Socialization

The term socialization is used to refer to the process of learning ones culture and how to live within it. For the individual it provides the skills and habits necessary for acting and participating within their society. For the society, inducting all individual members into its moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols by which social and cultural continuity are attained.

According to Ely Chinoy (Chinoy, 1961: 75), socialization serves two major functions: 1. It prepares the individual for the roles he is to play, providing him with the necessary repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge. 2. By communicating the contents of culture from one generation to the other, it provides for its persistence and continuity.

Five kinds of socialization may be distinguished: Primary socialization Secondary socialization Developmental socialization Anticipatory socialization Resocialization

Primary socialization: Primary socialization is the process whereby the people make a child learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

Secondary socialization: Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new

Developmental socialization: It is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills. Anticipatory socialization: It refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization: Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle.

Agents of socialization
1. Family 2. Religion 3. Day-care centers 4. Peer group 5. Education 6. Sports 7. Mass media 8. Workplace 9. The State

Total institutions

The term "total institutions" was coined in 1963 by Erving Goffman. (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113) A society which is socially isolated but still provides for all the needs of its members. Total institutions have the ability to resocialize people either voluntarily or involuntarily. Its examples are: prisons, the military, mental hospitals and convents

Characteristics of Total Institutions

All aspects of life are conducted in the same place and under the same single authority. Each phase of a members daily activity is carried out in the immediate company of others. All members are treated alike and all members do the same thing together. Daily activities are tightly scheduled. All activity is superimposed upon the individual by a system of explicit formal rules. A single rational plan exists to fulfill the goals of the institution.

Gender socialization and gender roles

Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are ones friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through subtle and not so subtle ways.

Goals of Socialization
Arnett outlined following three goals of socialization: 1. impulse control and the development of a conscience 2. role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood 3. the cultivation of what is important, valued, and to be lived for

Broad and Narrow Socialization

Arnett proposed two interesting types of socialization: Broad socialization is intended to promote independence, individualism, and self-expression Narrow socialization is intended to promote obedience and conformity

Arnett's definition of socialization: --the whole process by which an individual born with behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior which is confined with a much narrower range; the range of what is customary and acceptable for him according to the standards of his group.

The Role of Socialization

Feral (wild) children supposedly abandoned or lost by their parents at a very early age and then raised by animals, act like wild animals. Most social scientists believe that they were raised by their parents as infants but then abandoned because of mental retardation.

Isolated children show what humans might be like if secluded from society at an early age. Isabelle is a case in point. Although initially believed to be retarded, a surprising thing happened when she was given intensive language training. She began to acquire language and in only two years she had reached the normal intellectual level for her age.

Institutionalized children show that traits such as intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness are the result of early close relations with other humans. Research with children raised in orphanages and cases like Genie, the 13 year old who had been kept locked in a small room for years; demonstrate the importance of early interaction for

The Social Development of Self, Mind, and Emotions

Charles H. Cooley concluded that human development is socially createdthat our sense of self develops from interaction with others. He coined the term looking glass self to describe this process. According to Cooley, this process contains three steps: a) we imagine how we look to others; b) we interpret others reactions (how they evaluate us); and c) we develop a self-concept.

George H. Meads concepts

George H. Mead added that play is critical to the development of a self. In play, we learn to take the role of others: To understand and anticipate how others feel and think. Mead concluded that children are first able to take only the role of significant others (parents or siblings, for example);

As the self develops, children internalize the expectations of other people, and eventually the entire group. Mead referred to the norms, values, attitudes and expectations of people in general as the generalized other.

According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages: a) imitation (children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others); b) play (beginning at age three, children play the roles of specific people, such as a soldier); and c) games (in the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and must learn the role of each member of

Jean Piagets concepts

1.

2.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) concluded that there are four stages in the development of cognitive skills: The sensorimotor stage (0-2): Understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment (touching, listening, seeing) The preoperational stage (2-7): Children develop the ability to use symbols (especially language) which allow them to experience things without direct contact.

3. The concrete operational stage (712): Reasoning abilities become much more developed. Children now can understand numbers, causation, and speed, but have difficulty with abstract concepts such as truth. 4. The formal operational stage (12+): Children become capable of abstract thinking, and can use rules to solve abstract problems, e.g.if X is true, why doesnt Y follow?

Freuds Concepts

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that personality consists of three elements: the id, ego, and superego. The id, inherited drives for self-gratification, demands fulfillment of basic needs such as attention, safety, food etc. The ego balances between the needs of the id and the demands of society. The superego, the social conscience we have internalized from social groups, gives us feelings of guilt or shame when we break rules, and feelings of pride and self satisfaction when we follow them.

Human Emotions

Human emotions also develop in an orderly sequence: During the first months, infants register surprise, joy, distress, and excitement; these are emotional reflexes because they are made without any prior learning. Fear and anger appear between ages 4 and 10 months. During the second year, other emotions appear, including sadness, anxiety, and

By age four, guilt and shame are added; by age five, a child displays pride, humility, envy and jealousy; and by age six or seven, emotions relating to comparing oneself to others appear. By puberty, children can express the entire range of emotions.

Emotions are not simply the result of biology; they also depend on socialization within a particular society. Europeans may shake hands with each other to express pleasure in meeting someone, while Japanese may bow, and Arabs may kiss. When a football player scores a goal, the response is quite physical: jumping up and down, and shouting. When a speaker delivers good speech, the response is quite subdued, may be in the form of clapping. Society has trained us to give different reactions in different settings.

Socialization into Gender

By expecting different behaviors from people because they are male or female, society nudges boys and girls in separate directions from an early age, and this foundation carries over into adulthood. Parents begin the process; researchers have concluded that in our society mothers unconsciously reward their female children for being passive and dependent and their male children for being active and independent.

The mass media reinforce societys expectations of gender in many ways: Ads perpetuate stereotypes by portraying males as dominant and rugged and females as attractive and submissive. On TV, females are shown as passive, indecisive, and dominated by men. In commercials, womens voices are rarely used as the voice over.

Music perpetuates sex roles stereotypes; songs tell girls to be dependent and submissive, and boys to dominate male-female relationship. In films, often there is a portrayal of violence against female. Males/females use media images to discover who they were and what was expected of them as males/females.

Socialization through the life course: Childhood (Birth to 12):

In earlier times, children were considered miniature adults, who served an apprenticeship in which they learned and performed tasks. To keep them in line, they were beaten and subjected to psychological torture. The current view is that children are tender and innocent, and parents should guide the physical, emotional, and social development of their children, while providing them with care, comfort, and protection.

Adolescence (13-17):

Economic changes resulting from the industrial revolution brought about material surpluses that allowed millions of teenagers to remain outside the labor force, while at the same time the demand for education increased. Biologically equipped for both work and marriage but denied both, adolescents suffer inner turmoil and develop their own standards of clothing, hairstyles, language, music, and other claims to separate identities.

Young Adulthood (18-29):

Adult responsibilities are postponed through extended education. During this period the self becomes more stable, and the period usually is one of high optimism.

The Middle years (30-65):

People are surer of themselves and their goals in life than before. For modern women, it can be a trying period due to trying to have it alljob, family, and everything. Later middle years results in a different view of lifetrying to evaluate the past and to come to terms with what lies ahead. Individuals may feel they are not likely to get much farther in life, while health and mortality become concerns. However for most people it is the most comfortable period in their lives.

Older years (66 and beyond):

While we live longer and there has been an improvement in general health, older people are not given the respect they previously received, having undergone social devaluation. They often are viewed as people who once knew something worthwhile, but now can only offer useless advice. They become more concerned with death that their time is closing in on them.