Flavian Rome

This volume discusses the culture, art and literature of the Flavian world and constitutes a critical survey of the period, which underscores and re-evaluates its foundational importance. The studies attend to a diversity of topics, including the new political settlement, the role of the army, change and continuity in Rome’s social structures, cultural festivals, architecture, sculpture, religion, coinage, imperial discourse, epistemology and political control, rhetoric, philosophy, Greek intellectual life, drama, poetry, patronage, Flavian historians and amphitheatrical Rome.

Chapters by C. Ando (Southern California), M. Beard (Cambridge), A. Boyle (Southern California), J. Cody (Southern California), W. Dominik (Otago), R. Evans (Tasmania), H. Fearnley (Southern California), D. Fredrick (Arkansas), B. Gold (Hamilton), E. Gunderson (Ohio State), A. Hardie (Oxford), J. Henderson (Cambridge), D. Markus (Michigan), S. Mason (York, Canada), R. Mellor (California, Los Angeles), T. Murphy (California, Berkeley), C. Newlands (Wisconsin, Madison), J. Packer (Northwestern), J. Penwill (La Trobe), J. Pollini (Southern California), P. Sinclair (California, Irvine), J. Smith (San Diego State), P. Vasunia (Southern California), M. Wilson (Auckland), A. Zissos (Texas, Austin).

Before Vespasian returned to Rome to take up the reins of imperial government, he reportedly had a vision in the Serapeum of Alexandria and, as the New Serapis, healed two men. These wonders came to define Vespasian's time in Egypt and yet, for modern readers, their prominence in the story of the emperor's rise to power creates an apparent inconsistency. The same man who on his deathbed joked about his impending divinization also apparently played the part of a god at the beginning of his reign. Such contradictions are to be expected in the colourful accounts of emperors' lives, but this particular one invites further investigation because of its significance to the historical development of the conception of the emperor's divinity. Through detailed consideration of the prospects for reception of these wonders both during and after the Flavian dynasty, this article seeks to demonstrate the predominance of Domitianic influence on the story of Vespasian's wonders. Domitian's reign saw a new emphasis on the living emperor's divinity, which diminished again under Trajan. Nevertheless, wonders were a means through which the charisma of the emperor was manifested in Flavian Rome and later.

The New Classical Scholarship: The New Forensic Study Of History (Roman Piso, 11-25-2016, edited & updated 03-22-2017) [Note: To fully understand this, it is recommended that other related papers be read as well, as this is a complex subject, and the study of this employs methodology not generally taught yet.] This paper is meant to introduce the subject of the forensic study of history. And therefore, a Summary. The reason for this new way of studying ancient history is the discovery of it in an entirely difference context; that of being written from within a closed or controlled environment, which consisted of royalty who comprised a sustained Oligarchy. That condition is now known as 'Royal Supremacy'. The New Classical Scholarship, or the NCS was developed and founded by Roman Piso. Some of the ideas for it originated from methodology by others who, through their work had managed to reach the conclusion of a Roman authorship for the New Testament texts. [a] However, the main procedures and methodology (as well as some terminology) was developed by the author of this paper. In the 1800's, Professor Bruno Bauer had reached the conclusion that the New Testament was authored by Romans. He was not able to go much further than was reflected within his papers and books, and so, he was not able to actually name just who those Romans were. But, he (Prof. Bruno Bauer) did identify "word usage" and phraseology, as well as conceptual and ideological comparisons between the gospels and the works of Seneca and Flavius Josephus. Thus, paving the way for further research into their probable association with the creation of Christianity. And our research, has now verified his suspicions. Particularly, that of Abelard Reuchlin, who was the very first to name the authors of the New Testament texts in his 'The True Authorship of the New Testament' (1st printing, 1979; 2nd printing, 1986). In the early part of the 20th century, several scholars of the time were making great strides in terms of word meanings and word usage in the New Testament; and in fact, the Bible as a whole. One of those scholars was James Ballantyne Hannay, a contributor to the 'Encyclopedia Biblica', which was produced by Oxford university and various scholars of the time. [b] There were several books written by scholars and researchers of the time, which shed light upon words and word usage in the Bible; many of which are very rare, out of print, and/or non existent today. [c] Much of that earlier work was destroyed by many people who did not like what it revealed or what it would do in terms of scholarship should it become more widely known. At the time, Christians destroyed copies of these books and many were destroyed due to two world wars. The Vatican hierarchy knew about various discoveries made by researchers both in and out of Academia, and likewise, did not want that material to get out to other scholars or the public in general. Hitler and his followers too, had destroyed many thousands of books which, of course, included anything that the Vatican did not like and/or which revealed Christianity in a bad light. Many rare and one-of-a-kind books and other materials were destroyed simply because some people did not like that material for whatever reason. One of the main things that has been wrong with academia for so long is that many of its members have always consisted of the religious and thus, it has been strongly "Christian" in nature. That has alarmed many of us who realize the problem that that has been to getting at the truth in history and religion.

This list covers many of the aliases and pen names that were used from the first century CE, up to near modern times (see my paper, 'Napoleon Bonaparte & The Holy Roman Empire', which, gives his descent from Arrius Piso and his relationship to various popes). By the way, I have often been asked to research and uncover the truth about all of the popes; all the way up to the current pope. I have no interest in revealing the family trees of later day popes. Other researchers are free to do that if they so choose. However, regarding the use of aliases and pen names by notables in history, there are many, many more that are known by me than can be listed here currently. And, many more will be listed in later updates to this list. The reason for giving this list is to help researchers to get on with their work as an aid, so that they may tell just which individual was using which names or whose biographical data was being given by authors using those names. To be able to obtain, deduce and confirm the various aliases being used is time consuming and much more complex than the vast majority of researchers are as yet prepared to do on their own. This has been a monumental task. Due to the requirements involved in uncovering these alias names, only a handful of individuals at this point in time may be able to do this. And, since we all have (at this time) a relatively short lifespan, and due to other factors; not everyone will be able to do this, nor would they want to devote what they must in order to do it correctly. Since I have been studying ancient history and religion correctly (using every required facet involved) for more than 20 years, I have this unique ability. I have already written several research papers explaining just what is needed in order to do this; but I will be writing more so as to better clarify and instruct researchers in this process. A part of this process is compiling individual 'profiles' (an example of one such profile is given near the end of this paper). In the meantime, researchers who have not yet acquired the discipline necessary to do this themselves, will have to rely upon the information which has been given them by those such as myself. Also, for now, I will give what examples I can to help fellow researchers to better understand just how these alias names and pen names have been uncovered and why they were used in the first place. At the end of this paper, you will find some links to research papers that various examples, etc. These aliases are key to understanding the true nature of ancient history and religion, and are necessary to understand ancient texts as the authors themselves did, as well as their extremely well-educated royal readership. As it happens, I have had a huge edge in getting at the truth and true nature of ancient texts, as I have made many important discoveries; including the use of a language inside of language, which is now known as 'The Royal Language'. As you may or may not know, I am the founder of new methodology and processes that comprise a whole new way of studying ancient history which is known as 'The New Classical Scholarship'. What must now be known and accepted by academia is that ancient history and all other literature written in antiquity on up to Medieval times and beyond, was being written by royalty within a synthesized environment known as an Oligarchy, a situation in which has now been termed 'Royal Supremacy'. Those who have yet to learn what I and a few others have regarding uncovering aliases is that a) this is what we were left with, and b) this is the only real means of uncovering the truth in history, and c) what is to be found and learned regarding history is not, and never has been, in our

Who was Flavius Josephus? Answering this one question, leads to answers to virtually all other questions about ancient history. The answer is that he was Arrius Calpurnius Piso, a royal Roman. He wrote under the alias of Flavius Josephus and pretended to be a Jew. He was of Jewish descent, on his mother's side. Please read on and learn.

A lo largo de sus tres siglos de historia en la época imperial romana, la función principal de la Guardia Pretoriana fue la protección de la figura del emperador allí donde este se encontrara, ya fuera actuando permanentemente como su escolta y guardia personal  en el palacio imperial o como última línea de defensa en el ámbito militar. Pero como cuerpo de élite del ejército romano acantonado en la capital del Imperio también se les encomendó el mantenimiento y, en su caso, restablecimiento del orden allí donde fuera necesario. Así, la Guardia Pretoriana se conformaría como una de las piezas clave en la historia imperial romana como uno de los actores principales no solo a nivel militar sino también a nivel político, papel este último muy alejado de las funciones iniciales para las que fue creada pero que poco a poco fue cobrando especial relevancia tanto por su cercanía a la figura de los sucesivos emperadores como por su acantonamiento en la capital imperial. Consciente de su poder, no fueron pocas las ocasiones en que los pretorianos utilizaron su posición e influencias para dirigir y aprovechar los habituales cambios políticos en la cúspide del poder . Pero, aun siendo menos conocida, no sería menor la importancia bélica que en los campos de batalla protagonizarían los pretorianos en numerosas ocasiones como unidad militar y que a la postre les consagraría como uno de los pilares fundamentales del régimen imperial prácticamente desde su creación, en tiempos de Augusto , hasta su desmantelamiento llevado a cabo por el emperador Majencio.
Como cuerpo de élite del ejército, reconocidos como los mejor entrenados y preparados como demostraron en no pocas ocasiones, y en base a su especial misión recibían una paga superior al del resto de soldados; y su tiempo de servicio era varios años menor, por lo que resultaban ser la envidia del resto de unidades militares y en particular de aquellos que servían en el limes del imperio . Es por ello que trataremos aquí de realizar un estudio esquemático sobre su formación, estructura, actuaciones, etc. con el fin de ahondar en el conocimiento de esta institución muchas veces denostada por algunas de sus intervenciones.

This is a study regarding traits that are found in clinical psychopaths and the same traits as found displayed by the ancient author known as 'Flavius Josephus'. This paper presents the need to make such information a necessary part of the study of ancient literature.

Being 'Inner-Circle' with regards to history & religion means viewing it with "inside" knowledge. Whereas, all others try to understand it by studying it from the outside looking in. Summary: Certain Romans created Christianity during a time of war and as a part of that war. Therefore, motives & evidence remain within it. At the beginning of the 20th Century, a main hypothesis within academia was the Roman creation of Christianity, headed by Oxford University and students of earlier scholars who were founders of the field of Biblical Criticism. However, regardless of all of the work that had been done and all of the scholars who had reached this conclusion and wrote about it, that information was successfully suppressed-and, virtually, wiped out. Again, this was, at one point and for some time, the leading working hypothesis within academia (which, began with people like Copernicus and Galileo, and the invention of the printing press-which meant that it was much more difficult for the Church and other authorities to prevent or ban materials from circulating). What happened? Once Christian religious institutions realized what was happening, they began to a) open more religious colleges & universities, and b) began to recruit more religious people into academia. Also c), the scholars that had been writing about their findings of a Roman authorship for the New Testament, began dying off. And d), their work was being stolen, bought up and/or otherwise destroyed. If a book contradicted an individual's religious belief, that is all the reason needed for that individual to destroy that book.

The emperor Constantine's family is referred to by scholars as either the Constantinian Dynasty, or the Neo-Flavians. The reason that they have been called the 'Neo-Flavians' or New Flavians, is not because scholars have traced back their descent from the Flavian Dynasty of the 1st century, but because members of the family of Constantine used the name 'Flavius'; as if a rebirth of the earlier Flavian Dynasty. Scholars have thought that this was done in an attempt to show themselves triumphant in ways that the earlier Flavian Dynasty had, and not because they were actually descended from that earlier dynasty. But, in reality, that is exactly why they had used the name Flavius among their family members. And this was to show that they knew of their own descent from those earlier Flavians; not to the general public, but to other royal families of the time, who were their relatives-and, many of whom, were also descended from those earlier Flavians. As my research (based upon the work of Sir Ronald Syme, Abelard Reuchlin and others, along with the primary source texts in their original languages), has revealed, the emperor Vespasian was a descendant of King Herod, and therefore, via his branch of that family, a relative (cousin) of King Agrippa II. The evidence for this is overwhelming once it is all brought together and considered; including the fact that Vespasian had his own Herodian relatives leave Judea before his attack upon Jerusalem. Another thing that I had noticed during the process of investigating the Flavian/Herodian connection, is that there was indeed, a family resemblance between King Agrippa II and the Emperor Vespasian; which can be easily seen when viewing certain of their coins side by side. But the purpose of this paper is not to demonstrate the relationship between the Herodians and Flavians, this is just an aspect that I felt that the reader should be aware of as they consider Vespasian as ancestor of the Neo-Flavians. What we need is many more researchers working to reveal the truth in ancient history. That is why I have been working as I have to bring as much of this information to the public, so that there are many aspects of this from which to choose from to get researchers started and so that they have their choice of just where they would like to begin their own work. Bear in mind that the research papers, genealogies, books and other information that I have made available, should all be read as so much of it is connected and will offer the researcher answers where they may not otherwise have them. When one reads and considers my work, such as with the genealogical connections presented in this paper, the reader should think about what I have stated in my other works with regards to how it is possible to reconstruct relationships within ancient royal individuals and the way in which they left that information to us. For instance, I have said that in order to find out just who these individuals actually were and how they were related to each other, one must do a vast amount of research and read all primary documents available (or as close to that as possible), in the original languages-as well as the later citations and references to those individuals (who may also be descendants of those same individuals). Secondary sources (such as that of modern researchers) can also be helpful. The papers of Sir Ronald Syme, for instance, are extremely helpful and important; many of which, were published in JRS [Journal of Roman Studies]. Again, I would like to stress the importance of the researcher building up a cross-referenced database.

Another thing is that Abelard Reuchlin not only passed along Inner-Circle knowledge that he was told, but he expounded upon it so that it could be more clearly understood by those who otherwise would not. He put forth a viable means in which to examine the texts of the time which includes those who were the witnesses to the creation of Christianity, those Jews who were writing the Talmud. In addition, he caused others, like me, to examine this further and allowed us to realize just how valuable it is in our studies to look much closer at the involvement of the Jews in trying to prevent the rise of those who would go on to create and promote Christianity. For, the Jews of the time, saw it (Christianity) for what it was truly was, an effort or tactic used by their enemies, as a part of the war that they had been fighting. And therefore, a fraud which needed to be exposed as such. The cause of the Pharisees and Scribes was for basic human rights, the end of slavery, and the foundation of a new fair democratic government. And, instead of teaching irrational and superstitious religion, they were trying to wean people off of that and replace it with sound, rational, practical, ethical reasoning. While Christianity, by contrast, was created to do the opposite of that. And that is because some greedy Roman rulers whose lives of luxury would be drastically changed, if the Pharisees and Scribes accomplished their goals for the people. Of course, to get people to believe in Christianity, the creators of Christianity had to make it appear to be something 'good', in much the same way that trappers set traps for dumb animals. Which, is exactly how those ancient royal rulers (the less than 1% of the time) saw non-royals, as nothing more than their own chattel which was there for no other reason than their own use for whatever purposes that they saw fit. Thus, Christianity was created as a means for them to better secure, control and manipulate the people, that they saw as their own sheep or chattel. This paper highlights the course that Abelard Reuchlin had taken in order to reach the conclusions that he was able to in order to advance our understanding of what the world was really like during the time in which the New Testament was being written and just who had motive to do so. And, his work also reminds us that we must consider all of the evidence of the time (that means the Jewish texts, the Jews of the time, and the Jewish war that was involved in the creation of Christianity). Reuchlin's work underscores our need to better understand what we study in the correct context in order to find out just who was actually writing at the time, and why. It is because of Abelard Reuchlin's work (and that of others, or course), that my own work was made more complete. I urge everyone to read and learn from the work that Reuchlin had devoted his life to in order that future generations could have that extremely important information.

There are so many areas which need to be studied when it comes to the First and Second Centuries of the Common Era, and so much more to learn about that time in history. If you read this paper and still wonder about various parts of it, it may mean that you need to do some reading to get caught up to where some of us already are.

Many within academia, for instance, still do not realize that when they are talking about the Jews of the time, they need to know exactly which 'Jews' they need to identify according to time, place and sect. This is important to better know what was being said by those recording both the Jewish historic material (i.e., the Talmud; 'Flavius Josephus' was not an actual 'Jew', but a Roman of Jewish descent).

This paper was written from the larger overview of an actual war going on at the time, instead of the view of isolated or sporadic Jewish "revolts". For more information about it being an actual long-standing war, read my other papers that cover the issue. A lot of material that that is necessary in order to uncover the fact of a genuine all-out war between the Romans and Jews can be deduced from items in the works of Flavius Josephus, various Roman authors, the Talmud, and the work of scholars such as Sir Ronald Syme, Joseph Neusner, and Abelard Reuchlin.

But, of course, you would have to read be at a level of study-ability that would allow you to know just what it is that you are reading. It is preferred that you know how to read the ancient texts involved in the original languages, using primary source documents and/or materials. When it comes to Classical material, the Loeb Classical Library edition is highly recommended. What must be known to reveal the truth about this long all-out war is that it did not begin with a disagreement between the Romans and Jews; it began with a split between the Jewish sects.

This paper tells a little known part of the story involving the creation of Christianity, and how a family alliance between the Flavians and Pisos had worked for the Piso family until the death of the Emperor Titus. And then, how, once Domitian became Emperor, he banished the Piso family from Rome.

This paper helps illustrate the true nature of the New Testament and its authors. It shows that the authors were not holy men at all; but instead, extremely cruel psychopathic murderers who joked about the horrific acts that they had engaged in while torturing and killing people en masse.

The Colosseum is well understood as a dynastic monument that was key to the Flavian building programme and to Flavian ideology. From this point of view it has been approached as the fulfilment of Augustus's ambition for a large-scale amphitheatre, as serving to diminish Nero's memory as it was constructed on the atrium of his dismantled Golden House, and as a victory monument built with the spoils of the Jewish War. One important political aspect of this dynastic monument has been largely overlooked: its connection with emperor worship. Outside Rome, it is well known that amphitheatres served as a venue for the procession and placement of imperial cult images; in Rome, the Circus Maximus and the theatres were venues for the display of imperial images and attributes brought in during their respective pompae. Through the deployment of textual, topographical and visual evidence, this article demonstrates that the Colosseum also had a pulvinar that displayed images and attributes of the gods and divi brought in during the pompa. The location of the pulvinar and the mechanisms by which it was serviced are explored, as are the ideological implications of cultic activity in the Colosseum.Il Colosseo è considerato un monumento dinastico, chiave del programma edilizio e dell'ideologia flavia. Da questo punto di vista è stato considerato in molti modi: compimento del desiderio di Augusto di un anfiteatro di grandi dimensioni, o ancora la sua edificazione è stata letta come volontà di oblio di Nerone, essendo stato costruito sull'atrio della demolita Domus Aurea e anche come monumento legato alla vittoria di un evento bellico, costruito con le prede della guerra giudaica. Tuttavia un importante aspetto politico di questo monumento dinastico è stato ampiamente tralasciato: la sua connessione con il culto imperiale. Al di fuori di Roma, è ben noto come gli anfiteatri servissero come sede per la processione e per collocarvi le immagini di culto imperiali. In Roma il Circo Massimo e i teatri erano sedi in cui venivano esibiti le immagini imperiali e gli attributi portati durante le rispettive pompae. Attraverso l'analisi di testi, fonti topografiche e iconografiche, il presente articolo dimostra come il Colosseo fosse fornito anche di un pulvinar, in cui venivano esposte immagini e attributi degli dei e divi portati nella processione. Vengono esaminati la localizzazione del pulvinar e il meccanismo di manutenzione, nonché le implicazioni ideologiche dell'attività cultuale all'interno del Colosseo.

L'entrata al foro di Nerva dalla Subura fu risolta attraverso un curioso portico a forma di ferro di cavallo comunemente identificato nella cosiddetta porticus absidata delle fonti. L'edificio è stato analizzato nel dettaglio del design architettonico e delle decorazioni da Bauer che ne ha proposto una pianta ed un alzato ricostruttivi in un articolo del 1983.
Lo studio proposto in questo contributo ha un duplice scopo. Da una parte si vuole qui proporre una nuova ricostruzione dell'alzato della Porticus alla luce di una rilettura di alcuni dati già elaborati da Bauer che ha portato alla realizzazione di un modello in 3D. Il modello permette di comprendere in pieno la funzione particolare della porticus come passaggio operante la complessa transizione, spaziale ed ideologica, tra la Subura e il foro. Il modello qui presentato risponde più accuratamente ai dati archeologici e all'interpretazione dell'edificio.
La seconda parte di questo contributo è dedicata ad un'interpretazione dell'uso dello spazio e dei passaggi di traffico che porta nuova luce al concetto originante elaborato da Rabirio, architetto di corte di Domiziano, e consente interessanti paralleli con altri edifici domizianei come il palazzo imperiale sul Palatino. Si vedrà come la progettazione della porticus risponda alle esigenze di operare uno stretto controllo sul traffico in entrata dalla Subura utilizzando efficaci soluzioni architettoniche e visive.


The entrance to the forum of Nerva from the Subura was monumentalized by an unusual horse-shoe shaped porticus commonly identified in the porticus absidata mentioned in the ancient sources. The architectural design and decoration of the building have been investigated in detail by Bauer who suggested a reconstructing plan and elevation in his 1983 article.
The scope of this paper is twofold. On one hand a new reconstruction of the elevation, based on the data already gathered by Bauer, is here presented in a 3D model.  This model allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the porticus as passage operating the complex transition ‒ both topographical and ideological ‒ from the Subura to the forum. The model here presented fits more accurately within the archaeological data and the interpretation of the building.
The second part of the paper offers a further analysis of the building with a focus on the use of the space and traffic paths that sheds new light on the originating concepts employed by Rabirius, Domitian's court architect. This analysis allows for interesting comparanda with other examples of Rabirian buildings such as the imperial palace on the Palatine. It will be shown how the design of the porticus fits the need of monitoring the incoming traffic through effective architectural and visual solutions.

Since I have been studying so many different areas of ancient history, particularly that of ancient Rome, this subject has been of some interest to me and others for a number of reasons. It has been apparent that the decline in the content of silver in Roman coinage directly related to various factors within the Roman Empire over the course of several centuries; namely, through the First Century AD/CE to the Fourth Century AD/CE. The examination of the part that coins played in history is crucial in helping to make important determinations in a number of areas of the study. For instance, the names used by various emperors, their family members, wives, and sometimes, relatives. It is for much more than simple interest or trivia that we, as historians, examine ancient coins. We find many things of interest and importance, that is, of value to us in our quest to learn more about the people and times in which they lived. Coins of the various emperors contain information. They give us portraits of the emperors which give us some idea as to how they looked. They tell us things from what they chose to include on their coins, such as symbols, gods and/or goddesses, motto and more. And, at times, we may even find examples of propaganda and historical reference. But in this instance, we are examining the silver content or the amount of silver contained within the silver denarius (or "denarii" in plural) as minted under the various emperors. Which, may tell us a few things or at least indicate or support various views of certain emperors at particular points in the historical timeline of the Roman Empire. One of the first things that comes to mind is that as the Roman Empire was expanding and more people and territory was being added to it, the demand for more coinage became a priority. And, one of the easiest ways to make silver coinage 'stretch' is to "water it down" so to speak. Or, in other words, reduce the silver content rather than the size of the coins-which, by the way, was another thing that we see happening as time went on (a good example of this can be seen in the reduction of size in both the denarius and the tetradrachm over the course of time). Coins which were produced under the Emperor Augustus were virtually as pure as they could make them, about 98 percent pure. We see, as time went on, that the silver coins minted under later emperors were reduced to 'billon' (a token amount of silver) and essentially copper coins with a silver wash to make them appear to be silver. Of course, with use, the silver washed coins would begin to show the copper as the silver wore off. Basically, the coins which were produced by the Julian Emperors remained for the most part, stable. The exception to that (and remember, we are focused primarily upon the denarius in this paper), could be coins produced for the various Roman territories in the form of coinage issued for use in the provinces. Once the rule of the Julian Emperors ended with the death of Nero, we begin to see where the rule of successive emperors changed the content of silver in their coins. The Silver Content In The Denarius Under Various Emperors*: [Again, remember that we find silver reduction in coins produced for the provinces] Augustus (ruled : 27 BC/BCE-14 AD/CE) 97/98%. Claudius (ruled : 41-54 AD/CE) 97%.

Abstract: The triumph de Iudaeis had an enormous impact in Flavian Rome. Whereas a considerable amount of bibliography has accumulated over the years, no study examines in detail the issue of the exact date of such a major event. The present article aims to fill this gap, using all the available sources (literary and non-literary) to provide a reliable chronological reconstruction of Titus’s return from the East. The conclusion is that the Flavian triumphal procession over the Judaeans most likely took place in the second half/end of June 71 CE. ********** Riassunto: Il trionfo de Iudaeis ebbe un impatto enorme nella Roma dei Flavi. Sebbene nel corso degli anni si sia accumulata una notevole bibliografia, non esiste alcuno studio che esamini in dettaglio la questione della data precisa di questo evento fondamentale. Il presente articolo mira a colmare tale lacuna, utilizzando tutte le fonti disponibili (letterarie e non) allo scopo di fornire una ricostruzione cronologica attendibile del ritorno di Tito dall’Oriente. La conclusione è che il trionfo giudaico dei Flavi molto probabilmente ebbe luogo nella seconda metà/fine di giugno del 71 d.C.

This is something that I had discovered many years ago, but which had remained only in my own private notes until I began sharing this information with others after the year 2000. I finally wrote it out as a genealogical chart as a means to demonstrate some of the discoveries of the New Classical Scholarship (NCS). King Herod is still generally thought of by scholars today as being an Idumean. Though, his ancestors married into the royal house living and ruling in Idum (Edom/Idom/Idumia), his actual royal ancestry (through a male line) descended from Eleazar Auran. And therefore, King Herod was actually a descendant of Hasmoneas (via Eleazar Auran's father, Mattathias) through a collateral line of the Hasmoneans (or Maccabees). He was also, therefore, already a closely related cousin of Mariamne I, his wife, who was the last ruling descendant of the Hasmonean rulers. Though this information is found within the works of Flavius Josephus, he also made it fairly difficult to find-which is why no one had ever written about finding and knowing about this until I did. He (Flavius Josephus) had good reason for both giving this information and cleverly hiding it by giving it out of chronological order and in disjointed passages. He, Flavius Josephus (aka Arrius Calpurnius Piso) wanted to confuse his non-royal readers and prevent them, for as long as possible, from piecing together crucial pieces of information such as this, because he, himself, was a descendant of this very line. These were his own ancestors. He also wanted to paint a much different picture of the Pharisees than was actually true. It is only by having a great deal of knowledge and information about the Pharisees (and the other Jewish sects of the time) that one can begin to weed through and correctly perceive, the truth about the Jewish sects, and be able to tell just where he (Flavius Josephus) lied and misled his readers regarding them.

While today we naturally tend to concentrate on the tragedy of the Jewish people, the events of 70 CE were just an outcome of a much bigger change in the Roman Empire. The fate of Jerusalem was resolved by the political circumstances which were occurring not in the Land of Israel but in Rome, in the short period from June 68 to December 69 CE.

La legitimidad es un espacio político en continua construcción. Sin embargo, el respeto al legado augústeo y la explotación de su recuerdo, en aras de proyectar una imagen de continuidad con la casa imperial precedente, son constantes en la actuación política de Vespasiano y sus hijos. El propósito del presente trabajo es analizar el papel de de los símbolos y referentes ideológicos augústeos en la construcción y consolidación del Principado flavio a través de su reflejo en la documentación hispana. En particular, a través del estudio de un conjunto de inscripciones procedentes de la Bética, fechadas entre el reinado de Vespasiano y Domiciano, dedicadas a los miembros de la familia imperial y a divinidades asociadas a ellas, como Venus y Apolo.
    Un aspecto sumamente interesante es el perfil de los dedicantes: exmagistrados que elevan su agradecimiento a los emperadores flavios por la obtención de la ciudadanía romana en el marco del nuevo ordenamiento institucional. Por tanto, el análisis de estas dedicatorias constituye una excelente oportunidad para evaluar la recepción por parte de estas oligarquías municipales de la propaganda oficial flavia. A su vez, nos permitirá reflexionar cómo la difusión de estos modelos imperiales, y en particular aquellos orientados a la exaltación dinástica, influyen en el comportamiento y la proyección pública de estas élites sociales.

Nummi restituti (Restitution coins) appeared in Roman imperial mintage thanks to the Flavian mints, operating in the times of Titus and Domitian. The authoress shares the thesis that the Restitution coins, apart from their commemorative function, expressing the tribute to memory — of
pre-Flavian members of the Roman imperial house, their successes and virtues, as well as the Roman senate or earlier coin types — served also as a medium of ideological contents. Their production might have fulfilled an ideologically justified political need — an intention of ensuring the continuity of the pre-Flavian emperors’ politics and the legitimization of the Flavian dynasty. The authoress looks for a selection criterion of the prototypes for the Restitution coins and points to the possible key of choosing those prototypes which may have been military successes of predecessors crowned by triumphal honours.

A lo largo de su historia el Imperio romano tuvo que hacer frente a numerosas revueltas, debido al enorme territorio que controlaba. De entre los pueblos que las protagonizaron, los hebreos se contaban entre los que con mayor insistencia lucharon por recuperar su independencia. En cuanto a los diversos conflictos que enfrentaron a judíos y romanos, la que, a la postre, seria recordada como la Primera Guerra Judeo-romana (66-73 d.C.) pasó a la historia como el más importante de todos. Ello se debe tanto a que requirió de la participación de dos futuros emperadores al mando de las tropas romanas que debían restablecer la paz en la provincia de Judea, Vespasiano y su hijo Tito, como al hecho de que la ciudad de Jerusalén y el Gran Templo que albergaba acabaron completamente destruidos. En el año 66 d.C. numerosos factores se unieron al odio que sectores radicales hebreos sentían hacia sus conquistadores romanos, provocando la caída del procurador de Judea, Gesio Floro, y la derrota del Legado de Siria, Cestio Galo, en Beth Horón, quien acudió con sus tropas a pacificar la región sin conseguirlo. El movimiento fue cobrando fuerza tras estos éxitos, y Jerusalén se convirtió en el epicentro del independentismo judío. Roma no podía permanecer pasiva ante estos acontecimientos y Nerón envió allí a Vespasiano, un general experimentado, para acabar de una vez por todas con el problema. La resistencia implacable que demostraron los rebeldes y los problemas políticos que, durante ese tiempo, se produjeron en Roma, provocaron que la conquista final quedara en manos de su capaz hijo Tito quien, a la postre, consiguió conquistar Jerusalén y acabar con la revuelta. El gran triunfo que se celebró en Roma para conmemorar la victoria era lo que la nueva dinastía Flavia necesitaba para afianzar su poder. Sin embargo, la campaña no finalizó hasta el año 73 d.C., tras la toma de la fortaleza de Masada, donde los últimos insurrectos prefirieron suicidarse antes de ser derrotados. El enfrentamiento se saldaría con una enorme pérdida de vidas, tanto entre los soldados romanos como entre los insurrectos judíos y la población civil. Gracias a la obra de Flavio Josefo, podemos reconstruir lo sucedido para poder así conocer con detalle uno de los grandes episodios de la Historia Antigua.

This article, in memory of Alla Kushnir-Stein, discusses a newly discovered aureus, bearing a previously unattested legend, Iudaea recepta, and an equally unattested combination of iconographic elements on its reverse, issued immediately after the fall of Jerusalem in September 70 CE. The idea of recepta, conveyed in both legend and iconography, was the re- subjugation of an old province, indeed precisely what one would have expected after a revolt was put down. This message must have been deliberately suppressed soon after the coin was issued, in favor of the capta type associated with the acquisition of new territory.

Since Bernays in 1861, scholars have disputed Josephus’ account in Bell. Iud. 6.252 that a Roman soldier during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE acted on ‘some supernatural impulse’ when he threw a piece of burning wood into the Temple, thus starting the fire that destroyed it. The vast majority of scholars have followed Bernays in giving more credence to the account of the Christian chronographer Sulpicius Severus, who in his Chronica reports that Titus ordered that the Temple be burned. Many a priori assumptions have come into play when examining Josephus’ narrative, which instead appears unequivocally clear, consistent and substantially trustworthy.

The Flavian period is represented in the original Victor A. Adda collection through a considerable assemblage of 30 aurei of Vespasian, Vespasian and Titus, Titus and Domitian. Of these, two are included in the group now at the Israel Museum: an aureus of Vespasian, presenting a heifer on its reverse; and an aureus of Domitian, showing a kneeling captive on the reverse. These two coins are nevertheless linked in numerous ways to themes apparent in the original collection. Furthermore, they stand to represent some of the main features of the Flavian dynasty and its distinct characteristics, including their peculiar minting ideology.