The project  ʺMilano Archeologiaʺ concerning the ancient remains of the city of Milan in Roman age was based on specific methods and tools, such as the collection of data through the previous archive research, and the feedback of information through inspections and then direct contact with monuments. A very interesting and significant case is the funerary complex area of “San Vittore al Corpo”, in which are also preserved the remains of an impressive Imperial Mausoleum. The curtain, that defines the space of the

cemetery from the fourth Century AD, is kept in part below two modern buildings, while the remains of the Mausoleum are located below the present church of St. Victor. The analysis of the data collected allowed us to identify similarities and differences between the structures still visible, for example in the techniques adopted for the elevations or foundations, and it has provided the knowledge necessary to assume concrete
solutions to protect and enhance this heritage.

This paper deals with the mausoleum of Klement Gottwald, the first communist president of Czechoslovakia, whose embalmed body was on display in the National Memorial on the Vítkov Hill in Prague for almost nine years (late 1953–early 1962).
It addresses the myth according to which the body was gradually decomposing due to an improperly performed embalming, which should have been one of the reasons for the eventual closure of the mausoleum. This story, enriched over the years with many flamboyant details, is currently taken as a fact by the Czech media, the Wikipedia (Czech, Slovak, Polish, German, Spanish version of the entry “Klement Gottwald”) and even by some scholars.
It is shown that the original rumour originated within days after Gottwald’s death and reflected the resentment of the Czechoslovaks towards the “Oriental” tradition of embalming communist leaders but that it did not have anything to do with the reality of maintaining Gottwald’s body. The myth is disproved using hitherto overlooked archival sources as well as written and oral testimonies of people who were in charge of the body’s preservation.
The paper also introduces the mausoleum’s non-medical staff, discusses their tasks, and shows how some unusual events were dealt with, according to both the archival documents and memories of eyewitnesses. In conclusion, the context and circumstances of the closure of the mausoleum are discussed. As usual, fact is eventually more interesting than myth.

Apresentam-se as estruturas de um mausoléu em forma de altar com pulvinos, descobertas em recentes escavações efectuadas no lugar da Quinta da Fórnea II (Belmonte). O achado deste tipo de monumentos funerários, possivelmente alto-imperiais, destaca-se pela singularidade ou ineditismo que constitui – em toda a região da Beira interior – a sua identificação no terreno, conservados ainda parcialmente in situ. A integração num espaço funerário mais amplo, a possível associaçãoa uma villa e a proximidade em relação a uma importante via, reforçam a importância destas estruturas no quadro dos estudos sobre
a ocupação romana do interior norte da prouincia da Lusitania.

The paper addresses the organization and staffing of a division which was created in December 1953 within the Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior for a special purpose. It was the task of this unit to ensure security of Gottwald’s embalmed body both in terms of technical measures necessary for the preservation of the corpse in intact state, and in terms of rigorous guarding the “object” in the mausoleum as if the president were still alive.
Following an introduction which describes the activity of the unit, its origins, structure, changes in staffing up to late 1956, as well as social and professional background of the staff in general, the article offers short CVs of 21 key members of the mausoleum personnel. These clearly show that popular rumours about the mausoleum workers, circulating in the country during the past sixty years, are entirely false.

Сколько анекдотов про вождя перемололи языки и зубы. Казалось бы —окончательные анекдоты, которые должны были прикончить культ этого вождя, всего семь лет верховодившего в России — с 1917 по 1924. От трехспальной кровати «Ленин с нами» до мочалки «по ленинским местам» и коньяка «Ленин в Разливе». Почему по всей Восточной Европе и бывшему Союзу ССР к западу и юго-западу от Минска и Брянска, да вот хоть в Киеве, где по словам Путина, один с нами народ живет, прошел успешный Ленинопад, а в России стоит наш коммунистический Приап, с прежней настойчивостью охаживает-огуливает свою бывшую девушку Россию, даром что мертвый? Вот как?

http://ru.rfi.fr/rossiya/20190127-lenin-opyat-ne-umer-kommunisticheskii-priap

The aim of this paper is to unite all information on readable inscriptions from the site of Majary and ones presumably produced in this city including disappeared now and known only by pictures. There are some publications on the theme, but always on the part of the subjects. For a long time the small area on the left bank of Kuma river was accepted as the site. In 1340ies the area was abandoned and became a cemetery with the ample quantity of mausoleums. There was the great majority of the ordinary gravestones there. The part of the funerary monuments were found on the right bank of Kuma river. Survived items are kept in the museums of Budennovsk, Praskoveya, Pyatigorsk, Stavropol. Presumably one was carried over into Krasnodar during the fortifying of the site/ Two stones from Moshaik and Sharenyi Bugor sites were prodused in Madzhar by the order  from Lower Volga. The production by stone cutters of Madzhar has some characteristic features, partly conditioned by specific raw materials.

Low efficiency of architectural constructions by geophysical methods provokes necessity of the other methods application. The absence here of modern rural buildings and simple way to identify the traces of latest land-utilization ensure effective of cosmic photos and its comparison to old maps of the site. The critical approach to the both groups of the sources in important. The traces of last fields and communications on cosmic photos must be discarded. Old maps of the site (sometimes very inaccurate) frequently have no full explication of objects or more important give incorrect explanation. By the last years some constructions that are signed on maps and visible on cosmic photos were explored in the periphery of the site (excavations CLXXIV, CXCIV, CCI, CCII, CCIII, CCXIV). There are few unidentified constructions available excluding wells. The map accompanying report by prince Meszsherskyi (1776) was misdated to 19th c. (Map for economic village Bolgary…). It fixes f pit or building near south–west urban gate (fig. 7). Small building near mausoleum №5 (excavation LXXXVIII) may be identified confidently. Incomplete explication for the most detailed maps (group by Strauss – Ritter) conditioned difficulties in interpretation. May be some objects on them are duplicated. Discovery of some monumental constructions else is possible, but it may be confirmed by excavation only.

In 2010, an archaeological excavation was conducted by INRAP on the site of Cougourlude
(Lattes, Hérault, Languedoc-Roussillon).
Located on the side of an ancient villa, the site gave a road and some buildings of the imperial age
with the remains of a tower-mausoleum.
This one, dated 10-5 BC by dendrochronology performed on pilings, has been dismantled between
the late second century. A.D. and the beginning of the third century. A.D. In the foundation pit,
the filling has delivered 509 lapidary pieces: fragments of a statue of white marble, shelly limestone
blocks in squared-stone masonry belonging to the foundation of the base and 470 pieces in oolitic
limestone, architectural mouldings blocks or bas-relief elements, all belonging to the superstructure
of the mausoleum.
The shaping of the sculptures seem created by two artists (technical cutting), members of a team of
workshop of Nîmes, 45 km away (material, choice of motifs and compositions).
The stone-cutters try to reproduce the formal and officials models, but make use of regional characteristics
(typologies of acanthus, flattened cauliculus, etc...) and maintain local traditions Italo-Western
or Hellenistic (cornice), despite the introduction of novelties (dentils).
It is an example of a aedicula tomb similar to the mausoleums of Glanum or Beaucaire, with three
levels or spire roof, while it is atypical with a tympanum (and pediment) for Gallia Narbonensis
during this period.
Nel 2010, uno scavo archeologico è stato condotto dall’ INRAP sul sito della Cougourlude (Lattes,
Hérault, Languedoc-Roussillon).
Situato accanto ad una villa antica, il sito ha restituito una via ed alcuni edifici di epoca imperiale
fra cui i resti di un mausoleo-torre.
Quest’ultimo, datato c. 10-5 a.C. grazie alla dendrocronologia effettuata sui pali di fondazione, è
stato smantellato tra la seconda metà del II sec. d.C. e l’inizio del III sec. d.C. Il riempimento della
fossa di fondazione ha restituito 509 elementi lapidici frammentari: diversi frammenti di una statua
di marmo bianco, blocchi di calcare conchiglifero in opera quadrata appartenenti alla fondazione
dello zoccolo e 470 pezzi in calcare oolitico, blocchi architettonici sagomati o elementi in bassorilievo,
tutti appartenenti alla sovrastruttura del mausoleo.
La sagomatura delle sculture sembra realizzata da due artisti (tecniche di taglia), probabilmente
appartenenti ad una squadra di un’officina di Nîmes, distante di 45 km (materiale, scelta di motivi
e composizioni).
Gli scalpellini cercano di riprodurre i modelli formali ed ufficiali, ma fanno uso di particolarità regionali
(tipologie dell’acanto caulicolo appiattito, ecc...) e mantengono tradizioni italo-occidentali o
ellenistiche locali (cornicioni), nonostante l'introduzione di novità (dentelli).
Si tratta di un esempio di tomba ad edicola simile ai mausolei di Glanum o di Beaucaire, a tre livelli
e con copertura a cuspide, mentre il timpano (e frontone) è inusuale in Gallia Narbonensis per questo
periodo.

Riječ je o poglavlju u knjizi u publikaciji Put u vječnost objavljenoj u povodu istoimene izložbe u Klovićevim dvorima u Zagrebu (otvorena od 26. 8. do 6. 11. 2016.). U tekstu se govori o arhitekturi i prostornom uređenju groblja u Hrvatskoj u 19. i 20. stoljeću