UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY & SOCIAL

PROCESSES FROM
EARLY 16TH TO LATE 18TH
CENTURIES: CONFLICT BETWEEN
CHRISTIAN KINGDOM & ADAL
SULTANATE AND AFTERMATH
 Introduction
• Major developments of the period include:
 expansion of trade,
 conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates and foreign interventions,
 the population movements of the Afar, the Somali, the
Argoba and the Oromo, and
 religious expansions, interaction of peoples and the
resultant integration across ethnic and religious
diversities which contributed to the making of modern
Ethiopia.
 It also discusses societies and states in different parts
of Ethiopia and the Horn, the Gondarine Period (1636-
1769), Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) including the
Yejju rule (1786-1853).
 Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and
After

• The desire to control trade routes lay at the heart of

the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates that continued for over two
centuries, culminating in the wars between the former
and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to
1543.
• Imam Ahmed was born at Hubet, between Dire Dawa
and Jigjiga and raised by a devout Muslim kin in one
of the oases on the route to Zeila.
• He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his
few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
 Conflict….
• For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists
had wanted to expand to high plateaus for better
and enough pasturelands and attempted to do so
but only to be held back by the Christian army.
• It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements
in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral
communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla,
Harari and others to a common cause.
• He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves
but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom
and resolve their pressing material needs
 Conflict….
• Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when
he was only eleven. Assisted by the elderly
Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the
Christian state initially retained its interest.
• Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military
confrontation in 1520 and made a campaign
against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.
• The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled
the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and putting the
Christian Kingdom at risk.
 Conflict…
• In addition to logistical problems, the leadership of
the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a
common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
• Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized
army faced no such logistical challenges. The Imam’s
army had also an excellent leadership characterized
• the larger and well-equipped Christian army was
defeated at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near
present day Mojo.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila
to Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian
interior.
• One of the most illuminating figures during the war
was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara,
daughter of Mahfuz.
• she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of
1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray
respectively.
• the military set back forced the reigning king,
Lebne-Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a
fugitive .
• His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-
1559), continued to face the wars this time with
more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received
Turkish musketeers.
• In the meantime, based on earlier request made by
Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four hundred
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks
arrived in the Christian court in 1541.
• The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the
youngest son of Vasco da Gama.
• However, in August 1542 the Christian army was
defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.
• In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were
killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was
beheaded.
• An important anecdote that should be
mentioned here is the role of Lebne-
Dengel's wife Seblewongel who participated
in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542.
• The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised
the reigning emperor how to prepare and
march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed
was encamped near Lake Tana, he was
attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at
the battle of Woyna-Dega.
• Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident
that the nobility and his army were loyal to him.
• As a result, the king restored possession of almost
all the northern and central plateau.
• Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to
Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward them to
promote national conciliation and to develop
revival of smooth relations with the Muslim world.
• In the period, the growing challenge to the
Christian state came from the retreating soldiers of
the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit
interlude, and Oromo advance into the center.
• Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid
was ready to wage war against the Christian state for
revenge.
• In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos
and killed the king himself.
• Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) defeated the Turks' force
and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
• However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied
with the Turks against him.
• Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his
terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw,
Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
• The emperor then marched to the north, defeated
Turkish forces, and restored the territories.
• The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a
number of consequences.
 One of the most obvious was the huge human
and material cost.
 It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate
and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby
paving the way for an easy infiltration and success
of the Oromo population movement.
 On the positive side, it should be restated that the
war had arguably resulted in cultural interaction
among the peoples of Ethiopia.
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and
the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension.
• From the first decade of the sixteenth century,
messengers were sent.
• However, actual military alliance did not take
place because Ethiopia was not a sea power to
give a meaningful maritime support to Portugal
against the Ottoman Turks.
• In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally,
Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman
authorities provided two hundred Muslim
• Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
• The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have
regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a
tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and
training to restore its lost territories.
• In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their
bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to
expand Catholicism.
• The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine contrary to
Monophysite theology of the EOC.
• The leading members of the mission who played key
role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao
Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and
Alfonso Mendez.
• The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor
Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the
society would follow suit.
• he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in
a document entitled the Confession of Faith.
• The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-
Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been
sympathetic to Catholicism.
• Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603;
1604-7), who met a similar fate in the hands of
Susenyos (r. 1607-32 ).
• Susenyos who was challenged by provincial
leaders who refused to pay tribute, integrated
the Oromo with the forces of the central
government to consolidate his power and
stabilize the country.
• Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got
through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
• In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622.
• In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic
voices mounted following the changes in liturgy
and religious practice.
• With the consent of the monarch, Alfonso
Mendez ordered reconsecration of Orthodox
priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
• suspension of Old Testament customs such as
male circumcision and the observance of the
Sabbath.
• prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
• Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass
and Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
• The reforms led to revolts led by the
ecclesiastics and the nobility.
• In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants
lost their lives in one day.
• Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor
of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation.
• Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox
Church as the state religion, expelled the Jesuits
and punished local converts including Susenyos’
brother, Se'ela Kristos.
• Emperor Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door”
policy, which isolated the country from all
Europeans for about a century and a half.
• Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of
close diplomatic relations with the Islamic world
and formed an alliance with the neighboring
Muslim states to ensure that no European
crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
• But there were secret visits by a French Doctor
Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish
traveller James Bruce in 1700 and 1769,
respectively.
• Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal
divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church.
• Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of
Christ: first in eternity as a Divine Being the
eternal birth and second, born again from St.
Mary into the world as a perfect man and perfect
divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo
(United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
• Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet
Lidet doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as
the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the
moment of his incarnation, when he was born
into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
• This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
• Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through
Grace) taught that Christ was first born in eternity as
divine being, was born again in the womb of St.
Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost.
• This sect was dominant in Gondar and Shawa.
• Population Movements
• Major outcomes of population movements during
the period under consideration include religious,
ethnic and linguistic interactions and intermingling
of peoples.
• Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage of
peoples, change of abode, original culture and
evolution of new identities.
• The military conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal was partly
responsible for the population movement of the
Argoba, Afar and Somali.
• In addition, pressure on the environment was a
major factor for the population movement.
• The Argoba were major agents of Islamic
expansion, trade and Muslim state formation in the
Horn.
• The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were
dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance.
• the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against
the Christian Kingdom.
• The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target
of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the
major center of conflict.
• As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the
conflicts thereof led to the destruction of sultanates
and dispersion of the people.
• The Afar
• Before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the
Afar moved towards the east until they reached
the middle Awash.
• The region was the centre of competition between
the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates
to control the trade routes.
• Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict
inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into
different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.
• Their pastoral economy helped the Afar to survive
the destructive effects of the wars of the sixteenth
century..
• The Somali
• The Somali territory lay in the region traversed
by major trade routes during medieval period.
• The population movement of the Somali was a
strong force behind the military strength of the
Imam.
• However, the population movement of the
Somali did not last for long as they returned to
their home base following the defeat of Imam
Ahmed in 1543.
• The Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
• The Gadaa system was an institution through which
the Oromo socially organized themselves,
administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law and order, and managed their
economies.
• The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during
the early sixteenth century, the system was fully
functioned.
• In the Gadaa system eight years represented one
Gadaa period, 5-Gadaa periods or 40 years
represented one generation and 9 generations
represented an era.
 Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still
obscure were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe.
• Prior to the revival of the Gadaa of Borana-
Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed
through known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo,
Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-
Daye (warden), each of which survived for an
era.
• Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during
various eras because of various internal and
external factors.
• The Gadaa system constituted elements of
democracy and power sharing to prevent a one-
man rule.
• It served as a mechanism of socialization,
education, maintenance of peace and order, and
social cohesion.
• Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo
(marriage).
• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society
into age-grades and generation sets.
• In the system, ten age- grades and five classes
operated in parallel.
• The following table shows a common version of
age-grades and roles associated to them.
Gadaa-Grade Age Roles
Dabbale birth-8 years socialization
Gamme 9-16
Folle 17-24 Military training,
agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political
power
Luba 41-48 Gadaa government
leaders
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors & ritual
experts
• The Gadaa/Luba assumed power for eight
years.
• The head of the government was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who
was assisted by:
 Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe
(head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader),
Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge),
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other
councillors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba
Muda) played indispensable roles in power
transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
• Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution, which helped them to form sisterhood
and solidarity.
• Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru
(pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for
marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and
cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were
believed to have sacred power.
• They involved in occasions like power transfer,
conflict resolution, thanks-giving and others.
 The Five Gadaa Classes
S. Fathers Sons
No
1 Melba ( 1522-1530) Harmufa ( 1562-1570)

2 Mudena( 1530-1538) Robale ( 1570-1578)

3 Kilole ( 1538- 1546) Birmajii ( 1578-1586)
4 Bifole ( 1546-1554) Mul’ata ( 1586-1594)
5 Michille ( 1554-1562) Dulo ( 1594-1602)
• The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
• A combination of natural (demographic pressure
growing human and livestock population) and
manmade factors caused the Oromo population
movement.
• Christian-Muslim conflict from 13th to 16th centuries
might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo
groups to leave lands they inhabited for other areas.
• the Oromo were already organized under Borana
and Barentu confederacies.
• In their expansion to the north , the Oromo passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and
Lake Abbaya.
• When they reached Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa,
they took westward and penetrated across the
Bilatte River to the southwest.
• Then they headed northwards to the lakes region of
the Rift Valley.
• From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta
wars.
• Accordingly, Melba (1522-1530) fought and
defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by
Fasil and occupied Bali while Mudena (1530-38)
reached the edge of the Awash River.
• The Kilole (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546-54)
advanced to Waj and Erer.
• The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's
force at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led
by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
• The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at
Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
• The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed
Jama to Walaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
• The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,
Dambiya and Tigray
• In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by
Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at
Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating
Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
• In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-
1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18)
expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn
of Africa while others like the Warday moved to
Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
• In addition to the wars between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates, the organization
of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played
crucial role in the success of the Oromo
population movement .
• In the course of their movement into various regions,
different Oromo branches established Gadaa
centers.
• Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of
Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna,
Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha
became major Gadaa centers.
• Other Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona,
Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of
Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
• Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana,
Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo
Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa
centers and laid down cardinal laws in their
respective areas
• However, various Oromo groups kept their
relations through the office of Abba Muda
(the father of anointment) seated at Madda
Walabu and formed alliances during times
of difficulty.
• Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land.
• Land holding system to regulate resource
and their interaction among different clans
is known as the qabiyye system.
• The system established rights of
precedence (seniority) in possession of
land.
 Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and
Religious Diversities
• One of the major consequences of population
movement of the sixteenth century was the
integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
• The territorial and religious expansion by the
Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from
north to the south.
• Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the
population movements of the Argoba, the Afar and
the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the
central parts of Ethiopia.
• One consequence of the Oromo population movement was
that it put an end to the wars between the Christian and
Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of the
Christian state.
• At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in
the sixteenth century brought far-reaching integrations
among peoples across ethnic and religious background.
• The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
• Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent. The child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
• Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-
Oromos commonly known as Oromsu.
• Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of
individuals or groups to a clan through oath of
allegiance with all the rights and obligations that
such membership entailed.
• A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the
Oromo adopted Gadaa system and Oromo
language.
• Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures
and traditions of the people with whom they came
into contact.
• Peoples and States in the East: Somali
• They inhabited vast territory in the Horn and practiced
pastoral economy.
• Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that
Merca town located in the southern Somali coast near
Shabele River was a capital that brought large
number of Somalis together during the thirteenth
century.
• The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30)
military success depicts that the Somali lived close to
the Christian Kingdom.
• Somali contingents also played important role in the
victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the
Christian Kingdom.
• Historically, a council known as shir governed
the Somali society.
• The decision making process was highly
democratic in which all-adult male were allowed
equal access and participation.
• These councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan
level provided a governing structure that acted
as an enforcement of law and justice.
• The council governed wide-ranging affairs
including resource allocation, marriage, trade
and crime.
• As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of
elders) was the highest political council
mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.
 Peoples and States in the East: Afar
 The Afar predominantly lived in northeastern Ethiopia
and in northern Djibouti, some have also inhabited
southern part of Eritrea.
• The Afar had an indigenous governance system known
as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy.
• The Afar people were first mentioned by Ibn Said.
• During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.
• The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many
historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa.
• Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal
in the sixteenth century, the Afar established their
sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and
Gobad.
• The latter polity had come into existence in 1577,
when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from
Harar to Awsa.
• At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and
temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam Umar
Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne.
• The Sultanate was subsequently reestablished by
Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by
his Mudaito Dynasty.
• Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton.
• Awsa’s economy mainly depended on Bati Ginda’e
trade route.
 Argoba….
• Early reference to the people of Argoba is
insufficient.
• There are two versions on the origin of the people
of Argoba.
• The first version holds that they descended from
the followers of the Prophet Mohammed who came
to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
• The second version claims that the origin of the
Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
• More plausibly, the Argoba are one of the ancient
peoples in the region.
 The Emirate of Harar
• Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the
region of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center
from where he launched his campaigns into the
Christian kingdom in 1527.
• Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid,
Harar became a walled city where the sultanate
of the Harari developed.
• In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r.
1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo established a
dynasty.
• It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul
Shakur (1783-94).
• The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering
other assistance to the Amir.
• The emirate grew in importance to be a
steady center of Islamic culture and power.
• Its economic power grew as it controlled
trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of
Zeila and Berbera.
• Its authority was established over the
surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade,
inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic
teachings.
• Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence
that they sent an expeditionary force in 1875
and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
• Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir
Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for
two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion to the
region shortly followed in 1887.
Peoples and States in Central and South Central
Parts: The Kingdom of Shewa
• The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler
Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) .
• The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/
Sebastyanos (r.1703-18).
• Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital
and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he
was killed by the Karrayu Oromo.
• In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the
Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes
(r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz
and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted
to Ankober.
• Asfa-Wosen (r.1775- 1808) conquered Antsokia,
Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and
Shewa Meda.
• The dynasty became very strong under Negus
Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of
Emperor Menilek II.
• During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa
and he even signed “treaty of friendship and
commerce” with the British in 1841.
• Shewa’s economy was mainly based on
agriculture supplemented by trade and craft.
• Near the capital, Ankobar, there was an
important trade center in Aleyu Amba
administered by the Shewan court.
• Gurage
• They are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage.
• The first are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage and include:
Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna
and Gyeto).
• The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or
Soddo Gurage.
• Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan.
• The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.
• The Gurage had traditional system of governance known
as the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the
Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.
• There was, however, no centralized leadership. Power was
vested in clan or lineage groups.
• The descent groups displayed corporate rights, obligations,
and influence.
• Kambata
• By about 1550-70, four communities of
separate origin coalesced to form the
contemporary state of Kambata which
means, “this is the place” (where we live-as
the Kambata believe in).
• The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense,
had its original homeland around Mount
Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata
territory.
• The other three namely the Dubamo, Donga
and Tembaro trace their homeland from
Sidama highlands.
• If the above processes led to the formation of the
nucleus of the state, the ethno-genesis of Kambata
also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples
who moved into the region at different times.
• Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata
proper and controlled the area between Omo and
Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the
Christian Ethiopian Empire.
• In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s
army, which furthered the interaction of peoples.
• At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were
recognized as and conscious of the name Kambata
related to one of the seven dominant clans
(Kambata Lamala) in the region.
• The people were ensete farmers sharing similar
culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East
Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
• The Kambata had a traditional administrative
institution called the Hambericho Council.
• The council had seven members each
representing the seven clans in the region.
• With a king at the top, the council ruled
Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
• Hadiya
• The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the
thirteenth century. It was mentioned in the Kebre-
Negest (Glory of the Kings).
• The people were heterogeneous both linguistically
and culturally.
• Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated
northern part of the state while the southern part
was largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral
communities.
• There was a considerable Muslim population.
• By about 1332,Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya after
defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a
Muslim “prophet” Bel’am aligned with Sabraddin to
confront the Christian force.
• In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was
consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
• To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political
marriage and married to Princess Elleni
• Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay
tribute to Emperor Sarsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was
suppressed in 1568/9.
• The relations between Hadiya and the Christian
Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo
population movement until Hadiya's incorporation
into the Imperial state in the late nineteenth century.
• After these two major historical events especially the
latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse.
• However, descendants of the old Hadiya can be
traced from four different linguistic clusters: the
Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and
the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badawacho.
• As with the Kambata and Sidama, the Hadiya
language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
family and their languages are intelligible to members
of these ethnic group.
 Peoples and States in the South : Sidama
• Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern
parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l
in the Great East Africa Rift Valley and Abaya up to 3000 m
a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa
and Arroressa districts.
• Agriculture remained the basis of Sidama’s economy.
• Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash
crops respectively.
• The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led
by the Mote (king).
• The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
• Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within
the council and submitted their decisions to the
Mote for approval.
• The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society
was the Woma. He was selected for his ability as
a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical
ability, wisdom and caution.
• He also performed other rituals such as
circumcision and marriage.
• Sidama society was divided into generation-sets
called Luwa having five grades each lasting for
eight years.
• These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa
and Mogissa.
• Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military
training and war songs like gerarsha under the
leadership of the gaden with his deputy called
Ja’lawa.
• Another important institution of Sidama society is
Seera, social constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral
code, halale (the ultimate truth) to judge the right
and wrong.
• Although it was not written and defined with strict
enforcement mechanisms, people abide by the
rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization by
the society.
• Gedeo
• Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the
Gedeo people.
• The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the
Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo
(father of Guji Oromo).
• Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended
from the seven sons of Daraso.
• The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being
the shole batte (senior house) and the second called
sase batte (junior house) where the last three
belonged having 10 sub-clans.
• Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for
particular duty such as ritual, traditional medicine or
leadership.
• The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional
governance system that worked with age classes and
ranking.
• The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period
each creating a 70-year cycle.
• Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho,
Ributa and Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa.
• When the terms of the incumbent Abba Gadaa came to
an end a new holder from the next age set assumed
power at a ceremony known as baalle.
• It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the
top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.
• Their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
 Konso
• The Konso are one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia
and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso
language).
• The literal meaning of the term is a “heavily forested
hill/ area.”
• A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was
covered by dense forest, had been the traditional home
of Konso people while the low-lying environment along
Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting
grounds.
• Konso attracted the attention of local and international
researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one
of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.
• Agriculture was and remains to be the major
economic activity of the Konso.
• The location of mainland Konso within hot and dry
lowlands at the edge of the Great East African Rift
Valley.
• Farmers combined crop production with cattle
breeding.
• At the same time, they adopted soil conservation
techniques notably the construction of terraces.
• Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that
withstood harsh climatic conditions.
• Besides agriculture, Konso’s economy depended on bee
keeping and craftworks.
• Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso
people lived in walled villages (paletas) which
were further divided into wards called Kanta.
• There was no central authority who acted as
sovereign power.
• Each village was ruled by a council of elders
called hayyota who were selected through direct
participation of male members of the village.
• Membership to the council was not hereditary
but rotated every eighteen years.
• At the core of the socio-political organization of the
Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group and
generation set, Tselta.
• The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans
• The Tselta had fixed cycle of years starting from birth,
although they varied across villages- eighteen in
Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo.
• The major function of the generation set was
informing the responsibilities expected of each age
group.
 Peoples and States in South-western Part
• Wolayta
• The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in
southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful kingdom,
which first emerged as a state in the thirteenth century.
• According to local traditions, before the emergence of
Wolayta as a political unit, the area was inhabited by
different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala
and Aruja.
• The state flourished in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries because of successful wars that the
Wolayta fought against their neighbours and the
material, human and territorial gains thereof.
• At the apex of the social and political hierarchy
was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of
advisors.
• From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth
centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre.
• Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami,
the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the
end of the fifteenth century.
• It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty,
so called because it was supposedly founded by
Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
• The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and
moderate climate.
• All land was nominally owned by the king who
granted it to his dependents.
• There were also communal lands allocated for
grazing and social gatherings to which all members
of the society except artisans had equal access.
• The king rewarded people with land on grounds of
gallant deeds in battle and other important
contributions to the state.
• Except those who worked on the royal estate,
landholders paid tribute to the king.
• The dominant food crop was enset (Enset
Ventricosum).
 Kaffa
• According to traditions, this powerful kingdom
emerged in the fourteenth century.
• Around mid seventeenth century, the state had
come to prominence.
• The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval
kingdom of Ennarya had close contact.
• The Oromo expansion might have forced the
ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the
Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity and
the royal title tato to Kaffa.
• Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of
enset .
• Besides working on their land, peasants rendered
free labor service and tilled royal estates with the
support of slaves who were acquired through raiding
or trading, or as payment for debt.
• As far as trade is concerned, a prosperous
commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe
region.
• Major trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves,
Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported
via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.
• From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the
kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao,
She and Chara.
• At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the
Tato with his major political center at Bonga.
• Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven miles to
southeast.
• The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors
called Mikrecho; they played important roles in
succession as well.
• The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called
Kuripo as defensive barrier.
• The Gojeb also served as natural protection against
external invasion and it might have contributed to their
relative independence until 1897.
 Yem

• The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the
Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa kingdom.
• Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.
• Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-
Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/
Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
• Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno
(king) of Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of
divinity.
• A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its
chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the
state.
• Erasho were the provincial governors and they were
responsible for digging ditches called bero and erecting
nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the
kingdom around Brisi Bita so that the war father, the
Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.
• Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down
to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
• In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo
Dasha was overthrown by people from the north who
founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center
at Angari.
• In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of Jimma
Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem which itself was absorbed
into the imperial state of Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II
towards the end of the century.
 Gamo
• Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes
Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and
beyond.
• Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two:
the geze (highland) and the bazo (lowland).
• A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga
defined land-use in the Gamo highlands.
• The cultivation of enset had been central to the
subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the
lowlands.
• Other crops grown in the highlands included
barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage.
• Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking
were other modes of the subsistence system.
• These people had developed their own indigenous
knowledge and technologies in weaving colorful
textiles
• The first mention of the Gamo in written records
dates back to the fifteenth century in the praise
songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).
• The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from
control by the Christian Kingdom after war with the
Muslim sultanates weakened the latter.
• Between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries,
the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and
organized in different communities called dere.
• The dere were politically autonomous villages
(units) but shared three essential features.
• 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler); 2) every
dere had its own initiates called halaqa and; (3)
every dere had its own assembly place called
dubusha.
• Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo
people was made possible through initiation or
election and baira, a system of seniority.
• The two systems functioned both in opposition to
each other as well as complementarily. Through
initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected
married men to positions.
• Election to this office was open to all married men .
• The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely
based on genealogical seniority according to
primogeniture.
• The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors
at all levels of the community.
• The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo.
• The concept of kawo refers to the first rank status, with
variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth and
primogeniture.
 Dawuro
• Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and
plateau at the central, and lowland and plain at the
Gojeb and Omo river basins.
• The land is divided into three climatic zones: geziya
(highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a
(lowland).
• Such climatic conditions enriched Dawuro with a
variety of tree species and natural vegetation /forest.
• The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed
agricultural activities.
• The language of Dawuro people is Dawurotsuwa.
• Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by
three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and
Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as
or K’omos.
• The area was also home for people that came
from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta,
Kucha, Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from places
like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa.
• A political alliance through royal marriages was
one important factor that facilitated the
movement of people from neighboring
territories into Dawuro.
• By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a
big state from a great number of petty chieftainships
on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers
in the north, east and south and the Kafa high
mountains in the west.
• Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro,
Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous.
• Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa.
• During his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta.
• He is known for his stone fortifications, which he
oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
• Ari
• The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one
branch of the Omotic language family.
• The people were sedentary agriculturalist and the society
was organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms.
• Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these
chiefdoms.
• The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual
authorities over the people of his respective domain.
• The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed
prominent figures in the administration of the political unit.
• The assistants included Godimis (religious leaders), Zis
(village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).
• Peoples and States in the West
• Berta and Gumuz
• The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul
Regional State.
• The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region
dates from the sixteenth century.
• The Berta people speak the Berta language as their
mother tongue.
• It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-
Saharan linguistic group.
 Gumuz
• In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home
for the Gumuz.
• They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer
James Bruce. He notes that they hunted with bows
and arrows, a custom that survives today.
• The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which
belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family.
• It is subdivided in several dialects.
• Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and
other Nilotes because of their trade and social
contacts with the northern Sudan.
• Anywa
• Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited on the
western borderlands of the present-day Gambella region.
• The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo-
Saharan language family.
• The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby
each village lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with
the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of farm and
grazing fields, settled disputes etc. with the community.
• Although local traditions mention a certain person by the
name Oshoda as the founding father of the Anywa, the
administration of the territory was not centralized.
• Economically, they are engaged in small-scale cultivation,
fishing and hunting.
• While most Anywa practiced Christianity, they also believed in
traditional religion.
• Nuer
• Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the
savannas and marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper
Nile regions of the Sudan.
• Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely settled
in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers
and parts of the Sudan.
• The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding
supplemented by crop production.
• The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture
around their cattle, which were used as bride wealth as well.
• The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and
political functions.
• Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series
of rites connected with it before they were initiated into
adulthood.
 Majang
• The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-
Saharan settlement that covered the escarpment of
the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains.
• Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the Majang
to the Boma plateau in South Sudan.
• Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in
forested areas of western Ethiopia.
• By mid twentieth century, their settlement extended
to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north.
• Economically, the Majang practiced shifting
cultivation and animal husbandry.
• Other economic activities of the Majang include
beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
• Kunama
• The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the
ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash and
Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and
western Tigray.
• The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the
kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation of the
Kunama.
• The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-
anene mandated with the administration of the society.
• Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting
asylum to new comers in the sanctuary of their compounds
and performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in
case of homicides.
• The office of the sanga-anene was held by male members
of the society. The office was transmitted hereditarily from
the eldest brother to the next born through matrilineal line.
 Kunama
• The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture.
• Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles
and the ox (camel)-drawn plough.
• Signs of past practices of terraced agriculture are still
visible in some areas of the Kunama.
• The staple crop among the Kunama is sorghum (kina),
which also has a ceremonial value.
• Other crops grown are millet (bortaor beca), pulses and
maize (afokina).
• The Kunama also keep livestock mainly goats, sheep,
oxen, and camels.
The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

• The Gondarine Period

• A. Political Developments
• The Gondarine period began from the reign of Emperor
Sarsa-Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian
emperors shifted to Gondar area.
• Emperor Sarsa-Dengel established royal camp at
Enfranz in 1571.
• Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital
near Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz
and Azazo.
• Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiladas
established his political seat there.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first
three successive emperors: Fasiladas (r.1632–67),
Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
• Among the major reforms during these periods were
the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
and the establishment of a royal prison at Amba
Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry.
• Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a
separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
• His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha
Negest (the civil code).
 The Gondarine…..
• The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the
leadership of his own son, Tekle-Haymanot, ushered in
political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and
poisoning of reigning monarchs.
• Takla-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of
his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
• Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also
poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was
poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
• Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his
followersand his wife Etege Mentewab until he was
incapacitated in 1728.
• The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army.
 The Gondarine….
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court
politics.
 Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and
Iyoas (1755-69).
 Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by
Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court,
Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was
politically astute and militarily powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to
return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas.
 This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old
man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el.
 Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-Haymanot
II (1769-77) on power.
 This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
 B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
• Gondar became the center of state administration,
learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts for
more than two centuries.
• The first three kings were successful not only in
political affairs but also in cultural developments.
• Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments.
• This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of
Aksum and Lalibela.
• The cultural achievements of the period led some
writers to describe Gondarine period in history as
Ethiopian Renaissance.
 Achievements of the Gondarine….
• Architecture:
• when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one
hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular
buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library,
towers, fortifications and churches of various size and
shapes.
• In In the city’s compound, in addition to the most impressive
building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces
corresponding to Emperor Fasiladas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I,
Dawit III, Bakafa and Regent Queen Mentewab.
• The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before
the reign of emperor Fasiladas during the reign of Emperor
Sarsa-Dengle at about 1586, as could be seen from his palace
at Guzara near Enfranz.
 Architecture
• The architectural styles of Fasiladas castle
usually have two strides and almost square,
circular domed corner towers.
• Not only castles, but the building of bridges
are said to be predate the reign of Fasiladas.
• Emperor Sarsa-Dengel is said to have built a
very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and
Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge
over Blue Nile at Alata.
• Painting and literature
• This period is known as for the production of a wealth
of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories.
• The churches built by Queen Mentewab were known for
their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
• The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great
number of manuscripts.
• Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of
Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many other kinds of
illuminated manuscripts were also produced.
• Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music
and poetry.
 Trade and Urbanization
• Gondar was a commercial center that connected
long distance trade routes of the southern region
with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan
border.
• Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
• Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
• With spread of urbanization, the city became
residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians.
• The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000
population.
• In addition to its political and commercial
importance, it served as religious center of
Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel.
• Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church until the middle of the
nineteenth century.
• Many of the Orthodox churches which served as
education centers, known for their excellence in
teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical chanting were
centered at Gondar.
 The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

• Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when

actual political power was in the hands of
different regional lords.
• The period lasted from the time Ras Michael
Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to
1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as
Tewodros II.
 Zemene Mesafint ….
• Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to
dominate the other regional lords.
• These measures made him highly unpopular because of which
coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and
defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
• Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability but
several regional lords evolved.
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were
Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam
and Shewa.
• When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading
power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debre-Tabor.
• Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of
“Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Zemene Mesafint ….
• Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso
(r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and
Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
• In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8),
defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen.
• Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of
Koso-Ber in 1827.
• The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to
an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series
of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
 Zemene Mesafint ….
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king-maker;
 establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role
of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy.
 In addition to the above features, there were developments in
terms of literature, arts, architecture etc. during the period.
 UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND

EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-
1941
 The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and
States of Ethiopia and the Horn

Peoples and States in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

• At the beginning of the 19th c, many autonomous and semi-autonomous peoples and
states existed in Ethiopia and the Horn
A. South-Central
 Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata and Gurage were autonomous and semiautonomous
political entities during this period
 Economically, they depended largely on agriculture
 Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the
long distance trade
• trade routes that connected the interior with the
coast passed through these territories
• Among these, the Gurage land was an important
market center and political entity
• Important trade centers such as Soddo and Aymallel
were located in the Gurage land
B. The Gibe States
• towards the beginning of the 19th c, several
monarchical states (motumma) emerged among the
Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system.
 Cont’d
• Many factors accounted for the transformation of
the Gadaa system
 the war leaders of the Gadaa system (Abba-Dula)
and powerful individuals usurped the power of the
Gadaa government
 The abba-dula accumulated wealth from the control
and taxation on long distance trade and utilized the
opportunity to establish hereditary leadership
 Finally, the five Gibe states were emerged
 Cont’d
i. Limmu-Enarya
• was the earliest of the Gibe states
• was founded through the incorporation of Enarya
• Established by Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825)
• Bofo abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61)
• reached the height of its power during Ibsa’s reign, when he
incorporated areas including Hagalo,
Badi-Folla etc
• Ibsa was succeeded by Abba Bulgu (1861-1883)
ii. Gumma
• Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan
• Jilcha began state formation and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-
1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-1854)
 Cont’d
iii. Gomma
• formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was
succeeded by his son Abba
Manoo (1829-1840)
• Abba Manoo (1829-1840) occupied Qattuu and
converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars.
IV. Jimma
• towards the late 19th century, Makahore emerged as
an influential female figure among the Sadacha
Mecha Oromo of Jimma
 Cont’d
• The local Abba Dula sought to take political power from
her.
• Among the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected
as a
hereditary ruler against the Gadaa rule
• He was succeeded by Dangila (Abba Magal) who
enlarged the domain
• The process of state formation was completed by
Sanna/Abba Jifar
I (r.1830-55) who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a
consolidated state to his successors like:
 Abba Rebu (1855-59)
 Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and
 Cont’d
• The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was
Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-1934)
• Apart from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's
economy depended on iron mining and smelting at
Dakkano and Kito, respectively
v. Gera:
• was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed
• its state formation was completed during the reign
of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader
who made himself king
• Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu Gunji after
a short interlude by Abba Basso
 Cont’d
• Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had
been converted to Islam
• As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim
missionaries to preach Islam
C. The Leqa States
• Like in the Gibe region, several monarchical kingdoms
evolved among the Mecha Oromo of Wallagga
 the Sibu and the Jawwi south of the Abbay River
 kingdom of Horro established by Moti Abishe
 Leqa-Naqamte was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840
reached its height under his successors Moroda and
Kumsa
 Cont’d
 Moroda and Kumsa were able to establish strong
monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture
 Moti Kumsa (later Dejazmach Gebre-Egzi'abiher) was
known for promoting handcraft work, gold washing,
coffee planting and game reserves/hunting
 The Leqa-Naqamte rulers instituted a new dministrative
structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the
Gadaa system known as sirna abba-qoro (qoro
system)
 In its nature, the administration system was essentially
kingship and was quite similar to feudal administration
in its reliance on land.
 Cont’d
 Leqa-Qellam was located in southwestern Wallagga
It was founded by Tullu
became powerful Jote being centered at Gidami
and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo
D. State of Ilu-Abba Bor
• Founded by Chali Shono (also known as Abba Bor)
in the early 19th century
 He was from the Tume clan
• It was one of the prosperous states in the region
 Cont’d
• Each Oromo monarchical state had officials like
 Abba Gurmu (next person to the king)
 Abba Mizan (treasurer and foreign affair minister)
 Abba Dango (immigration chief)
 Abba Lammi (ambassador/royalmessenger)
 Abba Qoro (district governor)
 Abba Ganda (village chief)
 Abba Busi (tax head)
 Abba Jiga (murder judge) and
 Abba-Qawe (body-guard).
 Cont’d
• Contrary to the Gadaa values that did not levy any kind of
taxation, under monarchical systems farmers were forced to pay
crop tax measured by traditional instruments called buchano
(about 15 kilograms) and later guboo (25 kilograms) on each crop
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms
• in the early 19th c, important Islamic centers emerged in
the lower course of the Abbay
• A number of Shiekdoms were established through parallel
imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta
and Gumuz inhabitants
• Among them:
 the Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi
 Bela Shangul and
 Khomosha
The above three Sheikdoms were established to the
south of Abbay River while the Sheikhdom of Guba
emerged to the north of the same river in the
western edge of Gojjam
 The four sheikhdoms were founded by Muslim
leaders of Sudanese origin who considered
themselves as ‘Watawit’
The term Watawit refers to Arabized Berta people
who had entered and settled in Benishangul as
traders and Islamic religious teachers in the late 19 th
and early 20th centuries.
• The main economic bases of the sheikdoms were
agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade
• Among these sheikhdoms:
 Asosa got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al
Hasan
 Bela/BeniShangul became famous under Abd al
Rahman Khojale
 Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale
Muhammad Wad Mahmud
• Similarly, Guba was founded to the north of the
Abbay River along the Ethio-Sudanese border
 Cont’d

• The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross

border trade was the main reasons for the
rise of these states
• The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign
powers like the Egyptians and Mahdists who
attempted to control the sheikdoms at different
times
 Trade and Trade Routes

• Although the trade routes which linked southwestern

Ethiopia to the coast had medieval
antecedents, it was in the 19th c that they attained
particular prominence
 This was partly because of the revival of external trade in
the Red Sea region
 As a result, trade became one means of maintaining strong
relations across peoples of different areas and backgrounds
 During this period, two main trade lines linked various
territories of Ethiopia and the Horn
 One route originated from Bonga, the capital of Kafa
Kingdom, linked peoples and states of the southwestern
Ethiopia with the northern part of the Ethiopian region
 Cont’d
• The main market centers along this line were Bonga,
Hirmata (in Jimma), Saqa (in Limmu), Billo (in Leqa-
Naqamte), Asandabo (in Guduru), Basso-Yajube (in Gojjam),
Yifag and Darita (in Begemider) and Gondar
 From Gondar, one line bifurcated to westward through
Chilga to Matamma-Qallabat (Gallabat) taking commodities
to be sold to the Sudanese merchants called Jallaba
 The other route passed through Adwa, Asmara and entered
Massawa
 Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and
Dawwe in Wollo and Awusa in Afar to Tajura, Obbok and
Rahe’ita in Djibouti
 Cont’d
• The second major trade route also began from
Bonga and passed through Hirmata to Agabja-
Andode-Toli to Soddo in southwest Shewa; Rogge
near Yerer
 Then, the line passed through Aliyu Amba or Abdul
Rasul in northern Shewa and ran eastward to Harar
 From Harar, the route branched into Zeila and
Berbera, the most important commercial centers in
Somalia
 Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the
Middle East
 Cont’d
• In the trade between the interior and the coast,
varieties of items were exchanged
• The main sources of exported items were the
southwestern regions. Among these were:
 gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk,
honey, wax, coffee, various spices and slaves
Slaves were either raided or bought from
different parts of Ethiopia and exported to
Arabia, Persia and India.
• Likewise, imported products included: mirrors
and iron ware.
 Cont’d
• The major medium of exchange were salt bars (amole), iron
bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads, pieces of cotton
cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc.
• For internal trade, amole was the major
important commodity and source of wealth
 It was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern
Tigray where it was also suitably shaped for transportation
 Then, it was transported from the region to the highlands
through Adwa, Gondar, and to south and southwestern parts
of the region
 The other route took salt from eastern Tigray to south Wollo
and Shewa
 Cont’d
• The town of Mekelle prospered as the salt was cut in
and distributed to the highlands from the area under the
supervision of the governor of Enderta
• MTT was a coin introduced from Austria to the Horn
of African region at the end of the 18th c
 On the Red Sea Coast, MTT was used with other kinds of
European and Middle Eastern coins
• Diverse peoples of different ethnic and religious
background were involved in the trade
 At each market center, local peoples were active traders
 However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant
that traveled from interior to the coast
 Cont’d
• Among these were northern Muslim merchants
(Jabarti) and
• Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region
known as Afqala
• Similarly, the Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa
were active merchants in the trade between Harar
and the northern Somali coast
 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

• the diverse peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn were

brought into contact through the agency of trade,
population movements, evangelization, and wars
• These agencies played an important part in the
making of the modern Ethiopian state
• On the other hand, a number of autonomous and
semi-autonomous peoples and polities were in
existence in many regions up to the end of the
nineteenth century
• During the nineteenth century, several states that
emerged in the region were involved in territorial
competition not only to extend control over
 Cont’d
• To put it differently, state building remained an agenda of
several powerful individuals and groups that arose in the
nineteenth century
• The difference was the level of their strength and
ambition, and their relations with foreign powers
• States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia had
relative
• The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through
two distinct phases
 The first one involved unifying different regions and
peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia
 The second phase involved territorial expansion into the
southern parts of the country
 Cont’d
A. The Process of Territorial Unification
• The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the
imperial power, which had declined during the
Zemene-Mesafint
• This occurred after a series of battles and human and
material losses
• A leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu
of Quara
• It is better to trace the origin of Kassa's ideas to the
tradition of a once unified Ethiopian state
• The myth behind his throne name "Tewodros" makes
this clear
 Cont’d
• Kasa Hailu ended the Zemene Mesafint
• He started his career by assisting his half-brother,
Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad
Kaltabu (in present-day eastern Sudan) in 1837
• In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place
called Dabarki.
• Although they showed extraordinary courage,
Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing to the Egyptians’
superior military organization, discipline, and better
arms
 Cont’d
• Notwithstanding his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the
importance of a modern army.
• Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major concern to
the Warra-Sheh (Yejju) ruling house
• As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage arrangement.
Hence, Kasa married Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was
appointed the governor of Quara
• However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his
mother, Etege Menen, and hence, he resumed his shifta life resulting in a
series of battles. Accordingly:
 Kasa defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on
November 27, 1852
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs sent by Ras
Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora Bichign) on April 12, 1853
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and
Tigray at Deresge on 8 February, 1855
 Cont’d
• After defeating the major regional lords
one after another, he was anointed by Abune Salama, at
Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855, with the throne
name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia.
• Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to
the south. He subsequently marched first to Wollo and
then to Shewa
• He wanted to create a strong central government by
appointing individuals (both hereditary and non-
hereditary) who would be totally accountable to him
• However, he faced resistance soon after he came to power.
After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in
several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen, Wag
and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray
 Cont’d
• Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic
crisis following the imprisonment of a handful of Britons and
other Europeans. As a result:
 the British government sent an expeditionary force to free
those prisoners and punish the emperor
 at the battle Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on
April 13, 1868
 soon three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek
of Shewa
 Gobeze took state power immediately after Tewodros as
Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71)
 the quest for state power put Gobaze &Kasa Mircha in enmity,
consequetly the reign of Tekele-Giorgis II came to an end
following a battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871
 Cont’d
• Kasa, who became Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872,
embarked on a state building project with an approach that
differed from that of Tewodros
 He attempted to introduce a decentralized system of
administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a
great deal of autonomy. Examples:
 his recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa in 1878 by
the Liche agreement
 designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as Negus Tekle-
Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881
 he succeeded in achieving the unity of the predominantly-
Christian provinces including Wag and Lasta, Simen,
Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and the
Mereb Milash for quite some time
 Cont’d
 he sought to end the religious controversy within the
EOC as well as effect religious unity in the country as a
whole
he presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878)
where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the
EOC
followed by a campaign to convert Muslims and
adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity
Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as
Mohammed Ali and Amede Liben heeded the
Emperor's call, rather reluctantly, converting to
Christianity and changing their names to Ras Michael
and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively
 Cont’d
• Others accepted the Emperor's demand outwardly but remained
Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and Muslims by night“
• Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the
Sudan while others revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola
(Talha) Jafar that led to harsh measures of Emperor Yohannes IV
Externally
• Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians,
and the Mahdists at different times
• He lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in 1889
• Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as
his successor, rivalry for power split the monarch's camp and
thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial
throne
 Cont’d
• As a result, the throne was assumed by Negus
Menilek of Shewa who became Emperor Menilek II
(1889-1913)
• Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor
Menilek. The tension was resolved after Menilek led
a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in 1889
• Ras Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray
after a temporary arrangement in which Ras
Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a
year.
 B. Territorial Expansion

• Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and others

made state building their mission and struggled to
achieve that goal. Yet, the most successful was Menilek
of Shewa
• This was because Menilek had, among other factors,
access to modern firearms.
• The control of resource rich areas that enabled the
emperor to build military muscle as well as the
determination of his generals counted for his successes
• The process of territorial expansion by Menilek can be
discussed in three phases i.e. when he was king of
Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96 and the aftermath of
Adwa (1896-1900)
 Cont’d
• Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the
Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo territories after
controlling local leaders notably:
Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale,Tufa Muna of
Gimbichu , Ture Galate of Soddo and others
• Meanwhile, other Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache,
Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo
(AbbaNefso) and others worked towards the formation of
the modern Ethiopian state
• In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully
submitted to Menilek because of their religious affinity and
geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and for
fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo.
 Cont’d
• On the other hand, the western Gurage, led
by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had elements of
Hadiya-Gurage coalition, strongly resisted Menilek's
force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in
1888
• Menilek's territorial expansion to western and
southwestern regions was concluded through
both forceful and peaceful submissions
• In the regions south of the Abbay River, particularly
in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam had
already established his control over the
region since the mid1870s
 Cont’d
• Although he faced stiff resistance from Moti (King) Abishe
Garba of Horro, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his
entourage at a place called Kokor
 Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot since 1881) controlled
the region until 1882, when he was
defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana
• After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and
Jimma Abba Jifar submitted to Menilek peacefully, who
promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomy
• Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-
Horda), Ligdi Bakare (LeqaNaqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire),
Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan (Nonno
Rogge) formed a coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by
the Nadew brothers, Dasta, Dilinesaw and Tesemma at the
Battle of Gurra Doba
 Cont’d
• Similarly, west of the Dhidhessa River, an alliance of
Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole Kabba and
others fought Menilek's local allies like Moroda and
Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro. Later, however, they
were defeated
• In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's
army from 1889 to 1901.
• The imperial army faced similar resistance from Abba
Bosso of Gomma, although defeated by Ras Demisew
Nesibu in early 1900
• Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba
Bor into the imperial state after fighting with Fatansa at
Qarsa Gogila.
 Cont’d
• Of all the campaigns Nigus Menilek conducted before he became
emperor, perhaps, the most sustained bloody wars were those
against the Arsi Oromo
 It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control this vast
region
 Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi Oromo led by
notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and
Roba Butta
 Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's force at Dodota and
Qalata
 Yet, with intelligence service of local supporters, Ras Darge Sahile-
Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of Azule on
6 September 1886
 The battle of Azule was followed by what is known as the Anole
incident of 1887, which inflicted heavy damage on the Arsi
 [There is disagreement among historians on the veracity of the
incident and on whether there is a need to highlight it, as the
campaigns of territorial expansion were often attended by atrocities
as was the case for instance in Kafa and Walayta]
• In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought
against the Itu in 1886 and incorporated Chercher
• A year later, Dejjach Mekonnen’s army marched into Harar
• The resisting forces of Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and
Bakar Ware of the Eastern Oromo were defeated in the final
engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887
• This was followed by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras)
Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of the province by Emperor
Menilek II
 Cont’d
• This was followed by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras)
Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of the province by
Emperor Menilek II
• The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also
contributed to Menilek's territorial expansion to parts of
southern Ethiopia
• Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied Dawuro, Konta and
Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively
• From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled
Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and Wolayta
• In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many
notables such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu
Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo,
Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma participated
 Cont’d
• Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Borana Beni-
Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of Adwa
• The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled
the Wolayta experience in terms of human cost
• In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought
and lost to Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis
• Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of
Fadogno in 1897/98
• This was followed by the occupation of Maji in
1898/99
• Tesema Nadew also controlled Baro (Sobat) and
Nasir in Gambella around this time
 Cont’d
• The process of territorial expansion was consummated with
the signing of boundary agreements with the neighboring
colonial powers that continued until 1908
• Most of these treaties were signed after the victory of Adwa
• After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing
a unitary state continued by abolishing regional autonomies
in the early decades of the twentieth century
• In the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916
when Nigus Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir (after the
battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in
1930), Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in 1933 were reduced to
mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I)
 Modernization Attempts

• The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to

adopt western ideas and technology
by Ethiopian monarchs
• Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were
interested in European technologies, Emperor Tewodros
had relatively better information/contact about western
technologies than his predecessors
• He was well aware of the importance of European
technologies to transform his people and country
 For this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans
for the introduction of western science and technologies
 Cont’d
• It is apparent that, Kasa’s defeat by the well-trained and equipped
Egyptian troops at the Battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think
putting the country “on an equal footing with European powers.”
• As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and
socio-economic reform measures
• As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr
Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa
• Besides, he tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the
Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army
• Furthermore, he tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat
(near Debre Tabor) with the help of European missionaries and
artisans
• At Gafat, about 35 cannons were produced of which the biggest one
was known as “Sebastopol."
 Cont’d
• He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana
• The administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on
the centralization of power and securing financial base
• He introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning
that everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the
merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough
• He tried to separate church and the monarchy
• He tried to reduce the amount of land held by the
church as well as the number of priests and deacons
serving every church brought him into conflict with the
EOC, which precipitated his downfall
 Cont’d
• In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction
of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with
Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela
• He also attempted to put an end to the slave trade
• Other reform attempts include land reform and banning of
polygamy
• The use of Amharic writing became more developed, and a
traditional library was established at Maqdala, all of which
contributed to the development of literary Amharic
• He wrote letters after letters to different foreign powers including
to Queen Victoria using Amharic language
• With regard to religion, he tried to solve the doctrinal
controversy that continued from the 17th century within the EOC
• However, his reforms were not fully materialized owing to internal
oppositions and external challenges
 Cont’d
• Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms and
innovations
• Among these, he was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign
consul who served as his representative in London
• He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian
construction worker to assist his modernization efforts of the country
• Furthermore, he sent some individuals abroad for modern education
• He was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox
replacing traditional inoculation
• His reign also witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns
• Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse
elements
 Cont’d
• The post Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a postal service
and telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system, the
construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the opening of a
bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of silver coin
• In terms of administration, the emperor introduced European style
ministerial system/ministers in 1907
• Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice),
Azazh Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond
MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance), Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde
(Minister of War), Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of
Commerce and Foreign Relations), and Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde
Aregay (Minister of Pen)
• His reign also witnessed the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), a
modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and the foundation of Russian
Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in
1910
• After Emperor Menilek II faced permanent ailment that
incapacitated him, he designated and eventually proclaimed
Lij Iyasu and Ras Tesemma Nadew as heir to the throne and
regent, respectively
• During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16) also took
several reform measures
• The reforms are the banning of the Quragna system, a
system that involved chaining the applicant and defendant
as well as creditor and debtor until justice was settled
• He tried to amend Leba Shay, a customary mode of
detection of criminals or theft
• He introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle
• He introduced a policy of auditing of government
accounts, and he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims
into the administration structure
• His rule also witnessed the introduction of a flourmill
that functioned mechanically and private industrial
enterprises like sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a
soap-factory, etc
• During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras
Teferi (r. 1916-1930), there were several
modernization attempts in broader scope
• The two rulers namely Ras Teferi and Empress
Zewditu had different views towards western culture.
 Cont’d
• This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the
League of Nations and his grand tour to Europe in 1923 and
1924, respectively
• Some remarkable reforms based on European model took
place following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in
1930
• Some of the reforms were the centralization of the
government, promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in
1931 (despite its drawbacks),
establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help
of Belgian military mission and the opening of Ethiopia’s first
Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a Swedish
military mission in 1934
 Socio-Economic Developments
• The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in
socio-economic conditions including trade, slavery and slave
trade, agriculture, urbanization and manufacturing
• Factors for these changes included the socio-economic
dynamics in the region and the world
Agriculture and Land Tenure
• The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were times when
agricultural economy grew and the demand for land for
cultivation and grazing increased
• The system favored the powerful groups to control land that
resulted in the change of property right on the preexisting land
tenure system
• The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of
the period could be understood from the territorial
• This altered people's relation to land, making some privileged
and others unprivileged
• The quest for land and surplus production was one factor for
territorial expansion by Menilek in the late nineteenth century
• Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the
warriors and their families
• Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country
into the imperial state resulted in the redefinition of access to
resources in these regions
• The state institutionalized different forms of surplus
expropriation and mechanisms to ensure political
control in the regions that had peacefully submitted and those
that resisted
• The former relatively enjoyed self-administration but were
subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax)
 Cont’d
• The latter were placed under the naftegna-gabbar/gabbar-
naftegna system whereby local peoples were made to pay
tribute to the former
• Gradually, the naftegna-gabbar system led to the evolution of a
new tenure regime in the forcefully incorporated areas
• Literally, naftegna means a person with a gun
• In this context, naftegna refers to soldiers of different social
backgrounds who were stationed in the southern territories
under the imperial banner
• One effect of the institution of the naftegna-gabbar system was
the creation of classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and
tenants.
 Cont’d
• The landholders were largely government agents while the
local population was reduced in time into gabbar and later
tenant
• One major factor that brought change to agricultural
practices including land tenure system was the beginning of
the qalad system (land measurement) in the 1890s
• Land measurement affected access to agricultural resources
in diverse ways including changes to customary rules of
access to land
• Qalad introduced new practices in which certain social
classes gained access to land while at the same time it
resulted in the dispossession of the local peasantry in parts
of the south
• Later, land was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf
 Slavery and Slave Trade

• Most slaves in Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some

were sold to Egypt and the Middle East and the Ottoman
Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
ports
• During the nineteenth century, in some parts of Ethiopia,
slaves were required for agricultural works, in
the army and as sources of revenue through selling into slavery
• Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved people for
these purposes. Slaves were traded as commodities in local
and international markets
• For instance, in 1837 slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma
and sold her to a German prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at
Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba and made her his
mistress
 Cont’d
• The major commodities of both local and long distance trade in the 19th c
were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold Slavery and slave trade had long history
in Ethiopia and the Horn
• Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu
when he was four years old
• He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission, after which he
translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (inEritrea)
• Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu
• However, in 1886, she was emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the
translation of the Bible
• During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the
Horn due to increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the
Middle East
• this was followed by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to
Metemma and Massawa
 Cont’d
• Selling slavesv was source of revenue for many local chiefs. Slaves
were acquired through raiding, kidnapping, war captivity, debt
bondage, and purchase from open markets
• Major sources of slaves were southern and southwestern parts of
Ethiopia
• Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the
slave trade although not slavery itself
• In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in
a decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves
• This was followed by the establishment of the Office for
the Abolition of Slavery in 1932
• Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of
Hakim Warqineh Eshete
• The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after
their occupation of the country
 Cont’d
• After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing
any forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery itself
• The impact of slavery was obviously social and economic
deterioration of the source areas, families and suffering of the slaves
themselves
Manufacturing
• in many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old
indigenous ways of producing/making tools
• Such manufacturing activities involved simple procedures and
techniques and produced limited quantity of items
• For instance, different items like furniture, dresses and food including
local drinks, were produced and processed by using
traditional techniques involving manual labor
 Cont’d
• One result of the contact with the industrialized world from the mid
19th c was the introduction of manufacturing technologies
• The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the
post-Adwa period was followed by the coming of many expatriates,
who either came with the skill or became agents of the introduction
of modern manufacturing
• Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy and India also brought
entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries locally
• Among modern manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill and
Massawa Salt Processing were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively
• Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire
Dawa, Asmara and Massawa
• These included cement factories, wood and clay workshops,
tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories,
breweries, tobacco processing plants and grain mills
 Cont’d
• Private entrepreneurs established most of them
• Among these, Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant
were established before the Italian occupation
• After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than
ten manufacturing industries were set up
Urbanization
• The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l marked the
evolution of towns stemming from political, socio-economic,
demographic and ecological factors
• During the period, the expansion of both local and long distance trade
since the early nineteenth century
had transformed old markets and socio-political centers into towns in
Ethiopia and the Horn
• In this case, several towns located on the long-distance trade in
western Ethiopia grew into towns
 Cont’d
• In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and
Addis Ababa as of 1917 was followed by the evolution of several
fast growing towns
• Towns including Dire-Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others
were results of the extension of the railway and the expansion of
trade
• On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of
the region evolved into towns
• This was true mainly in the northern parts of Ethiopia
• Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into
towns and parallel to this many towns declined with the
demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other centers
• One of the towns that grew through such process was Addis
Ababa
 Cont’d
• Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly
called Hora Finfinne)
• Similarly, as of the late nineteenth century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of
towns emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable
locations in order to maintain control of the occupied provinces
• The presence of the governors and soldiers made such areas permanent
areas of politico-economic and religious activities
• Such centers of administration known as katamas (garrison towns) became
centers of trade and eventually grew into towns
• Towns including Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc were garrisons that grew into
towns
• During the Italian rule (1936-41), several of the above towns grew in size and
other new towns evolved because of socio-economic and political
developments of the period
 External Relations

Agreements and Treaties

• One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of
the 'close door policy’ that was introduced by Emperor
Fasiladas (1632-1667)
• Thus, beginning from the early 1800s, regional rulers
made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties
• During the nineteenth century, the agents of these
external relations were mainly travelers
• Travelers came to Ethiopia and the Horn with the motives
of adventure and scientific research
• They were also sometimes involved in fostering
friendship and trade relation on behalf of their
 Cont’d
• Some of them, however, came with covert mission of
colonialism
• Meanwhile, various rulers of Ethiopia and the Horn had also
dispatched their own delegations to various countries of the
world
• One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who
reached the court of Ras Wolde-Selassie of Tigray on 28 August
1805
• He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission
was to establish friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia.
• He returned to Ethiopia in 1809 and concluded agreement with
the Ras.
 Cont’d
• Several British travelers including Christian Kugler also
arrived in the 1830s
• Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a
scholar) arrived in 1846
• Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission
visited Shewa
• John Bell and Walter Plowden in the 1840s, the Italian
Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived for
trade relation and scientific purposes
• The result of these contacts was the agreement
between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and British
Captain W. Harris in 1841 as well as with the French
 Cont’d
• In addition, Walter Plowden also signed treaty with Ras Ali in
1849
• Furthermore, other regional lords had contacts with religious
centers in the Middle East, particularly with Jerusalem
• During the period, Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious
community settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem
• As a result, in the early 1850s, strong lords like Ras Ali and
Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to
request support against the Egyptians
• External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed
more elaborate and oriented towards obtaining western
technology and military support to defend against foreign
aggression
 Cont’d
• As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create
strong relations with Europeans
• The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were the restoration
of the lost territories, the delimitation of boundaries and the
defense of the
sovereignty of the state against the threat and interference by
foreign powers
• When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve
through negotiation than war
• War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and
Mahdists Sudan in 1889One of the major diplomatic relations
Yohannes concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty
• It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear
Admiral William Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa
 Cont’d

• The purpose was to safely evacuate Egyptian troops through

Ethiopia who were trapped by the Mahdists troops along the
Ethio-Sudanese border
• In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter
was to freely use Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms
• Based on the agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe
evacuation of Egyptian troops through his territory. Britain
restored Bogos to Ethiopia
• However, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to
Italy in February 1885
• One consequence of the treaty was Mahdists' determination to
avenge Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9 March
1889, which claimed his life
 Cont’d
• In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external
threats, Emperor Menilek II was more
successful through maintaining the balance among powerful
forces of the period
• While he was king of Shewa, he established commercial
relation with Italy that later helped him to acquire military
equipment
• Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the
signing of the Wuchale Treaty
• It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May
1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between Emperor Menilek II of
Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of
Italy
 Cont’d
• The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and
Italian languages
• When Ras Mokonnon vistited Italy after the signing of the treaty, the
Italians made him sign an additional convension, which introduced the
phrase “effective occupation” of Italy to
legitimize the territories that the Italians had come to occupy after the
treaty
• As a result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced
that all foreign powers had to
deal with Ethiopia only through Italy
• European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia
• In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its
colony
 Cont’d
• Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through a combination of
tricky treaties, persuasion and subversive methods failed
• This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale
Treaty in February 1893 and Tigrian lords including Ras
Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi
and Dajjach Hagos Tafari, who the Italians were hoping to use,
began to fight against the Italians collaborating with Emperor
Menilek
• Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian
resistance against colonialism led to the battle the Battle of
Adwa, where the Ethiopians won a decisive victory
• After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries opened
their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official
basis
 Cont’d
• Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary
agreements with the then neighboring
colonial powers like
 French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20
March 1897,
 With British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897
 with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May
1902
 with the Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and
 also with British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-
Somaliland in 1908
 These boundary agreements shaped modern
Ethiopian boundary
 Cont’d
• International politics of the twentieth century also
shaped Ethiopia’s foreign relations
• For instance, during the WWI (1914-18) Lij Iyasu
showed a tendency to side with the Central Powers
(Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Ottoman Empire)
believing that the defeat of the Allied powers (France
and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of
Eritrea and Somalia
• He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid
Mohammed Abdille Hassan, against Italy and Britain
• Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the
Somali against the European occupation
 Cont’d
• One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in
the early twentieth century was her admission to
the League of Nations in 1923
• A year later, Teferi made his grand European
tour, which shaped his ideas of modernization
• Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations,
however, did not save her from Italian invasion in
1935/36
Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

• Ethiopian people fought several battles against

foreign threats during the period under discussion
The Battle of Dabarki (1848)
 was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian
forces in 1848
 The Battle of Maqdela (1868)
 Cont’d
• In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance
through Consul Cameron
• Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any
response Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned
Captain Cameron and other Europeans
• On learning of the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent
a letter through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros
• After some communications, the British parliament decided to take
military action. Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier
were sent through Massawa
• This force reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of
Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes)
• Although Wagshum Gobeze did not make any attempt to fight the
British, he did not join them
 Cont’d
• On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his
general Gebriye were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge
• On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela
• This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of
manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts including his crown by
the British troops
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
• In the 19th c, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy
Northeast Africa with the ambition of controlling the source of the
Nile
• Following their occupation of the Sudan in 1821, they moved to
occupy Ethiopia on several occasions
• For instance, in 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to
invade Ethiopia in three directions
 Cont’d
• Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the
occupation of the Harar Emirate between 1875 and 1885
• Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme
for invasion of Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped
with cannons and rocket tubes through Tajura
• But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the
Battle of Odduma
• Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-
armed troops through
Massawa.
• Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces
and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16
November 1875) where the Egyptian troopswere severely
defeated.
 Cont’d
• Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again
reorganized their forces and sent their army to invade
Ethiopia
• However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at
the Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876
• some Europeans and Americans were in the service of
Egyptians
 For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan,
Werner Munzinger, was a Swiss born adventurer and
former French Consul in Northeast Africa
 Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and
General Charles Stone was fellow American
 The Battle of Dogali

• With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea
region acquired great strategic and commercial importance
• One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa
was Italy
• The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian
private shipping company (Rubatino) bought the port of
Assab from the local chiefs in 1869
• In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to the Italian
government
• In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to
Italy
• By using these bases as springboard, Italy began to penetrate
into northern Ethiopia
 Cont’d
• Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the
then Mereb Milash region
• However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras
Alula Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man
• Following this battle,Italy signed a Treaty of neutrality with Menilek in
October 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor Yohannes
The Battle of Metemma
• the Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian
forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889
• The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uthman Digna in
September 1885
• Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious
• In January 1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam
to repulse the Mahdists
 Cont’d
• A year later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-
Haimanot’s troops at Sar- Wuha
in Dembia
• However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to
check the Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard of the
Mahdists advance up to Gondar
• The Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and
monasteries, including the killing of the clergy and the laity
• At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-
Haimanot conspired against the emperor, instead of directly
facing the Mahdists
• As a result, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be called a
triangular tension, namely the Italians in the north, the
Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the
center
 Cont’d
• Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were defeated at Gute Dilli
(in Najjo-Wallagga) by
Menilek's commander Ras Gobana Dache on October 14, 1888
• Hence, on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where
he died fighting the Mahdists
The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
• The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle
between Ethiopia and Italian forces
• This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia
whereas Ethiopians were ready not to give in
• To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb River, arrived
at Adigrat, and proceeded to Emba-Alage
• The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at
Emba-Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle
 Cont’d
• In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the
Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle
• he strategy was commonly called the “siege of Mekelle” and
was considered to be designed by Empress Taytu
• fter some negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set
free and joined their compatriots at Adwa
• A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek,
Empress Taiytu and war generals
like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha
and Negus Tekle-Haymanot and
others encountered the Italians at Adwa
• The result of this battle was a decisive victory for Ethiopians
but a huge blow to the Italians, which doomed their colonial
ambition over Ethiopia
•
 Cont’d
• At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500
wounded and 3,000 were captured
• On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have
been killed
• Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by
the treaty of Addis Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896
• A number of powers of the time (including Italy, France, Britain,
Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others)
also recognized the independence of Ethiopia and opened their
legations in Addis Ababa
• The victory assured independence and national pride
• It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and
the black race in general
 Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance

• Italy got its ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by

Benito Mussolini held power
• The Fascists were determined to restore the power and glory
of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful scar at
Adwa
• Initially, Mussolini did not disclose his ambition against the
sovereignty of Ethiopia rather he was playing diplomatic
‘cards’ till the coming of the ‘right time.’
• To achieve their goal of occupation of Ethiopia, Italians
followed two policies as was the case before the Battle of
Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’
 Cont’d
• The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the
unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir,
Gojjam and Wollo
• This responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea
(1928-1930)
• The Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the
policy of ‘rapprochement’, a
pseudo reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian
government to establish cordial relations between the two countries
• For instance, the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and
Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the rapprochement
policy
• he Fascists were also able to get indirect diplomatic support from
Britain and France for their colonial project in Ethiopia
 Cont’d

• The Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-
Awa boundary agreement limitations:
 lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective
administrative control in the frontier regions
 However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked
the Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby
 Thus, this situation gave birth to the Walwal Incident
 although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border clash
was three times as high as the Italians, it was Italy, which demanded
totally unreasonable apology and reparation from Ethiopia
 Then, Ethiopia that refused to accept Italy’s demand took the
matter to the League of Nations and a period of diplomatic
wrangling followed to resolve the dispute
 The 1935 Invasion and Afte

• the Italians waged their aggression via two major fronts: the
northern and the southern Front
• on October 3, 1935 they launched a three pronged invasion and
Controlled Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle
• In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter offensive force marched
north through three fronts
 Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front
 Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front)
 Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front, and
 Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front
• On January 20, 1936, a major offensive made the Ethiopian
army to isolate Mekelle wasbut failed due to lack of
coordination among the above-mentioned commanders
 Cont’d
• On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians at
the first Battle in Temben
• The Italians scored yet another decisive victory at Amba-
Aradom, in which the commander of the Ethiopian army,
Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life
• the forces of Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum were outnumbered
by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at
the Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936)
 Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum narrowly escaped and joined the
Emperor at Korem
• A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian
forces in the northern Front culminated in Maychew on
31 March 1936
 Cont’d
• Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the Kebur
Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong resistance
against the Italians, they were not able to conclude the battle with
victory
• Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from ground and air
bombardment during the battle
• Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April
1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively
• The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and
well led. Ras Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu
Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in
this Front
• The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the
Southern Front:
 Qorahe (November 1935) and
 Cont’d
• In the ensuing battles, the Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted
the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which boosted the moral
of Ras Desta’s troops
• Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until he was captured
and executed in early 1937
• The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the
Southern Front was larger than the North, which slowed their
advance to the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani
even crossed Harar
• On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later
the Italians entered Addis Ababa
• Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa
was beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting
• The major targets of the violence were the rich, foreigners and the
imperial palace
• Many foreigners saved their lives by taking refuge in foreign legations
 Cont’d
• The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of
Italian Somaliland and Eritrea
• Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East
Africa (IEA) or Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI). The newly formed
Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions that
replaced former international boundaries.These were:
 Eritrea (including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara
 Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo and Northern
Shewa) with its capital at Gondar
 Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and Southwestern
provinces) with its capital at Jimma
 Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar
 Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu;
 Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire
 Cont’d
• During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the following
Italians served as governors of Italian East Africa
successively:
 Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936),
 Marshal Graziani (till February 1937),
 and finally Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).
• Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption
characterized the Italian administration of IEA
• The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of
trade and industry as compared to the agricultural sector
• the Italian administrative control was largely confined to
urban areas due to the strong patriotic resistance
• Thus; their legacy was also largely reflected in the towns
 Cont’d
• the legacy of the Italian rule can be summarized in the
following brief points:
 Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns
such as Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar,
Asmara, Mogadishu and others
 Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and
electricity
 Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of
European habits-including eating and dressing styles, and
adoption of Italian words);
 The consolidation of cash economy;
 Road construction and development of motor transport;
 The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and
 The Patriotic Resistance Movement
• The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth
experience. Rather, the Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a
number of ways
• Among others, the patriots gave them hard times largely in rural
areas
• The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war itself
• Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by
three commanders of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew,
Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre Maryam Gari
• An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the
capital in the summer of 1936
• The campaign involved two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen and
Aberra), the veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras
(later Ras) Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu
 Cont’d
• However, it failed because of lack of effective means of
transportation and radio communication
• Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit
behind the patriots was executed and became a martyr of
the resistance
• The killing of the bishop was unheard of in Ethiopia and
shocked the nation, arousing the indignation of the
people, especially the clergy
• The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the
Italian occupation in 1941
• On 19 February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots,
Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a bomb at
Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist
 Cont’d
• This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black
Shirts; who chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their
inhabitants, and disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa
• According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000
Ethiopians of different ages, classes and sex were killed in
three days’ campaign
• This Fascist terror marked the transition from the
conventional patriotic resistance to guerrilla warfare that
could eventually weaken the enemy forces
• Different guerrilla units kept the Italian troops under constant
harassment
• Although it lacked coordination, patriotic resistance to Italian
rule took place in the country in numerous forms and tenacity
• There was no unified command structure.
 Cont’d
• list a few patriots that we think can represent different parts of
Ethiopia
 Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga, Dejjazmach Belay
Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai
Kahsay, Woizero Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama
Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras Amoraw Wubneh, Lij Haile Mariam
Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach Habte Mariam, Colonel Belay
Haile-ab, Major Matias Gemeda, Captain Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele
Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach Geresu Duki, Bekele Woya, etc.
• The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal
weakness
 The resistance was handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators
called the Banda who exercised their corrosive activities in different
areas
 Relations between guerrilla groups were characterized by
parochialism and jealousy
 Cont’d
Another weakness of the resistance movement was
that it was divided and that there was no one
national organization to coordinate the activities of
the many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of
the country
Some guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one
another than attacking the declared enemy
• Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a
persistent resistance against Italian fascism, until
suddenly they got external support from Britain in
1941
• On July 12, 1940, London recognized the Emperor as
 Cont’d
• The British launched a three-pronged attack on the Italians
 In the north, General William Platt led the forces that
attacked the Italians in Eritrea
 In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate
accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at
the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon
force
 General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya
• The advances were rapid largely due to the demoralization
that the patriots had caused on the Italian forces
• Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May
1941, exactly five years after Italian entry to the capital