The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five perce... more The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five percent of the workforce reporting psychological and/or physical abuse (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2011). Websites, public forums, and media scrutiny have made bullying an everyday topic. Correspondingly, there has been renewed attention in academic studies on this increasing form of interpersonal violence. Much of bullying research has focused on: (1) a description of the phenomenon and its widespread impact; (2) perpetrator and target characteristics; (3) outcomes such as stress and somatic complaints; and (4) the aftermath on firms (Namie, 2003; Rayner and Hoel, 1997; Salin, 2003). Untangling the causes and consequences of adult bullying can be complex because according to Rayner and Hoel (1997: 188): "The breadth of the phenomenon encompasses many different forms of behavior ..." More than half of targets in workplace bullying cases are women (WBI, 2011). A potential explanation is that stereotypes regarding their behavior (in some cases) remain stubborn (Duehr and Bono, 2006). Moreover, when women display incongruent role behaviors they may be punished (Berdahl, 2007; Eagly and Sczesny, 2009). However, the research lacks in describing what may happen when women attempt to defend themselves from a bullying attack, and, if any form of organizational intervention can improve the situation. As Rayner and Hoel (1997) have alluded, studying a confluence of variables (as opposed to univariate factors) may be necessary to understand how deviant workplace acts unfold. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how men and women are differentially perceived when they are bullied at work, and whether the existence of a civility policy makes a positive difference. Specifically, the following studies explore whether women who violate gender norms are viewed as more responsible when bullied (as compared to men), and if aggressors are considered less justified when organizations have institutionalized anti-bullying measures. The researchers suspect there are undercurrents of enhanced responsibility (and perhaps a lack of perceived collegiality) when a woman defends herself in a bullying scenario. The researchers also speculate that a civility policy can impact the way individuals process situations. Perceived levels of target collegiality and responsibility, rater hostile sexism, and bully justification (and their interaction with target gender, reaction, rater sex, and rater race) are analyzed under conditions where a civility policy is and is not present. This study examines the interaction of these variables to extrapolate information for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW The Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) defines bullying as "repeated, health harming abusive conduct committed by bosses and co-workers" which can include "sabotage by others that prevent[s] work from getting done, verbal abuse, threatening conduct, intimidation, and humiliation" (WBI, 2011: "What is Workplace Bullying?"). The preponderance of bullying behavior is the result of non-physical assault (Salin, 2003), such as verbal and psychological attack. These assaults can include shouting, mobbing (the infliction of abuse from a group directed toward a single individual), insults delivered in an audience setting, ostracism, blowing things out of proportion, wielding power in a manner designed to put people in their place (e.g., officiousness), misplaced blame, disrespectful discourse, and using positional power to leverage work-related credit. Bullying is not an across-the-board workplace phenomenon, but is pinpointed toward certain individuals (Salin, 2003). The majority of bullied persons are either subordinate in rank (by 71%) or are direct reports (Namie, 2003). Workplace Bullying: Gender and Race The social construction of gender affects the frequency, duration, and type of bullying that women experience. …
PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to attempt to use several variables measured at Time 1 to pre... more PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to attempt to use several variables measured at Time 1 to predict cluster membership (bad apples vs good apples) measured at Time 2 and investigate possible differences between business and psychology students in unethical behavior.Design/methodology/approachBusiness and psychology students' propensity to engage in unethical behavior (PUB), the love of money, machiavellianism, and risk tolerance at Time 1 and propensity to engage in unethical behavior at Time 2 (four weeks later) were measured. Cluster analysis was used to analyze Time 2 data and bad apples (Cluster 1, high propensity to engage in unethical behavior) and good apples (Cluster 2, low propensity to engage in unethical behavior) were identified. Then all the variables measured at Time 1 were used to predict cluster membership (bad apples vs good apples) measured at Time 2.FindingsIn three discriminant analyses, it was found that variables at Time 1 predicted cluster membership at Time 2 for the whole sample and the business sample, but not for the psychology sample. The differences between bad apples and good apples were significant for business students, but not significant for psychology students. Correlation data showed that the love of money was significantly correlated with machiavellianism and risk tolerance.Research limitations/implicationsStudents are not assigned randomly to business and psychology courses. Students' behavioral intention, not actual unethical behavior, is measured here. Can professors change people's love of money, machiavellianism, risk tolerance, and the propensity to engage in unethical behavior and enhance students' and future managers' ethical decision making? This issue deserves critical attention in future research.Practical implicationsIt is plausible that corruptions and scandals are caused not by lack of intelligence, but by lack of wisdom, or virtue. Professors and researchers may have to focus on ethics training, in general, and the bad apples in bad (business) barrels (mostly male business students), in particular, identify the most critical time and methods in teaching business ethics, enhance learning based on students' own experiences, and promote ethical values in schools, universities, and organizations.Originality/valueThis research shows the importance of incorporating propensity to engage in unethical behavior (PUB), the love of money, machiavellianism, and risk tolerance in identifying bad apples vs good apples across majors.
Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility
Corruption involves greed, money, and risky decision-making. We explore the love of money, pay sa... more Corruption involves greed, money, and risky decision-making. We explore the love of money, pay satisfaction, probability of risk, and dishonesty across cultures. Avaricious monetary aspiration breeds unethicality. Prospect theory frames decisions in the gains-losses domain and high-low probability. Pay dissatisfaction (in the losses domain) incites dishonesty in the name of justice at the individual level. The Corruption Perceptions Index, CPI, signals a high-low probability of getting caught for dishonesty at the country level. We theorize that decision-makers adopt avaricious love-of-money aspiration as a lens and frame dishonesty in the gains-losses domain (pay satisfaction-dissatisfaction, Level 1) and high-low probability (CPI, Level 2) to maximize expected utility and ultimate serenity. We challenge the myth: Pay satisfaction mitigates dishonesty across nations consistently. Based on 6500 managers in 32 countries, our cross-level three-dimensional visualization offers the following discoveries. Under high aspiration conditions, pay dissatisfaction excites the highest- (third-highest) avaricious justice-seeking dishonesty in high (medium) CPI nations, supporting the certainty effect. However, pay satisfaction provokes the second-highest avaricious opportunity-seizing dishonesty in low CPI entities, sustaining the possibility effect—maximizing expected utility. Under low aspiration conditions, high pay satisfaction consistently leads to low dishonesty, demonstrating risk aversion—achieving ultimate serenity. We expand prospect theory from a micro and individual-level theory to a cross-level theory of monetary wisdom across 32 nations. We enhance the S-shaped Curve to three 3-D corruption surfaces across three levels of the global economic pyramid, providing novel insights into behavioral economics, business ethics, the environment, and responsibility.
International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 2016
Background University students’ substance abuse and risky sex contribute to sexually transmitted ... more Background University students’ substance abuse and risky sex contribute to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Purpose We develop and empirically test a formative theoretical model of sexual temptation involving substance abuse (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana), safe sexual behavior (use of condom/barrier for oral and vaginal intercourse), risky sexual behavior (unprotected sex and multiple sexual partners), and STDs: gonorrhea, HIV, and genital herpes. We simultaneously explore these constructs, controlling membership in social groups (fraternity/sorority, varsity athlete, and club sports) and perceived norm of substance abuse. Methods A total of 687 American university students completed the National College Health Assessment (NCHA). We use structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the goodness of fit between our formative theoretical model and actual data. Results Results reveal the following discoveries: membership in campus social groups is positively associated with STD...
The purpose of the present study was to conceptualize maladaptive forms of sport perfectionism by... more The purpose of the present study was to conceptualize maladaptive forms of sport perfectionism by determining the factors (and items within each factor) that best describe this construct among skilled male and female athletes. The sample consisted of 217 undergraduate student athletes ranging in age from 19 to 33 years. A theory-driven four-factor, 18-item Likert-type scale, called the Sport Perfectionism Inventory (SPI), was generated for this study. The factors, each reflecting maladaptive perfectionism to an excessive degree, included the following: concern over mistakes (CM), self-criticism (SC), personal standards (PS), and negative feedback (NF). Results showed that the items were generalizable for both genders, and all correlations between factors in the scale were significant. It was concluded that these dimensions depicted maladaptive sport perfectionism as a function of gender.
The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five perce... more The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five percent of the workforce reporting psychological and/or physical abuse (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2011). Websites, public forums, and media scrutiny have made bullying an everyday topic. Correspondingly, there has been renewed attention in academic studies on this increasing form of interpersonal violence. Much of bullying research has focused on: (1) a description of the phenomenon and its widespread impact; (2) perpetrator and target characteristics; (3) outcomes such as stress and somatic complaints; and (4) the aftermath on firms (Namie, 2003; Rayner and Hoel, 1997; Salin, 2003). Untangling the causes and consequences of adult bullying can be complex because according to Rayner and Hoel (1997: 188): "The breadth of the phenomenon encompasses many different forms of behavior ..." More than half of targets in workplace bullying cases are women (WBI, 2011). A potential explanation is that stereotypes regarding their behavior (in some cases) remain stubborn (Duehr and Bono, 2006). Moreover, when women display incongruent role behaviors they may be punished (Berdahl, 2007; Eagly and Sczesny, 2009). However, the research lacks in describing what may happen when women attempt to defend themselves from a bullying attack, and, if any form of organizational intervention can improve the situation. As Rayner and Hoel (1997) have alluded, studying a confluence of variables (as opposed to univariate factors) may be necessary to understand how deviant workplace acts unfold. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how men and women are differentially perceived when they are bullied at work, and whether the existence of a civility policy makes a positive difference. Specifically, the following studies explore whether women who violate gender norms are viewed as more responsible when bullied (as compared to men), and if aggressors are considered less justified when organizations have institutionalized anti-bullying measures. The researchers suspect there are undercurrents of enhanced responsibility (and perhaps a lack of perceived collegiality) when a woman defends herself in a bullying scenario. The researchers also speculate that a civility policy can impact the way individuals process situations. Perceived levels of target collegiality and responsibility, rater hostile sexism, and bully justification (and their interaction with target gender, reaction, rater sex, and rater race) are analyzed under conditions where a civility policy is and is not present. This study examines the interaction of these variables to extrapolate information for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW The Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) defines bullying as "repeated, health harming abusive conduct committed by bosses and co-workers" which can include "sabotage by others that prevent[s] work from getting done, verbal abuse, threatening conduct, intimidation, and humiliation" (WBI, 2011: "What is Workplace Bullying?"). The preponderance of bullying behavior is the result of non-physical assault (Salin, 2003), such as verbal and psychological attack. These assaults can include shouting, mobbing (the infliction of abuse from a group directed toward a single individual), insults delivered in an audience setting, ostracism, blowing things out of proportion, wielding power in a manner designed to put people in their place (e.g., officiousness), misplaced blame, disrespectful discourse, and using positional power to leverage work-related credit. Bullying is not an across-the-board workplace phenomenon, but is pinpointed toward certain individuals (Salin, 2003). The majority of bullied persons are either subordinate in rank (by 71%) or are direct reports (Namie, 2003). Workplace Bullying: Gender and Race The social construction of gender affects the frequency, duration, and type of bullying that women experience. …
In this study, we develop a theory of Monetary Intelligence, and explore satisfaction with pay an... more In this study, we develop a theory of Monetary Intelligence, and explore satisfaction with pay and life from the virtuous money smart perspective: In order to enjoy high pay satisfaction and life s...
The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five perce... more The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five percent of the workforce reporting psychological and/or physical abuse (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2011). Websites, public forums, and media scrutiny have made bullying an everyday topic. Correspondingly, there has been renewed attention in academic studies on this increasing form of interpersonal violence. Much of bullying research has focused on: (1) a description of the phenomenon and its widespread impact; (2) perpetrator and target characteristics; (3) outcomes such as stress and somatic complaints; and (4) the aftermath on firms (Namie, 2003; Rayner and Hoel, 1997; Salin, 2003). Untangling the causes and consequences of adult bullying can be complex because according to Rayner and Hoel (1997: 188): "The breadth of the phenomenon encompasses many different forms of behavior ..." More than half of targets in workplace bullying cases are women (WBI, 2011). A potential explanation is that stereotypes regarding their behavior (in some cases) remain stubborn (Duehr and Bono, 2006). Moreover, when women display incongruent role behaviors they may be punished (Berdahl, 2007; Eagly and Sczesny, 2009). However, the research lacks in describing what may happen when women attempt to defend themselves from a bullying attack, and, if any form of organizational intervention can improve the situation. As Rayner and Hoel (1997) have alluded, studying a confluence of variables (as opposed to univariate factors) may be necessary to understand how deviant workplace acts unfold. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how men and women are differentially perceived when they are bullied at work, and whether the existence of a civility policy makes a positive difference. Specifically, the following studies explore whether women who violate gender norms are viewed as more responsible when bullied (as compared to men), and if aggressors are considered less justified when organizations have institutionalized anti-bullying measures. The researchers suspect there are undercurrents of enhanced responsibility (and perhaps a lack of perceived collegiality) when a woman defends herself in a bullying scenario. The researchers also speculate that a civility policy can impact the way individuals process situations. Perceived levels of target collegiality and responsibility, rater hostile sexism, and bully justification (and their interaction with target gender, reaction, rater sex, and rater race) are analyzed under conditions where a civility policy is and is not present. This study examines the interaction of these variables to extrapolate information for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW The Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) defines bullying as "repeated, health harming abusive conduct committed by bosses and co-workers" which can include "sabotage by others that prevent[s] work from getting done, verbal abuse, threatening conduct, intimidation, and humiliation" (WBI, 2011: "What is Workplace Bullying?"). The preponderance of bullying behavior is the result of non-physical assault (Salin, 2003), such as verbal and psychological attack. These assaults can include shouting, mobbing (the infliction of abuse from a group directed toward a single individual), insults delivered in an audience setting, ostracism, blowing things out of proportion, wielding power in a manner designed to put people in their place (e.g., officiousness), misplaced blame, disrespectful discourse, and using positional power to leverage work-related credit. Bullying is not an across-the-board workplace phenomenon, but is pinpointed toward certain individuals (Salin, 2003). The majority of bullied persons are either subordinate in rank (by 71%) or are direct reports (Namie, 2003). Workplace Bullying: Gender and Race The social construction of gender affects the frequency, duration, and type of bullying that women experience. …
PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to attempt to use several variables measured at Time 1 to pre... more PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to attempt to use several variables measured at Time 1 to predict cluster membership (bad apples vs good apples) measured at Time 2 and investigate possible differences between business and psychology students in unethical behavior.Design/methodology/approachBusiness and psychology students' propensity to engage in unethical behavior (PUB), the love of money, machiavellianism, and risk tolerance at Time 1 and propensity to engage in unethical behavior at Time 2 (four weeks later) were measured. Cluster analysis was used to analyze Time 2 data and bad apples (Cluster 1, high propensity to engage in unethical behavior) and good apples (Cluster 2, low propensity to engage in unethical behavior) were identified. Then all the variables measured at Time 1 were used to predict cluster membership (bad apples vs good apples) measured at Time 2.FindingsIn three discriminant analyses, it was found that variables at Time 1 predicted cluster membership at Time 2 for the whole sample and the business sample, but not for the psychology sample. The differences between bad apples and good apples were significant for business students, but not significant for psychology students. Correlation data showed that the love of money was significantly correlated with machiavellianism and risk tolerance.Research limitations/implicationsStudents are not assigned randomly to business and psychology courses. Students' behavioral intention, not actual unethical behavior, is measured here. Can professors change people's love of money, machiavellianism, risk tolerance, and the propensity to engage in unethical behavior and enhance students' and future managers' ethical decision making? This issue deserves critical attention in future research.Practical implicationsIt is plausible that corruptions and scandals are caused not by lack of intelligence, but by lack of wisdom, or virtue. Professors and researchers may have to focus on ethics training, in general, and the bad apples in bad (business) barrels (mostly male business students), in particular, identify the most critical time and methods in teaching business ethics, enhance learning based on students' own experiences, and promote ethical values in schools, universities, and organizations.Originality/valueThis research shows the importance of incorporating propensity to engage in unethical behavior (PUB), the love of money, machiavellianism, and risk tolerance in identifying bad apples vs good apples across majors.
Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility
Corruption involves greed, money, and risky decision-making. We explore the love of money, pay sa... more Corruption involves greed, money, and risky decision-making. We explore the love of money, pay satisfaction, probability of risk, and dishonesty across cultures. Avaricious monetary aspiration breeds unethicality. Prospect theory frames decisions in the gains-losses domain and high-low probability. Pay dissatisfaction (in the losses domain) incites dishonesty in the name of justice at the individual level. The Corruption Perceptions Index, CPI, signals a high-low probability of getting caught for dishonesty at the country level. We theorize that decision-makers adopt avaricious love-of-money aspiration as a lens and frame dishonesty in the gains-losses domain (pay satisfaction-dissatisfaction, Level 1) and high-low probability (CPI, Level 2) to maximize expected utility and ultimate serenity. We challenge the myth: Pay satisfaction mitigates dishonesty across nations consistently. Based on 6500 managers in 32 countries, our cross-level three-dimensional visualization offers the following discoveries. Under high aspiration conditions, pay dissatisfaction excites the highest- (third-highest) avaricious justice-seeking dishonesty in high (medium) CPI nations, supporting the certainty effect. However, pay satisfaction provokes the second-highest avaricious opportunity-seizing dishonesty in low CPI entities, sustaining the possibility effect—maximizing expected utility. Under low aspiration conditions, high pay satisfaction consistently leads to low dishonesty, demonstrating risk aversion—achieving ultimate serenity. We expand prospect theory from a micro and individual-level theory to a cross-level theory of monetary wisdom across 32 nations. We enhance the S-shaped Curve to three 3-D corruption surfaces across three levels of the global economic pyramid, providing novel insights into behavioral economics, business ethics, the environment, and responsibility.
International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 2016
Background University students’ substance abuse and risky sex contribute to sexually transmitted ... more Background University students’ substance abuse and risky sex contribute to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Purpose We develop and empirically test a formative theoretical model of sexual temptation involving substance abuse (cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana), safe sexual behavior (use of condom/barrier for oral and vaginal intercourse), risky sexual behavior (unprotected sex and multiple sexual partners), and STDs: gonorrhea, HIV, and genital herpes. We simultaneously explore these constructs, controlling membership in social groups (fraternity/sorority, varsity athlete, and club sports) and perceived norm of substance abuse. Methods A total of 687 American university students completed the National College Health Assessment (NCHA). We use structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the goodness of fit between our formative theoretical model and actual data. Results Results reveal the following discoveries: membership in campus social groups is positively associated with STD...
The purpose of the present study was to conceptualize maladaptive forms of sport perfectionism by... more The purpose of the present study was to conceptualize maladaptive forms of sport perfectionism by determining the factors (and items within each factor) that best describe this construct among skilled male and female athletes. The sample consisted of 217 undergraduate student athletes ranging in age from 19 to 33 years. A theory-driven four-factor, 18-item Likert-type scale, called the Sport Perfectionism Inventory (SPI), was generated for this study. The factors, each reflecting maladaptive perfectionism to an excessive degree, included the following: concern over mistakes (CM), self-criticism (SC), personal standards (PS), and negative feedback (NF). Results showed that the items were generalizable for both genders, and all correlations between factors in the scale were significant. It was concluded that these dimensions depicted maladaptive sport perfectionism as a function of gender.
The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five perce... more The experience of office bullying appears to be commonplace, with approximately thirty-five percent of the workforce reporting psychological and/or physical abuse (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2011). Websites, public forums, and media scrutiny have made bullying an everyday topic. Correspondingly, there has been renewed attention in academic studies on this increasing form of interpersonal violence. Much of bullying research has focused on: (1) a description of the phenomenon and its widespread impact; (2) perpetrator and target characteristics; (3) outcomes such as stress and somatic complaints; and (4) the aftermath on firms (Namie, 2003; Rayner and Hoel, 1997; Salin, 2003). Untangling the causes and consequences of adult bullying can be complex because according to Rayner and Hoel (1997: 188): "The breadth of the phenomenon encompasses many different forms of behavior ..." More than half of targets in workplace bullying cases are women (WBI, 2011). A potential explanation is that stereotypes regarding their behavior (in some cases) remain stubborn (Duehr and Bono, 2006). Moreover, when women display incongruent role behaviors they may be punished (Berdahl, 2007; Eagly and Sczesny, 2009). However, the research lacks in describing what may happen when women attempt to defend themselves from a bullying attack, and, if any form of organizational intervention can improve the situation. As Rayner and Hoel (1997) have alluded, studying a confluence of variables (as opposed to univariate factors) may be necessary to understand how deviant workplace acts unfold. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how men and women are differentially perceived when they are bullied at work, and whether the existence of a civility policy makes a positive difference. Specifically, the following studies explore whether women who violate gender norms are viewed as more responsible when bullied (as compared to men), and if aggressors are considered less justified when organizations have institutionalized anti-bullying measures. The researchers suspect there are undercurrents of enhanced responsibility (and perhaps a lack of perceived collegiality) when a woman defends herself in a bullying scenario. The researchers also speculate that a civility policy can impact the way individuals process situations. Perceived levels of target collegiality and responsibility, rater hostile sexism, and bully justification (and their interaction with target gender, reaction, rater sex, and rater race) are analyzed under conditions where a civility policy is and is not present. This study examines the interaction of these variables to extrapolate information for future research. LITERATURE REVIEW The Workplace Bullying Institute (WBI) defines bullying as "repeated, health harming abusive conduct committed by bosses and co-workers" which can include "sabotage by others that prevent[s] work from getting done, verbal abuse, threatening conduct, intimidation, and humiliation" (WBI, 2011: "What is Workplace Bullying?"). The preponderance of bullying behavior is the result of non-physical assault (Salin, 2003), such as verbal and psychological attack. These assaults can include shouting, mobbing (the infliction of abuse from a group directed toward a single individual), insults delivered in an audience setting, ostracism, blowing things out of proportion, wielding power in a manner designed to put people in their place (e.g., officiousness), misplaced blame, disrespectful discourse, and using positional power to leverage work-related credit. Bullying is not an across-the-board workplace phenomenon, but is pinpointed toward certain individuals (Salin, 2003). The majority of bullied persons are either subordinate in rank (by 71%) or are direct reports (Namie, 2003). Workplace Bullying: Gender and Race The social construction of gender affects the frequency, duration, and type of bullying that women experience. …
In this study, we develop a theory of Monetary Intelligence, and explore satisfaction with pay an... more In this study, we develop a theory of Monetary Intelligence, and explore satisfaction with pay and life from the virtuous money smart perspective: In order to enjoy high pay satisfaction and life s...
Uploads
Papers by Toto Sutarso