Reconstruction of the Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment Dating Back to the Han and Tang Dynasties Surrounding the Yangguan Frontier Pass Using X- and L-Band SAR Data
"> Figure 1
<p>Location of the Nanhu oasis study area is outlined by the red rectangle. The study area is located in the town of Yangguan in the Gansu Province in China (the rectangular box in the upper left part), stretches west to the Dang River alluvial fan, and is surrounded by the Yangguan National Nature Reserve and the Dunhuang West Lake National Nature Reserve, with the famous heritage sites of the Ancient Silk Road and the Han Dynasty beacon towers.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Distribution of the SAR images in the study area. Six frames of PALSAR-1 archived time-series data (rectangle with solid red outline) and two frames of TSX/TDX data (rectangles with dotted red line) covering the entire Nanhu oasis study area (black rectangular frame with faint lines).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Flowchart of the three main steps: data preprocessing, microrelief analysis and feature extraction, and reconstruction of the water cultivation paleoenvironment. The orange parallelograms, green parallelograms and yellow parallelograms represent the outcomes of the three processing steps.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Classification approach and resulting classes based on the intensity feature image and the coherence coefficient (CC) information. A CC value of 0.25 is the threshold used to obtain the first classification, followed by the MLC to obtain the second classification and the final six classes including red willow (class 1), reeds & splendid achnatherum (class 2), currently cultivated lands (class 3), water & wetland (class 4), sand dunes (class 5) and Gobi (class 6). The field photos and the labels in the Gaofen-2 images and the intensity feature images for the different classes are shown.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Watershed and drainage network extracted based on the 30-m SRTM DEM. (<b>b</b>) Watershed and drainage network extracted using the 5-m TDX DEM.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Dried-up watercourse of the Wulujian and the suspected location of West Shouchang City of the Tang Dynasty. (<b>a</b>) Extracted drainage network overlaid on the Gaofen-2 image; (<b>b</b>) extracted drainage network overlaid on the shaded relief model.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Extracted dried-up watercourse of the source of Shangbanao Spring and a field photo of the upstream area. (<b>a</b>) The extracted drainage network overlaid on the shaded relief model; (<b>b</b>) the extracted drainage network overlaid on the Gaofen-2 image; (<b>c</b>) traces of the river flow with red willows on the Gaofen-2 image; (<b>d</b>) field photo of red willows and reeds at the star location in (<b>c</b>).</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Upstream dried-up watercourses of the Shagou and Honggou located in the assumed range of the Daze during the Tang Dynasty. (<b>a</b>) Location of the dried-up watercourses on the Landsat 8 OLI image; (<b>b</b>) shaded relief model of the dried-up watercourses Shagou and Honggou.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Soil profiles of two sample locations in the alluvial fan; both locations exhibit cross-sectional features shaped like the letter “V” approximately 20 cm below the surface with clear sand and gravel layers. (<b>a</b>) Field photo of sample location 1 in the Gobi near the Shuangdunzi; (<b>b</b>) field photo of sample location 2 near the Huangshuiba Reservoir.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Destroyed dam on the Honggou and a 10-m-wide abandoned road found during the field investigation. (<b>a</b>) Field photo of the destroyed dam across the dried-up watercourses; (<b>b</b>) field photo of the abandoned road discovered near the dried-up watercourses.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Feature extraction using multi-temporal PALSAR-1 images. (<b>a</b>) Intensity feature composite images; (<b>b</b>) D-InSAR interferogram with a CC value greater than 0.25; (<b>c</b>) classification results.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>The correlation between arid land vegetation and the groundwater level. As a depth to the groundwater of less than 2 m, phreatophytes including reeds and splendid achnatherum are the dominant plants; at a depth between 2 m and 10 m, psammophytes are the dominant plants; at a depth greater than 10 m, few plants are found [<a href="#B41-remotesensing-10-01536" class="html-bibr">41</a>].</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Images and field photos of abandoned channels located in area 1 of East Gudongtan. (<b>a</b>) The abandoned channels on the classified images; (<b>b</b>) the channels on the Gaofen-2 image; (<b>c</b>) photo of one of the abandoned channels.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>(<b>a</b>) The location of target 3 with the assumed Great Wall trench and beacon towers overlaid on the composite results; (<b>b</b>) the location of target 3 and the abandoned channels, ridges, and a newly discovered beacon tower; (<b>c</b>) field photos of the abandoned channels and ridges; (<b>d</b>) a farmhouse located in area 3.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>(<b>a</b>) Reconstruction of the water cultivation paleoenvironment of the Han and Tang dynasties; (<b>b</b>) water cultivation distribution of the Nanhu oasis in the Yangguan-Yumen frontier pass area; (<b>c</b>) magnified view of the area outlined in red in (<b>a</b>).</p> "> Figure 16
<p>(<b>a</b>) New wetland area extracted using PALSAR-1 data. (<b>b</b>) New wetland area overlaid on the Landsat 8 OLI image.</p> "> Figure 17
<p>(<b>a</b>) Cultivated areas recorded by Stein in the 1910s; (<b>b</b>) cultivated areas in the 1970s extracted from Key Hole (KH) satellite images; (<b>c</b>) currently cultivated areas extracted from PALSAR-1 data.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area, Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Materials
2.2.1. Spaceborne SAR Data
2.2.2. Reference Visible/Infrared (VIR) Data
2.2.3. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Data
2.3. Method
2.3.1. Data Preprocessing
2.3.2. Microrelief Analysis and Feature Extraction
2.3.3. Field Investigation and Reconstruction of the Han and Tang Dynasties Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment
3. Results and Fieldwork Verification
3.1. Ancient Water Distribution Based on the TDX DEM
3.1.1. Watershed Analysis and Drainage Network Extraction Based on the TDX DEM
3.1.2. Dried-Up Watercourse Extraction Based on the TDX DEM and Field Investigation
3.2. Cultivated Land Extraction with PALSAR-1
3.2.1. Information Extraction with PALSAR-1
3.2.2. Arid Land Vegetation Analysis and Estimation of the Potential Ancient Arable Range
3.3. Reconstruction of the Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment Dating Back to the Han and Tang Dynasties
4. Discussion
4.1. Evolution of the Water Environment
4.2. Evolution of the Cultivated Areas
- Farmland in East Gudongtan. Through field investigation and extraction of the target area with the SAR data, it was determined that the water sources of this area originated from the Daze and Changzhiqu, which delivered water from the Wowashui. Pottery tiles and discarded channels with reeds were found approximately 500 m away from the Nanhu oasis, supporting the hypothesis that the ancient cultivated areas date back to at least the Tang Dynasty.
- The downstream areas of Wulujian (Xitugou). Through PALSAR-1 target extraction and field verification, a beacon tower, several discarded channels, farming ridges, and a farmhouse were identified in this area, supporting Stein’s conclusions that irrigated farmland was likely located approximately 300 km downstream of the area north of Dundun Hill [43]. All the results support that prior to the Ming Dynasty, even the Han and Tang dynasties, the water levels could have met the irrigation needs of this site.
4.3. Comparison of Current and Ancient Cultivated Areas
4.4. Protection of the Water Cultivation Environment of the Nanhu Oasis
5. Conclusions
- The proposed workflow of archaeological water cultivation information extraction with the X-band and L-band spaceborne SAR data was successfully applied to the Nanhu oasis. A 5-m DEM was generated from the X-band TSX/TDX data and used for the microrelief analyses. Using a watershed analysis and drainage network extraction, the dried-up watercourses were detected and precisely described and the upstream area of the Daze range was located. Furthermore, by exploiting the correlation between the groundwater level and the arid land vegetation, especially the reeds and splendid achnatherum, and the hydrological sensitivity of the multi-temporal L-band SAR, we estimated the potential ancient arable target area for the archaeological survey using both the backscattering and coherence characteristics of PALSAR-1 data.
- An archaeological investigation of the target area was conducted to verify the results of the method, which led to the discovery of a beacon tower, several dried-up paleochannels and ditches, and farmland. The dried-up paleochannels included the westward ancient dried-up watercourse of the Wulujian, the source of Shangbanao Spring, and the upstream area of the Daze range (a wetland area during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.)). Large-scale ditches were found in East Gudongtan and the downstream area of the Xitugou. These findings are helpful for further archaeological interpretation and archaeological validation.
- Subsequently, a reconstruction map of the water cultivation paleoenvironment of the Nanhu oasis was generated. Combined with historical material, the evolution of the watercourses and cultivated areas dating back to the Han and Tang dynasties was discussed. From the Han to Tang dynasties, the verified arable area in the Nanhu oasis was nearly twice that of the current area. The analysis of the degradation of the irrigated areas indicates that the restriction of the use of groundwater and wetland conservation is important for the protection of the water cultivation environment of the Nanhu oasis.
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Types | Name in the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.–220 A.D.) | Name in the Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.) | Current Name |
---|---|---|---|
River | Dizhishui | Ganquanshui | Dang River |
River | Nanjiduanshui | Dulihe | Shule River |
Wetland | - | Quze | Yushu Spring Base |
Lake | Wowashui | Shouchangze | Near Daquan Spring |
Lake | Puchanghai | Puchanghai | Luoupo |
Wetland | - | Daze | - |
Wetland | - | Longquandui | - |
Channel | Daqu | Daqu | Part of Dagou |
Channel | Changzhiqu | Changzhiqu | - |
Stream | - | Shanshuigou | Shanshuigou |
Stream | Shimenjian | Shimenjian | - |
Stream | Wulujian | Wulujian | Xitugou |
Place Name | Ebotou Spring | Ebotou Spring | Ebotou Spring |
Place Name | Shangbanao | Shangbanao | Shangbanao |
Place Name | Longle County | Choushang City | Pochengzi |
Place Name | Dunhuang Jun | Shazhou City | Dunhuang |
Place Name | - | West Shouchang City | - |
Mountain | Longmen | Shimen | Dundun |
Mountain | Longle | Longle | Altun |
Mountain | - | Shashan | Shashan |
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Zhu, X.; Chen, F.; Guo, H. Reconstruction of the Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment Dating Back to the Han and Tang Dynasties Surrounding the Yangguan Frontier Pass Using X- and L-Band SAR Data. Remote Sens. 2018, 10, 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101536
Zhu X, Chen F, Guo H. Reconstruction of the Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment Dating Back to the Han and Tang Dynasties Surrounding the Yangguan Frontier Pass Using X- and L-Band SAR Data. Remote Sensing. 2018; 10(10):1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101536
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhu, Xiaokun, Fulong Chen, and Huadong Guo. 2018. "Reconstruction of the Water Cultivation Paleoenvironment Dating Back to the Han and Tang Dynasties Surrounding the Yangguan Frontier Pass Using X- and L-Band SAR Data" Remote Sensing 10, no. 10: 1536. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101536