Qatar

Antiquity

Human habitation in Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago.^[40] Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula.^[40] Mesopotamian artifacts originating from the Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC) have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements.^[41] Al Da'asa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment.^[42][43] The polity of Dilmun, which is attested to in sources from the 3rd millennium BC onwards, is said to have encompassed Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and the eastern portion of Saudi Arabia.^[44]Some historians have theorized that the Sumerians may have originated from this region.^[45][46][47]

Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain.^[48] Among the findings were crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds.^[42] It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, owing to a Kassite purple dye industry which existed on the coast.^[41][49]

In 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf.^[50] Qatar played a role in the commercial activity of the Sasanids, contributing at least two commodities: precious pearls and purple dye.^[51] Under the Sasanid reign, many of the inhabitants in eastern Arabia were introduced to Christianity following the eastward dispersal of the religion by Mesopotamian Christians.^[52] Monasteries were constructed and further settlements were founded during this era.^[53][54] During the latter part of the Christian era, Qatar comprised a region known as 'Beth Qatraye' (Syriac for "house of the Qataris").^[55] The region was not limited to Qatar; it also included Bahrain, Tarout Island, Al-Khatt, and Al-Hasa.^[56]

In 628, the Islamic prophet Muhammad sent a Muslim envoy to a ruler in eastern Arabia named Munzir ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi and requested that he and his subjects accept Islam. Munzir obliged his request, and accordingly most of the Arab tribes in the region converted to Islam.^[57] In the middle of the century, the Muslim conquest of Persia resulted in the fall of the Sasanian Empire.^[58]

Early and late Islamic period (661–1783)

Qatar was described as a famous horse and camel breeding centre during the Umayyad period.^[59] In the 8th century, it started benefiting from its commercially strategic position in the Persian Gulf and went on to become a centre of pearl trading.^[60][61] Substantial development in the pearling industry around the Qatari Peninsula occurred during the Abbasid era.^[59] Ships voyaging from Basra to India and China would make stops in Qatar's ports during this period. Chinese porcelain, West African coins, and artefacts from Thailand have been discovered in Qatar.^[58] Archaeological remains from the 9th century suggest that Qatar's inhabitants used greater wealth to construct higher quality homes and public buildings. Over 100 stone-built houses, two mosques, and an Abbasid fort were constructed in Murwab during this period.^[62][63] When the caliphate's prosperity declined in Iraq, so too did it in Qatar.^[64] Qatar is mentioned in 13th-century Muslim scholar Yaqut al-Hamawi's book, Mu'jam Al-Buldan, which alludes to the Qataris' fine striped woven cloaks and their skills in improvement and finishing of spears.^[65]

Much of eastern Arabia was controlled by the Usfurids in 1253, but control of the region was seized by the prince of Ormus in 1320.^[66] Qatar's pearls provided the kingdom with one of its main sources of income.^[67] In 1515, Manuel I of Portugal vassalised the Kingdom of Ormus. Portugal went on to seize a significant portion of eastern Arabia in 1521.^[67][68] In 1550, the inhabitants of Al-Hasa voluntarily submitted to the rule of the Ottomans, preferring them to the Portuguese.^[69]

Portuguese era

After the fall of the Jabrid Dynasty with the conquest of Bahrain by the Portuguese, the Arabian coast up to Al Hassa came under the rule and influence of the Portuguese empire. Attempts by the Ottomans to dominate the region were eliminated with the reconquest of the castle of Tarout^[70] or Al Qatif in 1551.

Archaeological finds are still being excavated from one of the Portuguese fortresses that served as a base to dominate the region as Ruwayda.^[71] The first representation of Qatar appears on the Portuguese map by Luis Lázaro in 1563, showing the "city of Qatar" as a fortress, possibly referring to the fort of Ruwayda.^[72] Having retained a negligible military presence in the area, the Ottomans were expelled by the Bani Khalid tribe and their emirate in 1670.^[73]

Bahraini and Saudi rule (1783–1868)

In 1766, members of the Al Khalifa family of the Utub tribal confederation migrated from Kuwait to Zubarah in Qatar.^[74][75] By the time of their arrival, the Bani Khalid exercised weak authority over the peninsula, notwithstanding the fact that the largest village was ruled by their distant kin.^[76] In 1783, Qatar-based Bani Utbah clans and allied Arab tribes invaded and annexed Bahrain from the Persians. The Al Khalifa imposed their authority over Bahrain and retained their jurisdiction over Zubarah.^[74]

Following his swearing-in as crown prince of the Wahhabi in 1788, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz moved to expand Wahhabi territory eastward towards the Persian Gulf and Qatar. After defeating the Bani Khalid in 1795, the Wahhabi were attacked on two fronts. The Ottomans and Egyptians assaulted the western front, while the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Omanis launched an attack against the eastern front.^[77][78] Upon being made aware of the Egyptian advance on the western frontier in 1811, the Wahhabi amir reduced his garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah in order to redeploy his troops. Said bin Sultan, ruler of Muscat, capitalised on this opportunity and raided the Wahhabi garrisons on the eastern coast, setting fire to the fort in Zubarah. The Al Khalifa was effectively returned to power thereafter.^[78]

As punishment for piracy, an East India Company vessel bombarded Doha in 1821, destroying the town and forcing hundreds of residents to flee. In 1825, the House of Thani was established with Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani as the first leader.^[79]

Although Qatar was considered a dependency of Bahrain, the Al Khalifa faced opposition from the local tribes. In 1867, the Al Khalifa, along with the ruler of Abu Dhabi, sent a massive naval force to Al Wakrah in an effort to crush the Qatari rebels. This resulted in the maritime Qatari–Bahraini War of 1867–68, in which Bahraini and Abu Dhabi forces sacked and looted Doha and Al Wakrah.^[80] The Bahraini hostilities were in violation of the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship of 1861. The joint incursion, in addition to the Qatari counter-attack, prompted British Political Resident, Colonel Lewis Pelly to impose a settlement in 1868. His mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the resulting peace treaty were milestones because they implicitly recognised the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of Mohammed bin Thani. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, Pelly negotiated with Qatari sheikhs who were represented by Mohammed bin Thani.^[81] The negotiations were the first stage in the development of Qatar as a sheikhdom.^[82]

Ottoman period (1871–1915)

Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871.^[83] The Ottoman government imposed reformist (Tanzimat) measures concerning taxation and land registration to fully integrate these areas into the empire.^[83] Despite the disapproval of local tribes, Al Thani continued supporting the Ottoman rule. Qatari-Ottoman relations stagnated, and in 1882 they suffered further setbacks when the Ottomans refused to aid Al Thani in his expedition of Abu Dhabi-occupied Khor Al Adaid and offered only limited support in the Qatari–Abu Dhabi War, mainly due to fear of British intervention on Abu Dhabi's side.^[84] In addition, the Ottomans supported the Ottoman subject Mohammed bin Abdul Wahab who attempted to supplant Al Thani as kaymakam of Qatar in 1888.^[85] This eventually led Al Thani to rebel against the Ottomans, whom he believed were seeking to usurp control of the peninsula. He resigned as kaymakam and stopped paying taxes in August 1892.^[86]

In February 1893, Mehmed Hafiz Pasha arrived in Qatar in the interests of seeking unpaid taxes and accosting Jassim bin Mohammed's opposition to proposed Ottoman administrative reforms. Fearing that he would face death or imprisonment, Jassim retreated to Al Wajbah (16 km or 10 mi west of Doha), accompanied by several tribe members. Mehmed's demand that Jassim disband his troops and pledge his loyalty to the Ottomans was met with refusal. In March, Mehmed imprisoned Jassim's brother and 13 prominent Qatari tribal leaders on the Ottoman corvette Merrikh as punishment for his insubordination. After Mehmed declined an offer to release the captives for a fee of 10,000 liras, he ordered a column of approximately 200 troops to advance towards Jassim's Al Wajbah Fort under the command of Yusuf Effendi, thus signalling the start of the Battle of Al Wajbah.^[58]

Effendi's troops came under heavy gunfire by a sizable troop of Qatari infantry and cavalry shortly after arriving at Al Wajbah. They retreated to Shebaka fortress where they were again forced to draw back from a Qatari incursion. After they withdrew to Al Bidda fortress, Jassim's advancing column besieged the fortress, resulting in the Ottomans' concession of defeat and agreement to relinquish their captives in return for the safe passage of Mehmed Pasha's cavalry to Hofuf by land.^[87] Although Qatar did not gain full independence from the Ottoman Empire, the result of the battle forced a treaty that would later form the basis of Qatar's emerging as an autonomous country within the empire.^[88]

British period (1916–1971)

By the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the Ottomans agreed to renounce their claim to Qatar and withdraw their garrison from Doha. However, with the outbreak of World War I, nothing was done to carry this out, and the garrison remained in the fort at Doha, although its numbers dwindled as men deserted. In 1915, with the presence of British gunboats in the harbour, Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani (who was pro-British) persuaded the remainder to abandon the fort, and when British troops approached the following morning they found it deserted.^[89][90]

Qatar became a British protectorate on 3 November 1916^[91] when the United Kingdom signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani to bring Qatar under its Trucial System of Administration. The treaty reserved foreign affairs and defence to the United Kingdom but allowed internal autonomy. While Abdullah agreed not to enter into any relations with any other power without the prior consent of the British government, the latter guaranteed the protection of Qatar from aggression by sea and provide its 'good offices' in the event of an attack by land. This latter undertaking was left deliberately vague.^[89][92]

On 5 May 1935, while agreeing an oil concession with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Abdullah signed another treaty with the British government which granted Qatar protection against internal and external threats.^[89] Oil reserves were first discovered in 1939. Exploitation and development were, however, delayed by World War II.^[93]

The focus of British interests in Qatar changed after the Second World War with the independence of India, the creation of Pakistan in 1947, and the development of oil in Qatar. In 1949, the appointment of the first British political officer in Doha, John Wilton, signified a strengthening of Anglo-Qatari relations.^[94] Oil exports began in 1949, and oil revenues became the country's main source of revenue; the pearl trade had gone into decline. These revenues were used to fund the expansion and modernisation of Qatar's infrastructure.

When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Persian Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined talks with Bahrain and seven other Trucial States to create a federation. Regional disputes, however, persuaded Qatar and Bahrain to withdraw from the talks and become independent states separate from the Trucial States, which went on to become the United Arab Emirates.

Independence and later (1971–2000)

Under an agreement with the United Kingdom,^[95][96] on 3 September 1971, the "special treaty arrangements" that were "inconsistent with full international responsibility as a sovereign and independent state" were terminated.^[96]

In 1991, Qatar played a significant role in the Gulf War, particularly during the Battle of Khafji in which Qatari tanks rolled through the streets of the town and provided fire support for Saudi Arabian National Guard units that were engaging Iraqi Army troops. Qatar allowed coalition troops from Canada to use the country as an airbase to launch aircraft on combat air patrol duty and also permitted air forces from the United States and France to operate in its territories.^[40]

In 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani seized control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, with the support of the armed forces and cabinet, as well as neighbouring states^[97] and France.^[98] Under Emir Hamad, Qatar experienced a moderate degree of liberalisation, including the launch of the Al Jazeera television station (1996), the endorsement of women's suffrage or right to vote in municipal elections (1999), drafting its first written constitution (2005) and inauguration of a Roman Catholic church (2008).^{[citation needed]}

21st century

Qatar's economy and status as a regional power rapidly grew in the 2000s. According to the UN, the nation's economic growth, measured by GDP, was the fastest in the world during this decade.^[99][100] The basis of this growth lay in the exploitation of natural gas in the North Field during the 1990s. At the same time, the population tripled between 2001 and 2011, mostly from an influx of foreigners.^[101]

In 2003, Qatar served as the United States Central Command headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the invasion of Iraq.^[102] In March 2005, a suicide bombing killed a British teacher^[103] at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking the country, which had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. The bombing was carried out by Omar Ahmed Abdullah Ali, an Egyptian resident in Qatar who had suspected ties to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.^[104][105] The increased influence of Qatar and its role during the Arab Spring, especially during the Bahraini uprising in 2011, worsened longstanding tensions with Saudi Arabia, the neighboring United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain.^{[citation needed]}

In 2010, Qatar won the right to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, making it the first country in the Middle East to be selected to host the tournament. The awarding increased further investment and developments within the nation during the 2010s.^[106] In June 2013, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became the emir of Qatar after his father handed over power.^[107] Sheikh Tamim has prioritised improving the domestic welfare of citizens, which includes establishing advanced healthcare and education systems, and expanding the country's infrastructure in preparation for the hosting of the 2022 World Cup.^[108] Qatar hosted the 2022 FIFA World Cup from 21 November to 18 December, becoming the first Arab and Muslim-majority country to do so, and the third Asian country to host it following the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Japan and South Korea.^[109]

Law

According to Qatar's Constitution, Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation,^[128][129] although in practice Qatar's legal system is a mixture of civil law and Sharia.^[130][131] Sharia is applied to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery, and murder). In some cases, Sharia-based family courts treat a female's testimony as being worth half that of a man.^[132] Codified family law was introduced in 2006. Islamic polygyny is permitted.^[98]

Judicial corporal punishment is a punishment in Qatar. Only Muslims considered medically fit are liable to have such sentences carried out. Flogging is employed as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations.^[133] Article 88 of the criminal code declares that the penalty for adultery is 100 lashes.^[134] Stoning is a legal punishment in Qatar,^[135] and apostasy and homosexuality are crimes punishable by the death penalty; however, the penalty has not been carried out for either crime.^[136][137] Blasphemy can result in up to seven years in prison, while proselytising can incur a 10-year sentence.^[136][138]

Alcohol consumption is partially legal; some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to non-Muslim customers.^[139][140] Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol, and those caught consuming it are liable to flogging or deportation. Non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences.^[141][142] Qatari officials had indicated a willingness to allow alcohol in "fan zones" at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.^[143] However, on 18 November, two days before the start of the games, Qatari officials announced alcoholic beverages would not be permitted within the stadiums.^[144]

In 2014, a modesty campaign was launched to remind tourists of the country's restrictive dress code.^[145] Female tourists were advised not to wear leggings, miniskirts, sleeveless dresses, or short or tight clothing in public. Men were warned against wearing shorts and singlets.^[146]

Foreign relations

Qatar's international profile and active role in international affairs have led some analysts to identify it as a middle power. Since 2022, it has been a major non-NATO ally of the United States.^[147] Qatar also has particularly strong ties with France,^[148] China,^[149] Iran,^[150] Turkey,^[151] as well as a number of Islamist movements in the Middle East such as the Muslim Brotherhood.^{[152][153][154]} The country is an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, as well as a member of the Arab League.^[2] Diplomatic missions to Qatar are based in its capital, Doha.

Regional relations and foreign policies are characterized by the strategy of balancing and alliance building among regional and great powers. It maintains independent foreign policy and engages in regional balancing to secure its strategic priorities and to have recognition on the regional and international level.^{[153][155][156]} As a comparatively small state in the gulf, Qatar established an "open-door" foreign policy where Qatar maintains ties to all parties and regional players in the region.^[157]

In 2011, Qatar joined NATO operations in Libya and reportedly armed Libyan opposition groups.^[158] It was also a major funder of weapons for rebel groups in the Syrian civil war.^[159] Qatar participated in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh.^[160] Since the 2000s, Qatar increasingly emerged on a wider foreign policy stage especially as a mediator, such as for Middle Eastern conflicts;^[161] for example, Qatar mediated between the rival Palestinian factions Fatah and Hamas in 2006^[162] and helped unite Lebanese leaders into forming a political agreement during the 2008 crisis.^[163] Qatar has also emerged as mediators in African and Asian affairs, notably holding a peace process for Sudan amid the Darfur conflict^[164] and facilitating peace talks for Afghanistan, setting up a political "office" for the Afghan Taliban to facilitate talks. Ahmed Rashid, writing in the Financial Times, stated that through the office Qatar has "facilitated meetings between the Taliban and many countries and organisations, including the US state department, the UN, Japan, several European governments and non-governmental organisations, all of whom have been trying to push forward the idea of peace talks."^[165] It played a major role in establishing the first ceasefire in the 2023 Israel-Hamas war and the concurrent initial hostage exchange. These high-risk diplomatic middle man endeavors (and its own rigorous defense stance) have thus earned it a reputation as "a prickly Switzerland".^[166]

In June 2017, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, Egypt and Yemen broke diplomatic ties with Qatar, accusing Qatar of supporting terrorism.^[167] The crisis escalated a dispute over Qatar's support of the Muslim Brotherhood, which is considered a terrorist organization by some Arab nations.^[168] The diplomatic crisis ended in January 2021 with the signing of AlUla declaration.^[169]

On 2 October 2020, Qatari authorities strip-searched 13 Australian women on a plane at Hamad International Airport over a premature baby found in a bathroom at the terminal. This caused an international incident with Australia.^[170][171] In September 2023, Qatar mediated the US-Iran prisoners swap deal. Iran freed five Americans in exchange for five Iranians held in the US and transfer $6 billion in frozen Iranian money from South Korea to Qatar.^[172] In October 2023 United States President Joe Biden thanked the Qatar's Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani for his help in mediating a landmark prisoner swap deal with Iran.^[173]

On September 24, 2024, Qatar was designated as the first Gulf country to join the U.S. Visa Waiver Program (VWP), allowing its citizens to travel to the United States for up to 90 days for business or tourism without a visa. The inclusion strengthens security cooperation between the two nations and eases travel for Qatari citizens. U.S. citizens are now permitted to stay in Qatar for up to 90 days without a visa, an increase from the previous 30-day limit.^[174][175]

Military

AMX-10 RC of the Qatari Emiri Land Force

Dassault Rafale of the Qatar Emiri Air Force

The Qatar Armed Forces consist of 12,000 personnel in the Qatari Emiri Land Forces, 2,500 in the Navy, 2,000 in the Air Force, and 5,000 in the Internal Security Forces.^[176] In 2008 Qatar spent US$2.3 billion on its military, which was 2.3% of the GDP,^[177] and its military spending increased to US$7.49 billion as of 2022.^[176] After the Arab spring events in 2011 and a diplomatic incident with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries in 2014, Qatar started expanding its armed forces.^[178] The country introduced conscription in 2013, the first Gulf state to do so in recent years. It is mandatory for Qatari male citizens to serve for up to 4 months, though not all of them are called up. The national service term was extended to one year in 2018. About 2,000 conscripts pass through the Qatar Armed Forces annually. Military service has become more popular in Qatar due to the recent tensions with Saudi Arabia and the UAE.^[179][180] Since 2017, Qatar has also purchased large quantities of equipment from European countries and the United States, making its air force one of the largest among the Gulf states.^[176][178]

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) found that in 2010–2014 Qatar was the 46th-largest arms importer in the world. SIPRI writes that Qatar's plans to transform and significantly enlarge its armed forces have accelerated.^[181] In 2015, Qatar was the 16th largest arms importer in the world, and in 2016, it was the 11th largest, according to SIPRI.^[182]

Qatar has signed defense pacts with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France.^[183] The forward headquarters of United States Central Command, Al Udeid Air Base, is located in Qatar and houses about 10,000 American military personnel.^[178]

During the 2011 military intervention in Libya, Qatar deployed six Mirage 2000 fighter jets to assist the NATO air campaign against the Libyan government and special forces to provide training to Libyan rebels.^[184] During the Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war in September 2015, Qatar sent 1,000 troops, 200 armored vehicles, and 30 Apache helicopters to assist with Saudi military operations.^[185][186] As a result of the diplomatic crisis with Saudi Arabia that began in June 2017, Qatar withdrew its forces from Yemen.^[187] Qatar is the 29th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.

According to recent research, the later published in November 2024, Qatar has dramatically increased its military power, as its expenditure grew by 434%. This power increase is involved due to corrupted arms trade, featured mainly of bribe issues.^{[188][189][190]}

Human rights

Qatar's human rights record has been regarded by academics and non-governmental organisations as being generally poor, with restrictions on civil liberties such as the freedoms of association, expression and the press, as well as its treatment of thousands of migrant workers amounting to forced labour for projects in the country.^[191][192]

In May 2012, Qatari officials declared their intention to allow the establishment of an independent trade union.^[193] In 2014, Qatar commissioned international law firm DLA Piper to produce a report investigating the immigrant labour system. In May 2014, DLA Piper released more than 60 recommendations for reforming the kafala system including the abolition of exit visas and the introduction of a minimum wage, which Qatar has pledged to implement. Qatar also announced it would scrap its sponsor system for foreign labour, which requires that all foreign workers be sponsored by local employers.^[194]

The UN Committee Against Torture found that the provisions for flogging and stoning within the Qatari criminal code constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture.^[195][196] Homosexual acts are illegal and can be punished by death.^[197] However, there is no such evidence that the death penalty has been given for same-sex relations due to homosexual acts.^[198]

Under the provisions of Qatar's sponsorship law, sponsors had the unilateral power to cancel workers' residency permits, deny workers' ability to change employers, report a worker as "absconded" to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country.^[199] As a result, sponsors may restrict workers' movements, and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights.^[199] According to the ITUC, the visa sponsorship system allows the exaction of forced labour by making it difficult for a migrant worker to leave an abusive employer or travel overseas without permission.^[200] Qatar also did not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labourers. Additional changes to labour laws include a provision guaranteeing that all workers' salaries are paid directly into their bank accounts and new restrictions on working outdoors in the hottest hours during the summer.^[201]

In 2016 laws were reformed to mandate that companies that fail to pay workers' wages on time could temporarily lose their ability to hire more employees.^[202][203] Human Rights Watch claimed that the changes might fail to address some labour rights issues.^[204][205] A minimum wage was instituted in 2021.^[206] The country enfranchised women at the same time as men in connection with the 1999 elections for a Central Municipal Council.^[116][207] These elections—the first-ever in Qatar—were intentionally held on 8 March 1999, International Women's Day.^[116]

As of 2024 Qatar is still ranked 40 out of 180 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index.^[208]

Former municipalities

• Al Jemailiya (until 2004)^[216]
• Al Ghuwariyah (until 2004)^[216]
• Jariyan al Batnah (until 2004)^[216]
• Mesaieed (Umm Sa'id) (until 2006)^[217]

Biodiversity

Qatar became part of the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity in 1996.^[219] It subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2005.^[220] A total of 142 fungal species have been recorded from Qatar.^[221] A book recently produced by the Ministry of Environment documents the lizards known or believed to occur in Qatar, based on surveys conducted by an international team of scientists and other collaborators.^[222]

Like other members of the UNFCCC Qatar is supposed to publish details of its greenhouse gas emissions two years after they occur - however as of 2024 the latest official details are for 2007 emissions.^[223][224] According to the Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research, carbon dioxide emissions per person average over 30 tonnes, one of the highest in the world.^[225]

Climate

Energy

As of 2012^[update], Qatar has proven oil reserves of 15 billion barrels and gas fields that account for more than 13% of the global resource. The economy was in a downturn from 1982 to 1989. OPEC quotas on crude oil production, the lower price for oil, and the generally unpromising outlook on international markets reduced oil earnings. In turn, the Qatari government's spending plans had to be cut to match lower income. The resulting recessionary local business climate caused many firms to lay off expatriate staff. With the economy recovering in the 1990s, expatriate populations, particularly from Egypt and South Asia, have grown again.^{[citation needed]}

Qatar's proven reserves of gas are the third-largest in the world, exceeding 250 trillion cubic feet (7,000 km³). The economy was boosted in 1991 by completion of the $1.5-billion Phase I of North Field gas development. In 1996, the Qatargas project began exporting liquefied natural gas to Japan.

Qatar's heavy industrial projects, all based in Umm Said, include a refinery with a 50,000 barrels (8,000 m³) per day capacity, a fertiliser plant for urea and ammonia, a steel plant, and a petrochemical plant. All these industries use gas for fuel. Most are joint ventures between European and Japanese firms and the state-owned QatarEnergy. The US is the major equipment supplier for Qatar's oil and gas industry, and US companies are playing a major role in North Field gas development.^[247]

In 2008 Qatar launched its National Vision 2030 which highlights environmental development as one of the four main goals for Qatar over the next two decades.^[248] The National Vision pledges to develop sustainable alternatives to oil-based energy to preserve the local and global environment.^[248] Qatar has made investment in renewable resources a major goal for the country over the next two decades. By 2030, Qatar has set the goal of attaining 20% of its energy from solar power.^[249] The country is well-positioned to capitalize on photovoltaic systems, as it has a global horizontal irradiance value of approximately 2,140 kWh per square meter annually. Furthermore, the direct irradiance parameter is roughly 2,008 kWh per square meter annually, implying that it would be able to benefit from concentrated solar power as well.^[250] Qatar Foundation has been active in helping the solar power goals. It established Qatar Solar, which, together with Qatar Development Bank and German company SolarWorld, embarked on a joint venture resulting in the creation of Qatar Solar Technologies (QSTec). In 2017, QSTec commissioned its polysillicon plant in Ras Laffan. This plant has a capacity of 1.1 MW of solar power.^[249]

Qatar pursues a vigorous programme of "Qatarisation", under which all joint venture industries and government departments strive to move Qatari nationals into positions of greater authority. Growing numbers of foreign-educated Qataris, including many educated in the US, are returning home to assume key positions formerly occupied by expatriates. To control the influx of expatriate workers, Qatar has tightened the administration of its foreign manpower programmes over the past several years. Security is the principal basis for Qatar's strict entry and immigration rules and regulations.^[247]

Tourism

Tourist resort at Banana Island in Qatar

Katara Towers Part of the new hospitality at Lusail Qatar

Qatar is one of the fastest growing countries in the field of tourism. According to the World Tourism rankings, more than 2.3 million international tourists visited in 2017. Qatar has become one of the most open countries in the Middle East due to its recent visa facilitation improvements, including allowing nationals of 88 countries to enter visa-free and free-of charge.^[251] Qatar was recently put in the top eight in market climate in the Middle East by the Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Survey 2019 of the World Economic Forum.^[252][253] Doha is one of the fastest-growing hotel and hospitality markets in the world. The $220 billion spent on infrastructure since the successful World Cup bid of 2010 has helped boost the industry. Hotels have also been helped by the country’s geographic location. The tourism sector continues to witness a strong recovery with more than 729,000 international visitors in the first half of 2022, marking a 19% increase compared to the full year of 2021, and the aim is to raise tourism to 12% of GDP by 2030.^[254] The tourist industry in Doha has grown very quickly, making it a hub for people traveling from all over the world. The Museum of Islamic Art, Souq Waqif, and the Katara Cultural Village are some of the most popular places to visit. People from 88 countries can now enter Qatar without a visa thanks to new rules. This makes it one of the easiest places to visit in the Middle East. The country also wants to increase the share of tourism in its GDP to 12% by 2030 by holding events like the 2022 FIFA World Cup and the upcoming 2030 Asian Games.^[255]

The nation is also on course to experience a major jump in athletic and corporate tourism with hosting world-class tournaments such as the 2030 Asian Games and the 2022 FIFA World Cup.^[256] Qatar National Airlines, as well as Hamad International Airport, provide travelers with one of the best transportation services in the world, and this has increased tourism in Qatar. Gulf News, a research center in Qatar, by examining the statistics of recent years and upcoming events, has predicted that this country will earn 11 billion and 900 million dollars from attracting foreign travelers by 2020. The reason for this upward trend is the increase in hospitality and attention to the country's culture in Qatar.^[257]

Transport

Hamad International Airport

Qatar Airways Airbus A380. Qatar Airways, one of the world's largest airlines, links over 150 international destinations from its base in Doha.

In 2008 the public works authority (Ashghal), one of the bodies that oversees infrastructure development, underwent a major reorganisation in order to streamline and modernise the authority in preparation for major project expansions across all segments in the near future. Ashghal works in tandem with the Urban Planning and Development Authority, the body that designed the transportation master plan, instituted in March 2006 and running to 2025.^{[citation needed]}

The road network is a major focus of the plan. Project highlights in this segment include the multibillion-dollar Doha Expressway and the Qatar Bahrain Causeway. Mass-transit options, such as a Doha metro, light-rail system and more extensive bus networks are also under development to ease road congestion. In addition, the railway system is being significantly expanded and could eventually form an integral part of a GCC-wide network linking all the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.

Hamad International Airport is located in Doha. In 2014, it replaced the former Doha International Airport as Qatar's principal airport. In 2016, the airport was named the 50th busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic, serving 37,283,987 passengers, a 20.2% increase from 2015.^{[citation needed]} Qatar Airways is one of the largest airlines in the world that serves in six continents connecting more than 160 destinations every day. It has won Airline of the Year in 2011, 2012, 2015, 2017 and 2019 and employs more than 46,000 people.^[258][259]

Qatar is increasingly activating its logistics and ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China or Africa.^{[citation needed]} For this purpose, ports such as Hamad Port are rapidly expanded and investments are made in their technology.^{[citation needed]} The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the North Sea.^{[260][261][262]} Hamad Port is Qatar's main seaport, located south of Doha in the Umm Al Houl area. Construction of the port began in 2010; it became operational in December 2016.^[263] Capable of handling up to 7.8 million tonnes of products annually, the bulk of trade which passes through the port consists of food and building materials.^[264] On the northern coast, Ras Laffan Port serves as the most extensive liquid natural gas export facility in the world.^[265]

Qatar has made a lot of progress in public transportation, and the Doha Metro is one of the most important parts of the system. The metro system connects important parts of the capital, like Hamad International Airport and major business hubs. It's a modern and quick way for residents and tourists to get around. More expansions are being planned, which will improve connections across the area. Qatar Rail has a lot of information about tickets, plans, and what's going to happen in the future.^[266]

Religion

Islam is the predominant religion and is the state religion although not the only religion practiced in the country,^[271] and the constitution guarantees freedom to practise any faith within "moral" bounds.^[272] Most citizens belong to the Salafi Muslim movement of Wahhabism,^{[273][274][275]} and 5–15% of Muslims follow Shia Islam with other Islamic sects being very small in number.^[276] In 2010, Qatar's population was 67.7% Muslim, 13.8% Christian, 13.8% Hindu, and 3.1% Buddhist; other religions and religiously unaffiliated people accounted for the remaining 1.6%.^[277]

Sharia is the main source of legislation according to the constitution.^[128][129] Qatar's interpretation of Sharia is said to be not as "strict" as neighboring Saudi Arabia^[278] but not as "liberal" as Dubai.^[279] The vision of the Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs is "to build a contemporary Islamic society along with fostering the Sharee’ah and cultural heritage".^[280]

The non-Muslim population is composed almost entirely of foreign migrants. Since 2008, Christians have been allowed to build churches on ground donated by the government,^[281][282] Active churches include the Mar Thoma Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady of the Rosary and the Anglican Church of the Epiphany.^{[283][284][285]} There are also two Mormon wards^{[283][284][285]} and a Baháʼí Faith community.^[286]

Languages

Arabic is the official language, with Qatari Arabic the local dialect. Qatari Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. English is commonly used as a second language,^[287] and a rising lingua franca, especially in commerce, to the extent that steps are being taken to try to preserve Arabic from English's encroachment.^[288] English is particularly useful for communication with Qatar's large expatriate community. In the medical community, and in situations such as the training of nurses to work in Qatar, English acts as a lingua franca.^[289] Reflecting the multicultural make-up of the country, many other languages are also spoken, including Malayalam, Persian, Baluchi, Brahui, Hindi, Urdu, Pashto, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Nepali, Sinhalese, Bengali, Tagalog, Tulu and Indonesian.^[290]

Healthcare

Healthcare standards are generally high. Qatari citizens are covered by a national health-insurance plan, while expatriates must either receive health insurance from their employers, or in the case of the self-employed, purchase insurance.^[291] Government healthcare spending is among the highest in the Middle East, with $4.7 billion being invested in healthcare in 2014.^[292] This was a $2.1 billion increase from 2010.^[293] The premier healthcare provider is Hamad Medical Corporation, established by the government as a non-profit healthcare provider, which runs a network of hospitals, ambulance services, and a home healthcare service, all of which are accredited by the Joint Commission.^{[citation needed]}

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 2.2% of the country's GDP; the highest in the Middle East.^[294] In 2006, there were 23.12 physicians and 61.81 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.^[295] The life expectancy at birth was 82.08 years in 2014, or 83.27 years for males and 77.95 years for females, rendering it the highest life expectancy in the Middle East.^[296] Qatar has a low infant mortality rate of 7 in 100,000.^[297]

In 2006, there were 25 beds per 10,000 people, and 27.6 doctors and 73.8 nurses per 10,000 people.^[298] In 2011, the number of beds decreased to 12 per 10,000 people, whereas the number of doctors increased to 28 per 10,000 people. While the country has one of the lowest proportions of hospital beds in the region, the availability of physicians is the highest in the GCC.^[299]

Arts

Qatari officials, especially the Al Thani family and the sister of the Emir of Qatar, Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, pay special attention to art.^[303][304] Al-Mayassa leads the Qatar Museums Authority. The Museum of Islamic Art, opened in 2008, is regarded as one of the best museums in the region.^[305] This and several other Qatari museums, like the Arab Museum of Modern Art, fall under the Qatar Museums Authority,^[306] which also sponsors artistic events abroad, such as major exhibitions by Takahashi Murakami in Versailles (2010) and Damien Hirst in London (2012).

Qatar is the world's biggest buyer in the art market by value.^[307] The Qatari cultural sector is being developed to enable the country to reach world recognition to contribute to the development of a country that comes mainly from its resources from the gas industry.^[308]

Literature

Qatari literature traces its origins back to the 19th century. Originally, written poetry was the most common form of expression. Abdul Jalil Al-Tabatabai and Mohammed bin Abdullah bin Uthaymeen, two poets dating back to the early 19th century, formed the corpus of Qatar's earliest written poetry. Poetry later fell out of favor after Qatar began reaping the profits from oil exports in the mid-20th century and many Qataris abandoned their Bedouin traditions in favor of more urban lifestyles.^[309]

Due to the increasing number of Qataris who began receiving formal education during the 1950s and other significant societal changes, 1970 witnessed the introduction of the first short story anthology, and in 1993 the first locally authored novels were published. Poetry, particularly the predominant nabati form, retained some importance but would soon be overshadowed by other literary types.^[309] Unlike in most other forms of art in Qatari society, women have been involved in the modern literature movement to a similar extent to men.^[310]

Media

Qatar's media was classified as "not free" in the 2014 Freedom of the Press report by Freedom House.^[311] TV broadcasting was started in 1970.^[312] Al Jazeera is a main television network headquartered in Doha. Al Jazeera initially launched in 1996 as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name and has since expanded into a global network of several speciality TV channels.

It has been reported that journalists practice self-censorship, particularly in regards to the government and ruling family of Qatar.^[313] Criticism of the government, emir, and ruling family in the media is illegal. According to article 46 of the press law "The Emir of the state of Qatar shall not be criticised and no statement can be attributed to him unless under a written permission from the manager of his office."^[314] Journalists are also subject to prosecution for insulting Islam.^[311]

In 2014, a Cybercrime Prevention Law was passed. The law is said to restrict press freedom and carries prison sentences and fines for broad reasons such as jeopardising local peace or publishing false news.^[315] The Gulf Center for Human Rights has stated that the law is a threat to freedom of speech and has called for certain articles of the law to be revoked.^[316]

Press media has undergone expansion in recent years. There are currently seven newspapers in circulation in Qatar, with four being published in Arabic and three being published in English.^[317] There are also newspapers from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka with editions printed from Qatar.^{[citation needed]}

In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Qatar is the highest-ranked Middle Eastern country in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI)—an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Qatar ranked number 23 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, unchanged from 2013.^[318]

Music

The music of Qatar is based on Bedouin poetry, song and dance. Traditional dances in Doha are performed on Friday afternoons; one such dance is the Ardah, a stylised martial dance performed by two rows of dancers who are accompanied by an array of percussion instruments, including al-ras (a large drum whose leather is heated by an open fire), tambourines and cymbals with small drums.^[319] Other percussion instruments used in folk music include galahs (a tall clay jar) and tin drinking cups known as tus or tasat, usually used in conjunction with a tabl, a longitudinal drum beaten with a stick.^[320] String instruments, such as the oud and rebaba, are also commonly used.^[319]

Sport

Association football is the most popular sport in Qatar, both in terms of players and spectators.^[321] Shortly after the Qatar Football Association became affiliated with FIFA in 1970, one of the country's earliest international accolades came in 1981 when the Qatar national under-20 team's emerged as runners-up to West Germany in that year's edition of the FIFA World Youth Championship after being defeated 4–0 in the final. At the senior level, Qatar has played host to three editions of the AFC Asian Cup; the first being the ninth edition in 1988, the second being the fifteenth edition held in 2011, and the third being the eighteenth edition held in 2023.^[322] For the first time in the country's history, the Qatar national football team won the AFC Asian Cup in the 2019 edition hosted in the United Arab Emirates, beating Japan 3–1 in the final. They won all seven of their matches, conceding only a single goal throughout the tournament.^[323] As hosts and defending champions in the following 2023 edition, Qatar successfully retained their title, defeating Jordan in the final.^[324]

On 2 December 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, despite never previously qualifying for the FIFA World Cup Finals.^[325] Local organisers built seven new stadiums and expanded one existing stadium for this event.^[326][327] Qatar's winning bid for the 2022 World Cup was greeted enthusiastically in the Persian Gulf region as it was the first time a country in the Middle East had been selected to host the tournament. At the same time, the bid was embroiled in much controversy, including allegations of bribery and interference in the investigation of the alleged bribery. European football associations also objected to the 2022 World Cup being held in Qatar for a variety of reasons, from the impact of warm temperatures on players' fitness, to the disruption it might cause in European domestic league calendars should the event be rescheduled to take place during winter.^[328][329] In May 2014, Qatari football official Mohammed bin Hammam was accused of making payments totalling £3 million to officials in return for their support for the Qatar bid.^[330][331] A FIFA inquiry into the bidding process in November 2014 cleared Qatar of any wrongdoing.^[332][333]

The Guardian, a British national daily newspaper, produced a short documentary named "Abuse and exploitation of migrant workers preparing emirate for 2022".^[334] A 2014 investigation by The Guardian reported that migrant workers who had been constructing luxurious offices for the organisers of the 2022 World Cup had not been paid in over a year, and were now "working illegally from cockroach-infested lodgings."^[335] For 2014, Nepalese migrants involved in constructing infrastructure for the 2022 World Cup died at a rate of one every two days.^[336] The Qatar 2022 organising committee responded to various allegations by claiming that hosting the World Cup in Qatar would act as a "catalyst for change" in the region.^[337] According to a February 2021 article in The Guardian, some 6,500 migrant construction workers had died.^[338] However, the World Cup in Qatar was the most expensive in the competition's history and had many modern technologies, with many expressing their satisfaction with the country's handling of the tournament.^{[339][failed verification]}

Qatar was estimated to host a football fanbase of 1.6 million for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. However, the construction work in country was expected to only take the available 37,000 hotel rooms to 70,000 by the end of 2021. In December 2019, the Qatari World Cup officials approached the organizers of the Glastonbury Festival in England and the Coachella Festival in the United States, to plan huge desert campsites for thousands of football fans. The World Cup campsites on the outskirts were reported to have licensed bars, restaurants, entertainment and washing facilities. Moreover, two cruise ships were also reserved as temporary floating accommodations for nearly 40,000 people during the tournament.^[340]

Though football is the most popular sport, other team sports have experienced considerable success at senior level. In 2015, the national handball team emerged as runners-up to France in the World Men's Handball Championship as hosts, however the tournament was marred by numerous controversies regarding the host nation and its team.^[341] Further, in 2014, Qatar won the world championship in men's 3x3 basketball.^[342]

Cricket is popular amongst the South Asian diaspora in Qatar. Casual street cricket is the most popular format of the game, but the Qatar Cricket Association has been a member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) since 1999 and the men's and women's national teams both play regularly in ICC competitions. The primary cricket ground in Qatar is the West End Park International Cricket Stadium.^[343]

Basketball is a developed sport amongst Asian people in Qatar. Qatar hosted the 2005 FIBA Asia Championship, 2013 FIBA Asia 3x3 Championship, 2014 FIBA Asia Under-18 Championship and 2022 FIBA Under-16 Asian Championship.^{[citation needed]} Qatar will host the 2027 FIBA Basketball World Cup making this become the first Arab country to host the FIBA Basketball World Cup.^[344]

Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open annually. Since 2002, Qatar has hosted the annual Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February, riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km, though the time trial usually is a shorter distance. Tour of Qatar is organised by the Qatar Cycling Federation for professional riders in the category of Elite Men.^[345]

The Qatar Army Skydiving Team has several different skydiving disciplines placing among the top nations in the world. The Qatar National Parachute team performs annually during Qatar's National Day and at other large events, such as the 2015 World Handball Championship.^[346] Doha four times was the host of the official FIVB Volleyball Men's Club World Championship and three times host FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship. Doha also hosted the Asian Volleyball Championship once.^[347]