Spatial, Phenological, and Inter-Annual Variations of Gross Primary Productivity in the Arctic from 2001 to 2019
"> Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Location of the FLUXNET sites used in this study. The description of these sites is provided in <a href="#remotesensing-13-02875-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>. The base map is the land cover types of the Arctic. (<b>b</b>) The elevation distribution of the Arctic.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Time series comparison between site-based GPP and MOD17A2H over wetland sites, (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) refers to FI_Lom, GL_NuF, US_Atq, RU_Che, GL_ZaF, US_Ivo and SJ_Adv, respectively.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Scatter plots of site-based GPP against MOD17A2H over different wetland sites (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) and the overall scatter plots by combining all wetland sites (<b>h</b>). Flux tower GPP means in situ GPP. The gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Time series comparison between site-based GPP and MOD17A2H over forest sites, (<b>a</b>) and (<b>b</b>) refers to FI_Sod and US_Prr.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Scatter plots of site-based GPP against MOD17A2H over different forest sites (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>), and the overall scatter plots by combining all forest sites (<b>c</b>). Flux tower GPP means in situ GPP. Gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Time series comparison between site-based GPP and MOD17A2H over grasslands (<b>a</b>), shrublands (<b>b</b>), and permanent snow and ice (<b>c</b>) sites.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Scatter plots of site-based GPP against MOD17A2H over grasslands (<b>a</b>), shrublands (<b>b</b>), permanent snow and ice (<b>c</b>) sites. Flux tower GPP means in situ GPP. Gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>The overall scatterplots of in situ based GPP against MOD17A2H. Flux tower GPP means in situ GPP. Gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>The DOY comparison of the timing of the maximum GPP between the sites and MOD17A2H. (<b>a</b>–<b>e</b>) Represent permanent wetlands, forests, grasslands, shrublands, and all sites combined, respectively. The gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>The spatial distribution characteristics of annual-maximum (<b>a</b>) and annual-averaged GPP (<b>b</b>) over the Arctic. Units of GPP are g C m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup>.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>The annual-averaged GPP distribution with latitude (<b>a</b>) and elevation (m) (<b>b</b>) for the whole Arctic. The gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%, the blue line refers to the fit line, and the boxplots denote the distribution of the annual-averaged GPP with the latitude. (<b>c</b>) The annual-averaged GPP distribution for the entire study period 2001–2019 over different land cover types. FOR, SHR, SAV, GRA, WET, SNO, BAR, and WAT denote the forests, shrublands, savannas, grasslands, permanent wetlands, permanent snow and ice, barren, and water bodies, respectively.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Spatial distribution characteristics of the multiyear averaged monthly GPP over the Arctic, (<b>a</b>–<b>l</b>) refers to January to December. The mean values of the whole Arctic are also shown in the figure for each month. Units of GPP are g C m<sup>−2</sup> d<sup>−1</sup>.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Multiyear averaged monthly GPP distribution over the entire study period for different land cover types (denoted by colored lines) over the Arctic. The black boxplots denote the multiyear monthly GPP distribution of all land cover types.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>The spatial distribution of interannual trend of GPP (g C m<sup>−2</sup> year<sup>−1</sup>) over the Arctic (at 97.5% confidence level based on MK test).</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Spatial distribution of the interannual variation trend (g C m<sup>−2</sup> year<sup>−1</sup>) of monthly GPP over the Arctic, (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>) refers to April to October.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Interannual variation trend of GPP (g C m<sup>−2</sup> year<sup>−1</sup>) distribution with latitude (<b>a</b>), elevation (m) (<b>b</b>) over the Arctic. The gray belt refers to the confidence interval of 95%, the blue line refers to the fit line, and the boxplots denote the distribution of the annual-averaged GPP with the latitude. (<b>c</b>) Land cover-dependent interannual variation trend of GPP (g C m<sup>−2</sup> year<sup>−1</sup>) over the Arctic. FOR, SHR, SAV, GRA, WET, SNO, and BAR denote the forests, shrublands, savannas, grasslands, permanent wetlands, permanent snow and ice, barren, and water bodies, respectively.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area and Experimental Data
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.2.1. FLUXNET Data
2.2.2. Satellite Data
2.2.3. Land Cover
2.2.4. DEM (Digital Elevation Model)
3. Methods
3.1. Accuracy Assessment
3.2. Comparison of Phenological Patterns between In Situ and MOD17A2H
3.3. The Spatial Distribution Characteristics Identification and Trend Detection
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Validation MOD17A2H Based on In Situ
4.2. Evaluation of the Phenological Characteristics of MOD17A2H
4.3. Spatial Distribution Characteristics
4.3.1. Spatial Distribution of Annual-Averaged GPP
4.3.2. Variation of Monthly GPP
4.4. Trend Estimates of GPP
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site_ID | Site_Name | Country | Latitude (° N) | Longitude (° E) | Land Cover | N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FI-Lom | Lompolojankka | Finland | 67.9972 | 24.2092 | WET | 71 |
GL-NuF | Nuuk Fen | Greenland | 64.1308 | −251.3861 | WET | 105 |
GL-ZaF | Zackenberg Fen | Greenland | 74.4814 | −20.5545 | WET | 42 |
RU-Che | Cherski | Russia | 68.6130 | 161.3414 | WET | 33 |
SJ-Adv | Adventdalen | Svalbard and Jan Mayen | 78.1860 | 15.9230 | WET | 23 |
US-Atq | Atqasuk | USA | 70.4696 | −157.4089 | WET | 88 |
US-Ivo | Ivotuk | USA | 68.4865 | −155.7503 | WET | 68 |
FI-Sod | Sodankyla | Finland | 67.3624 | 26.6386 | ENF | 371 |
US-Prr | Poker Flat Research Range Black Spruce Forest | USA | 65.1237 | −147.4876 | ENF | 98 |
GL-ZaH | Zackenberg Heath | Greenland | 74.4733 | −20.5503 | GRA | 137 |
RU-Cok | Chokurdakh | Russia | 70.8291 | 147.4943 | OSH | 107 |
SJ-Blv | Bayelva, Spitsbergen | Svalbard and Jan Mayen | 78.9217 | 11.8311 | SNO | 13 |
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Ma, D.; Wu, X.; Ma, X.; Wang, J.; Lin, X.; Mu, C. Spatial, Phenological, and Inter-Annual Variations of Gross Primary Productivity in the Arctic from 2001 to 2019. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13152875
Ma D, Wu X, Ma X, Wang J, Lin X, Mu C. Spatial, Phenological, and Inter-Annual Variations of Gross Primary Productivity in the Arctic from 2001 to 2019. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(15):2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13152875
Chicago/Turabian StyleMa, Dujuan, Xiaodan Wu, Xuanlong Ma, Jingping Wang, Xingwen Lin, and Cuicui Mu. 2021. "Spatial, Phenological, and Inter-Annual Variations of Gross Primary Productivity in the Arctic from 2001 to 2019" Remote Sensing 13, no. 15: 2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13152875